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Work and Life in The Sport Industry: A Review of Work-Life Interface Experiences Among Athletic Employees
Work and Life in The Sport Industry: A Review of Work-Life Interface Experiences Among Athletic Employees
doi: 10.4085/1062-6050-0633.20
Ó by the National Athletic Trainers’ Association, Inc Work-Life Balance
www.natajournals.org
Key Points
Athletic trainers, coaches, athletes, and general athletic industry employees experienced challenges in balancing
the work-life interface, most frequently brought on by organizational sources.
Researchers reported widespread coping strategies for improving work-life balance and decreasing work-life
conflict, primarily stemming from the individual level.
Future authors can extend the literature by being clear about constructs, examining new contexts, exploring
enrichment, and promoting organization-level solutions.
F
or scholars interested in the sport industry, the study
of the work-life interface continues to develop as the an overall level of contentment regarding meeting work and
industry, society, and people change. The impor- nonwork demands,7 namely, a state in which a person’s
tance of human resources in this industry cannot be self-evaluation of effectiveness and satisfaction with work
overstated, and the critical elements of life satisfaction, and nonwork roles are consistent with his or her personal
job satisfaction, career retention, and positive work priorities.2 As a relationship construct, balance has been
engagement are important considerations. Consequently, defined as meeting the expectations of role partners and
understanding the work-life interface is beneficial, as it has successfully negotiating and sharing these obligations in
the potential to influence all of these areas.1,2 both the work and nonwork domains.6 In a work-life
The work-life interface includes important constructs conflict, work and nonwork responsibilities are often
such as balance, conflict, and enrichment (see Figure 1 for a incompatible in terms of a personal resource (eg, time,
summary of each construct).3–5 In general, these constructs attention, and energy) or role obligation (eg, behaviors,
highlight the challenges and rewards people experience as habits, and practices).4 Work-life enrichment refers to how
they negotiate the various demands and obligations multiple life roles can be beneficial and is ‘‘the extent to
associated with work and nonwork activities and role which experiences in one role improve the quality of life in
partners. Work-life balance is independent of conflict and the other role.’’5
enrichment, which means that balance is neither the As scholars interested in sport have continued to study
absence of conflict nor the presence of enrichment.6 Rather, the work-life interface and its various constructs, 2 main
it is defined as both a psychological and relationship bodies of research have emerged that focus on coaches and
RESULTS
Our purpose was to provide an up-to-date review of the
literature on the work-life interface, specifically focusing
on the sport industry and research conducted on ATs,
coaches, and other sport personnel. We selected 69 peer-
reviewed, published studies to obtain insight into the
current focus of work-life studies in sport. In addition, we
Sample Characteristics
The sample characteristics of the 69 studies highlighted
areas in which researchers have focused their work. This
information also allows future scholars to explore popula-
Figure 2. Flow diagram showing article identification, screening, tions that have received less attention. Of the selected
and selection process. studies, 53.62% (n ¼ 37) focused on a mixed sample of men
and women, 24.64% (n ¼ 17) focused on women only,
Literature Search Strategy and Study Selection 13.04% (n ¼ 9) focused on men only, and in 8.69% (n ¼ 6),
participant gender was not reported. Most of the investi-
We searched 3 electronic databases to find literature for gations (82.61%, n ¼ 57) originated in the United States.
this study: SPORTDiscus, PsychINFO, and Google Schol- Several international studies were also completed, but the
ar. New articles were added to the study until October 31, locations of these populations were somewhat scattered: 1
2020. We selected a variety of search terms to find articles, sample each was obtained from Australia, France, Iran,
including work-family balance, work-life balance, role New Zealand, Norway, Slovenia, South Africa, South
balance, work-family conflict, work-life conflict, role Korea, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. Furthermore, as
conflict, work-family enrichment, work-life enrichment, mentioned in the introduction, most participants were either
role enrichment, coach, trainer, athletic trainer, collegiate ATs (49.28%, n ¼ 34) or coaches (28.99%, n ¼ 20).
