Journal of Athletic Training 2022;57(3):210–224

doi: 10.4085/1062-6050-0633.20
Ó by the National Athletic Trainers’ Association, Inc Work-Life Balance
www.natajournals.org

Work and Life in the Sport Industry: A Review of Work-

Life Interface Experiences Among Athletic Employees
Jeffrey A. Graham, PhD*; Allison B. Smith, PhD†
*Kinesiology, Recreation, and Sport Studies, University of Tennessee, Knoxville; †Health, Exercise & Sport Sciences,
University of New Mexico, Albuquerque

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Objective: To review the literature on work-life interfaces in focused outside our study purpose. Therefore, 69 articles were
the sport industry, focusing on athletic trainers, coaches, included in the review.
athletes, and other sport personnel. Data Synthesis: The theoretical framework, study popula-
Data Sources: Studies were identified using SPORT- tion, population region, methods, article focus, and findings from
Discus, PsychINFO, and Google Scholar. Search terms the articles were recorded. Articles were then grouped based on
included work-family balance, work-life balance, work-family the study population focus (eg, athletic trainer, coach, or other).
conflict, work-life conflict, work-family enrichment, and work-life Conclusions: The results suggested that investigators’
enrichment. These search terms were used in different primary interests were athletic trainers and coaches, primarily
combinations and configurations in the search process. with respect to work-life balance and work-life conflict. Less
Study Selection: Included studies were peer-reviewed attention was paid to international participants, athletes, and
journal articles, with primary data collection, and published in topics related to work-life enrichment. The field will continue to
English. In the articles, researchers also examined some aspect progress as more populations and perspectives are studied.
of the work-family interface in relation to the sport industry. Furthermore, an additional emphasis on positive organizational
Data Extraction: The initial searches returned 110 articles.
behaviors, such as work-life enrichment and life-work enrich-
Of these, 21 articles were removed for a lack of focus on the
ment, will move the literature forward and answer useful
sport industry, for being a duplicate, or for focusing outside the
work-life interface in sport. A total of 89 articles remained for a questions with both theoretical and practical outcomes.
full analysis. An additional 20 articles were then removed Key Words: work-life balance, work-life conflict, work-life
because the authors either did not collect primary data or enrichment

Key Points
 Athletic trainers, coaches, athletes, and general athletic industry employees experienced challenges in balancing
the work-life interface, most frequently brought on by organizational sources.
 Researchers reported widespread coping strategies for improving work-life balance and decreasing work-life
conflict, primarily stemming from the individual level.
 Future authors can extend the literature by being clear about constructs, examining new contexts, exploring
enrichment, and promoting organization-level solutions.

construct.3,6 As a psychological construct, balance indicates

F
or scholars interested in the sport industry, the study
of the work-life interface continues to develop as the an overall level of contentment regarding meeting work and
industry, society, and people change. The impor- nonwork demands,7 namely, a state in which a person’s
tance of human resources in this industry cannot be self-evaluation of effectiveness and satisfaction with work
overstated, and the critical elements of life satisfaction, and nonwork roles are consistent with his or her personal
job satisfaction, career retention, and positive work priorities.2 As a relationship construct, balance has been
engagement are important considerations. Consequently, defined as meeting the expectations of role partners and
understanding the work-life interface is beneficial, as it has successfully negotiating and sharing these obligations in
the potential to influence all of these areas.1,2 both the work and nonwork domains.6 In a work-life
The work-life interface includes important constructs conflict, work and nonwork responsibilities are often
such as balance, conflict, and enrichment (see Figure 1 for a incompatible in terms of a personal resource (eg, time,
summary of each construct).3–5 In general, these constructs attention, and energy) or role obligation (eg, behaviors,
highlight the challenges and rewards people experience as habits, and practices).4 Work-life enrichment refers to how
they negotiate the various demands and obligations multiple life roles can be beneficial and is ‘‘the extent to
associated with work and nonwork activities and role which experiences in one role improve the quality of life in
partners. Work-life balance is independent of conflict and the other role.’’5
enrichment, which means that balance is neither the As scholars interested in sport have continued to study
absence of conflict nor the presence of enrichment.6 Rather, the work-life interface and its various constructs, 2 main
it is defined as both a psychological and relationship bodies of research have emerged that focus on coaches and

210 Volume 57  Number 3  March 2022

Figure 1. Definitions of work-life constructs.

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athletic trainers (ATs). Coaches provide a useful context for friendly work culture, building support networks at work
examining the work-life interface of employees in sport and away from work, improving planning and organizing
because of the demanding job pressures, publicly visible skills, creating strict priorities, integrating work and
and criticized performances, irregular work schedules, personal life when possible, and building boundaries
broad and competing stakeholder demands, face time between work and personal life activities as needed.9,12,22,23
requirements, and information overload.8 Most of the As investigation of the field expands, it is important to
current literature has focused on collegiate coaches,1,9,10,11 occasionally pause to review the nature and extent of the
but some researchers12–14 have addressed the experiences of research that has been completed.24 Such an overview can
coaches at the high school level. produce important insight into the trends in the field and
In much the same way, athletic training is distinct guide future scholars to examine less developed areas.
because of its status as a health care profession that often Thus, the purpose of our study was to provide an up-to-date
operates within a sport organization. Especially in the review on the work-life interface in the sport literature,
collegiate and professional sport contexts, an AT may be focusing on research conducted on ATs, coaches, and other
placed in a challenging position as the athletic department sport personnel. We consolidated research findings, as-
emphasizes athletic and financial success and the AT must sessed current methods and conceptual trends, and
focus on the health and welfare of the athletes. In addition, identified avenues for future study. Consequently, our
ATs lack full control over their schedules and must adapt to
findings will assist future authors by identifying gaps in the
the demands and requirements of coaches and other athletic
department staff. Athletic trainers are faced with odd hours, current literature and acting as a platform from which to
unpredictable competition seasonality, working nights and help drive research in this field.
weekends, pressure to prepare athletes for competition, last-
minute schedule changes, and working under supervisors METHODS
who are typically not medical professionals.2 Consequently, Although several different types of reviews are possible
coaches and ATs are 2 populations that provide a useful and when assessing the extent and nature of research within a
insightful context for examining and gaining an in-depth given topic, for this study, a scoping review was chosen.25
understanding of the work-life interface, especially in terms A scoping review is the process of mapping the existing
of balance, conflict, and enrichment. Some investigators literature in a given area of study, which can be especially
examined the work-life interface of employees and others useful when the literature upon which the review is based is
within sports such as students preparing to enter the field,15
broad. The information generated by researchers examining
graduate assistants,16 general collegiate athletic department
the work-life interface of people working in the sport
staff,17 conference commissioners,18 and athletic direc-
tors.19 This work15–19 highlighted the antecedents, various industry is growing rapidly, but the theoretical frameworks,
work-life outcomes, and coping mechanisms for managing study designs, and measurements used vary. A scoping
work and nonwork obligations. review has a broader purview. It can be advantageous for
Also, scholars1,9,20 suggested that working in the sport reviewing a body of literature because it is not as restrictive
industry can be challenging because of its seasonality, high regarding the inclusion and exclusion criteria for the
time requirements, requirements for travel, irregular review.26 Because a scoping review has a wider range of
scheduling, requirements for face time, lack of autonomy, types of selection criteria, it can be useful for identifying
and lack of staff. In general, challenges resulted from broad parameters and gaps in the body of literature.27 For
various influences, including sociocultural (eg, gender this study, our scoping review followed the framework
expectations), organizational (eg, level of administrative outlined by Arksey and O’Malley,25 along with the
support), and individual (eg, role salience) factors.2,21 modifications recommended by Levac et al.28 In general,
Furthermore, authors10,20 found that those working in the 5 steps required for this kind of scoping review are (1)
athletics experienced moderate to high levels of work-life identify the research question or purpose, (2) identify the
conflict, regardless of sex, marital status, family status, or relevant studies, (3) select the studies, (4) chart the data,
job position. Common coping strategies included organi- and (5) collate, summarize, and report the results.25,28
zational and individual tactics, such as cultivating a family- Please see Figure 2 for a visual schematic of this process.

Journal of Athletic Training 211

 zation of work-life interface and broader overarching
theory), and focus of the article as related to the work-life
interface (ie, balance, conflict, and enrichment). During this
process, we removed several articles because either the
research was outside the scope of the study or primary data
were not collected, which produced a final list of 69 peer-
reviewed, published articles (Tables 1–3).