athletics, athlete, and athletics. These search terms were However, a few authors focused on athletes (7.25%, n ¼ 5),
used in different combinations and configurations in the general athletic department staff (4.35%, n ¼ 3), or students
database search process. The results were limited to peer- looking to become ATs (4.35%, n ¼ 3). In addition,
reviewed journal articles published in English. conference commissioners, athletic directors, and referees
For each article, we examined the article title, key words, were each the focus of at least 1 study.
abstract, and reference list. If the title or key words matched
those of interest for this study, the article was initially Study Design and Theoretical Frameworks
included for analysis. Searching the reference list was also
valuable for finding articles not returned via the initial Researchers used qualitative (57.97%, n ¼ 40), quantita-
search; this process resulted in 110 total articles. This broad tive (33.33%, n ¼ 23), and mixed-methods (8.69%, n ¼ 6)
list of articles was then preliminarily refined by removing designs for collecting data. For the qualitative methods,
duplicates and examining the abstract and key words to see semistructured in-depth interviews (50.72%, n ¼ 35) were
if it was appropriate for the scope of the review. Overall, the primary source of data, with additional data provided by
this process of removing articles resulted in a total of 89 focus groups (2.89%, n ¼ 2). Longitudinal interviews and
articles that were downloaded for full analysis. observations were sources in 1 investigation. For the
quantitative studies, the primary data-collection method
Charting the Data
was cross-sectional web-based surveys (33.33%, n ¼ 23);
another method was a mix of surveys and online journaling.
We then performed a more thorough examination of Researchers of mixed-methods studies used both surveys
these 89 articles via critical reading and extracting and interviews as primary data-collection techniques
information. For each article, these data were recorded in (7.25%, n ¼ 5).
a spreadsheet: participant demographics (ie, number, Several theoretical frameworks were applied. Although a
gender, and geographic location), role in athletics (ie, AT, general discussion of balance and conflict framed most
coach, athlete, or other), study design (ie, methods), works (26.1%, n ¼ 18), other theoretical areas of focus were
theoretical perspectives and frameworks (ie, conceptuali- burnout (4.35%, n ¼ 3), workaholism (4.35%, n ¼ 3), and
214
Theoretical Type Article Sample Size,
Reference (Year) Framework of Study Methods Focus Men/Women Key Findings
Mazerolle and General WLB Qual Interviews, Balance 6, 3/3 Time of year, organizational demands, and life stage
Eason (2016)40 longitudinal reduced WLB, whereas adaptability, mindset, supervisor
support, coworker support, personal support, and
engagement in leisure or family time increased WLB.
Mazerolle and General WLB Qual Interviews Balance and 22, 0/22 Head ATs who were mothers reported work demands, time
Eason (2016)41 conflict of year, and motherhood demands increased WLC.
Planning, attitude, support networks, and workplace
integration increased WLB.
Mazerolle and WLB and workplace Qual Interviews Balance 30, 14/16 ATs discussed family-friendly work climates as useful
Eason (2018)42 climate facilitators of WLB in allowing for autonomy related to
work scheduling and encouraging employees to put family
first. Cultural support promoted workplace integration,
which increased WLB.
Mazerolle and General WLB Qual Interviews Balance and 18, 0/18 Female ATSs highlighted supportive work and home
Gavin (2013)43 conflict environments, flexible schedules, and good time-
management skills as increasing WFB. Successful WFB
mentors were seen as potential role models.
216
Theoretical Type Article Sample Size,
Reference (Year) Framework of Study Methods Focus Men/Women Key Findings
Mazerolle et al Career transitions Qual Interviews Balance 31, 6/25 First-year ATs recognized that WLB was important for
(2018)60 increasing commitment to the profession. Relationships,
enjoyment, and professional responsibilities also
increased commitment intentions.