RESULTS
Our purpose was to provide an up-to-date review of the
literature on the work-life interface, specifically focusing
on the sport industry and research conducted on ATs,
coaches, and other sport personnel. We selected 69 peer-
reviewed, published studies to obtain insight into the
current focus of work-life studies in sport. In addition, we

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highlighted new directions for researchers examining this
topic. In the following sections, we provide summary
information about the sample characteristics, athletic role,
study designs, theoretical frameworks, and article focus.

Sample Characteristics
The sample characteristics of the 69 studies highlighted
areas in which researchers have focused their work. This
information also allows future scholars to explore popula-
Figure 2. Flow diagram showing article identification, screening, tions that have received less attention. Of the selected
and selection process. studies, 53.62% (n ¼ 37) focused on a mixed sample of men
and women, 24.64% (n ¼ 17) focused on women only,
Literature Search Strategy and Study Selection 13.04% (n ¼ 9) focused on men only, and in 8.69% (n ¼ 6),
participant gender was not reported. Most of the investi-
We searched 3 electronic databases to find literature for gations (82.61%, n ¼ 57) originated in the United States.
this study: SPORTDiscus, PsychINFO, and Google Schol- Several international studies were also completed, but the
ar. New articles were added to the study until October 31, locations of these populations were somewhat scattered: 1
2020. We selected a variety of search terms to find articles, sample each was obtained from Australia, France, Iran,
including work-family balance, work-life balance, role New Zealand, Norway, Slovenia, South Africa, South
balance, work-family conflict, work-life conflict, role Korea, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. Furthermore, as
conflict, work-family enrichment, work-life enrichment, mentioned in the introduction, most participants were either
role enrichment, coach, trainer, athletic trainer, collegiate ATs (49.28%, n ¼ 34) or coaches (28.99%, n ¼ 20).
athletics, athlete, and athletics. These search terms were However, a few authors focused on athletes (7.25%, n ¼ 5),
used in different combinations and configurations in the general athletic department staff (4.35%, n ¼ 3), or students
database search process. The results were limited to peer- looking to become ATs (4.35%, n ¼ 3). In addition,
reviewed journal articles published in English. conference commissioners, athletic directors, and referees
For each article, we examined the article title, key words, were each the focus of at least 1 study.
abstract, and reference list. If the title or key words matched
those of interest for this study, the article was initially Study Design and Theoretical Frameworks
included for analysis. Searching the reference list was also
valuable for finding articles not returned via the initial Researchers used qualitative (57.97%, n ¼ 40), quantita-
search; this process resulted in 110 total articles. This broad tive (33.33%, n ¼ 23), and mixed-methods (8.69%, n ¼ 6)
list of articles was then preliminarily refined by removing designs for collecting data. For the qualitative methods,
duplicates and examining the abstract and key words to see semistructured in-depth interviews (50.72%, n ¼ 35) were
if it was appropriate for the scope of the review. Overall, the primary source of data, with additional data provided by
this process of removing articles resulted in a total of 89 focus groups (2.89%, n ¼ 2). Longitudinal interviews and
articles that were downloaded for full analysis. observations were sources in 1 investigation. For the
quantitative studies, the primary data-collection method
Charting the Data
was cross-sectional web-based surveys (33.33%, n ¼ 23);
another method was a mix of surveys and online journaling.
We then performed a more thorough examination of Researchers of mixed-methods studies used both surveys
these 89 articles via critical reading and extracting and interviews as primary data-collection techniques
information. For each article, these data were recorded in (7.25%, n ¼ 5).
a spreadsheet: participant demographics (ie, number, Several theoretical frameworks were applied. Although a
gender, and geographic location), role in athletics (ie, AT, general discussion of balance and conflict framed most
coach, athlete, or other), study design (ie, methods), works (26.1%, n ¼ 18), other theoretical areas of focus were
theoretical perspectives and frameworks (ie, conceptuali- burnout (4.35%, n ¼ 3), workaholism (4.35%, n ¼ 3), and