Pitney et al (2011)61 NA Mixed methods Survey and Conflict Survey: 415, Moderate WFC was present; average work hours per week
interviews 212/203; and WFC scores were positively and significantly related.
interviews: 14, Organizational (colleagues and administration) and
6/8 personal (family understanding work demands) supports
were influential in reducing WFC.
Romero et al Role strain Quant Survey, cross- Conflict 152, NA ATs acknowledged role strain, including overload, ambiguity,
(2018)62 sectional incongruity, and incompetence and intersender,
intrasender, and role conflict. Role overload and conflict
were the most influential factors in moderate- to high-level
role strain.
Romero et al Role strain Qual Interviews Conflict 34, 34/0 Male ATs discussed role strain stemming from competing
(2018)63 expectations of the athletes, organization, and league,
resulting in WLC. Improved organizational communication
217
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Table 2. Continued From Previous Page
218
Theoretical Type Article Sample Size, Population
Reference (Year) Framework of Study Methods Focus Men/Women Region Key Findings
73
Polat et al (2018) General WLB Quant Survey, cross- Conflict 114, 83/31 South Africa Coaches suggested family-friendly work policies (ie,
sectional organizational support) could reduce WLC and enhance
work and nonwork satisfaction.
Ryan (2008)13 Role theory Quant Survey, cross- Conflict 147, NA US School size, coach age, and role preference (teacher or
sectional coach) were significantly related to increased role conflict.
The number of sports coached significantly reduced role
conflict.
Ryan and Sagas Role theory Quant Survey, cross- Conflict 147, NA US Highly related teacher-coach roles often resulted in
(2006)74 sectional satisfaction with both roles. Role interference reduced
satisfaction. Only teaching role satisfaction affected
turnover intent.
Ryan and Sagas Organizational Quant Survey, cross- Conflict 346, NA US Pay satisfaction and occupational turnover were directly
(2009)75 turnover sectional related, but WLC mediated the relationship. Coaches who
are unsatisfied with their pay may be more aware of WLC.
Ryan and Sagas Ecological theory Quant Survey, cross- Enrichment 628, 411/217 US Supervisor support both reduced conflict and increased
(2011)76 sectional enrichment for coaches. Increased autonomy decreased
conflict and increased enrichment.
219
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role strain (2.89%, (n ¼ 2). Additional specific theories sexism and gender bias were commonly cited sources of
were used as frameworks (eg, role congruency theory, tension.12,57,66
organizational support theory, career construction theory, Along with reporting frequent sources of tension based on
multilevel model of the work-life interface). However, working in sport, scholars described successful coping
application of these theories was somewhat scattered and strategies for reducing work-life conflict and increasing
inconsistent. work-life balance. The coping strategies included improving
time management,12,43,84 compartmentalizing work and
Article Focus personal life,12,50,55,78 integrating work and personal
life,12,18,36,42,78 using formal workplace supports,54,61 using
The focus of each article was also important to map, as it informal workplace supports,58,66 cultivating family-friendly
showed the primary aim. For consistency among studies, work climates,42,43,44,45,51,61 calling on coworker sup-
we classified each as balance, enrichment, or conflict. Some port,31,43,46,51,53,55,56,61 setting work boundaries,36,44,46,51,53,55,70
had a combination of these perspectives and were classified finding successful mentors,31,43,66 increasing workplace
as such. Most authors examined conflict (46.38%, n ¼ 32) flexibility,43,79 increasing autonomy,76 managing priori-
or a mix of conflict and balance (23.19%, n ¼ 16). Balance ties,14,36,42,50,84 maintaining consistent physical exercise,18,50
was the next most common focus (24.64%, n ¼ 17), with relying on supervisor support,46,53,56,61,76 and reducing roles or
Address correspondence to Jeffrey A. Graham, PhD, University of Tennessee, 1914 Andy Holt Avenue, Knoxville, TN 37996. Address
email to [email protected].