212 Volume 57  Number 3  March 2022

 Table 1. Overview of Studiesa Focused on Athletic Trainers Continued on Next Page
Reference Theoretical Type Article Sample Size,
(Year) Framework of Study Methods Focus Men/Women Key Findings
Barrett et al Burnout and Qual Focus groups Balance and 23, 9/14 ATSs recognized WLB and burnout as future challenges
(2016)29 WLB and interviews conflict and felt coping strategies could be used to mitigate them.
Benes and Social cognitive Qual Interviews Balance and 26, 7/19 Senior ATSs noted potential negative (long hours, low
Mazerolle framework for conflict salary, and WLC concerns) and positive (dynamism and
(2014)30 career choice an enjoyable profession) aspects of their career choice.
Eason et al Mentorship Qual Interviews Balance 27, 0/27 When work role models and mentors maintained balance
(2014)31 themselves, female ATs viewed them as valuable
resources for promoting WLB.
Eason et al Multilevel model Quant Survey, cross- Balance and 299, 169/130 Authors created and validated multilevel WLB scale among
(2018)2 sectional enrichment ATs. The scale gives insight into the complexity of the
work-life interface, especially as it relates to job
satisfaction and career intentions.
Eason et al WLB and job Qual Interviews Balance and 30, 14/16 ATs discussed how job satisfaction and future career
(2019)32 satisfaction conflict intentions were influenced by identity, motivation, and
conscientiousness. Organizational factors (staff size,
hours worked, salary, work schedule, and autonomy)
strongly influenced job satisfaction and career intentions.
Eason et al Work-family guilt Quant Survey, cross- Conflict 257, 93/162b ATs reported WFG was predicted by WFC and that both
(2020)33 sectional WFG and WFC increased as work hours increased,
regardless of sex.
Eberman et al WLB and Quant Survey Balance 783, 375/404b Many ATs were unaware of formal workplace policies.
(2019)34 workplace However, orientations increased confidence in and
policies awareness of these policies.
Gnacinski et al Occupational Quant Survey, cross- Balance 144, 71/73 Recovery Experience Questionnaire was validated for use
(2020)35 recovery sectional among ATs. The authors proposed this questionnaire as
an aid in determining the relationship between
occupational recovery and WLB.
Goodman et al General WLB Qual Interviews Balance and 18, 13/5 Head ATs reported organizational challenges rooted in a
(2015)36 conflict lack of autonomy and high work role demands. WLB
strategies hinged on prioritization, boundary setting, and
integrating family and work.
Goodman et al Role congruency Qual Interviews Balance and 8, 5/3 Collegiate ATs experienced both benefits and drawbacks
(2017)37 theory conflict (role strain [conflict], WLC).
Kahanov et al General WLB Quant Survey, cross- Balance and 411, 0/411 Motherhood role increased WLC and career exits.
(2010)38 sectional conflict Administration should consider parental needs in regard to
workplace flexibility and workplace support systems.
Mazerolle and Preference Qual Interviews Balance 27, 0/27 Female ATs conveyed traditional sex ideologies about family
Eason theory roles and parenting responsibilities. Individual- and
(2015)39 sociocultural-level factors influenced career and family
goals.

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 Table 1. Continued From Previous Page

214
Theoretical Type Article Sample Size,
Reference (Year) Framework of Study Methods Focus Men/Women Key Findings
Mazerolle and General WLB Qual Interviews, Balance 6, 3/3 Time of year, organizational demands, and life stage
Eason (2016)40 longitudinal reduced WLB, whereas adaptability, mindset, supervisor
support, coworker support, personal support, and
engagement in leisure or family time increased WLB.
Mazerolle and General WLB Qual Interviews Balance and 22, 0/22 Head ATs who were mothers reported work demands, time
Eason (2016)41 conflict of year, and motherhood demands increased WLC.
Planning, attitude, support networks, and workplace
integration increased WLB.
Mazerolle and WLB and workplace Qual Interviews Balance 30, 14/16 ATs discussed family-friendly work climates as useful
Eason (2018)42 climate facilitators of WLB in allowing for autonomy related to
work scheduling and encouraging employees to put family
first. Cultural support promoted workplace integration,
which increased WLB.
Mazerolle and General WLB Qual Interviews Balance and 18, 0/18 Female ATSs highlighted supportive work and home
Gavin (2013)43 conflict environments, flexible schedules, and good time-
management skills as increasing WFB. Successful WFB
mentors were seen as potential role models.

Volume 57  Number 3  March 2022

Mazerolle and General WLB Qual Interviews Balance 8, 5/3 A family-oriented and supportive work environment,
Goodman developing nonwork interests, and individual strategies
(2013)44 were important factors influencing WLB for ATs at the
organizational level.
Mazerolle and Professional work Qual Interviews Conflict 27, 27/0 ATs indicated that a positive work environment increased
Hunter (2017)45 commitment professional commitment. However, time spent away from
family and feeling underappreciated increased the feeling
of an overworked climate, which decreased professional
commitment.
Mazerolle and General WLB Qual Interviews Balance 27, 27/0 ATs working for professional sport organizations identified
Hunter (2018)46 barriers to WLB: demanding nature of the job, being on
call, and time requirements. Facilitators were building
boundaries to disengage from work, family and spousal
support, and support from organizational staff.
Mazerolle et al General WLB Mixed methods Survey and Conflict Survey: 587, Contributors to WLC included long work hours, travel,
(2008)47 interviews 324/263; inadequate staffing, and lack of control over schedules,
interviews: 12, regardless of marital status, family status, or sex.
6/6
Mazerolle et al Job and life Mixed methods Survey and Conflict Survey: 587, As ATs experienced higher levels of WFC, job satisfaction
(2008)48 satisfaction interviews 324/263; decreased, and burnout and intention to leave the
interviews: 12, profession increased.
6/6
Mazerolle et al General WLB Qual Interviews Balance and 28, 13/15 For collegiate ATs, high work demands, less schedule
(2011)49 conflict flexibility, and staffing patterns increased WLC. Supportive
personal network and using organizational policies
improved WLB.

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 Table 1. Continued From Previous Page
Theoretical Type Article Sample Size,
Reference (Year) Framework of Study Methods Focus Men/Women Key Findings
Mazerolle et al NA Qual Interviews Balance 27, 0/27 Female ATs depended on support systems, prioritization of
(2013)50 family time, compartmentalization of work and family, and
exercise as strategies to promote WFB. Informal sources
of support, such as coworkers, were especially important.
Mazerolle et al General WLB Qual Interviews Balance and 18, 13/5 Head ATs realized their role as influential in helping
(2015)51 conflict subordinates achieve WLB by encouraging
disengagement from work, cooperation in the workplace,
and providing support and understanding.
Mazerolle et al General WLB Qual Interviews Balance and 27, 0/27 Collegiate female ATs thought that continuing a career in AT
(2015)52 conflict might be incompatible with having a family.
Mazerolle et al General WLB Mixed methods Survey and Conflict Survey: 244, ATs reported moderate levels of WLC. Job demands and
(2015)53 interviews 114/128b; staffing concerns increased WLC, especially work
interviews: 13, overload. Supervisor and peer support, as well as
5/8 personal networks and time away from work decreased
WLC and increased WLB.
Mazerolle et al WLB and workplace Quant Survey, cross- Conflict 246, 110/136 Both men and women described above-average WFC,
(2015)54 policies sectional especially those in collegiate and secondary school
settings. Those who felt more comfortable using work-
leave benefits had less WFC.
Mazerolle et al General WLB Mixed methods Survey and Balance 22, 22/0 Time away from work, support networks, and keeping work
(2015)55 online and personal life separate were coping strategies for
journaling achieving WLB. Factors reducing WLB included time of
year, job demands, and spouse and family needs.
Mazerolle et al Career longevity Qual Interviews Balance and 14, 11/3 Career ATs indicated that role identity, workplace fit, and
(2016)56 conflict setting rewards increased career longevity. Promotion of
WLB by coworkers, supervisors, family, and friends
enhanced long-term career success.
Mazerolle et al Retention, attrition, Qual Interviews Balance and 12, 0/12 Female ATs identified organizational, individual, and
(2017)57 and departure conflict sociocultural reasons for departing the field. Missing out
justifications on family activities, low salaries, and sexism decreased
retention intentions.
Mazerolle et al General WLB Qual Interviews Balance 21, 11/10 ATs reported using informal workplace policies more
(2017)58 frequently than other forms of support to increase WLB.
Participants felt more formal policies supported by
administration would lead to greater WLB.
Mazerolle et al General WLB Quant Survey, cross- Balance and 423, 193/230 Moderate levels of coping behaviors, combined with
(2018)59 sectional conflict emotional stability, allowed ATs to manage personal and
professional lives more effectively, thereby increasing
WFB.

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 Table 1. Continued From Previous Page

216
Theoretical Type Article Sample Size,
Reference (Year) Framework of Study Methods Focus Men/Women Key Findings
Mazerolle et al Career transitions Qual Interviews Balance 31, 6/25 First-year ATs recognized that WLB was important for
(2018)60 increasing commitment to the profession. Relationships,
enjoyment, and professional responsibilities also
increased commitment intentions.
Pitney et al (2011)61 NA Mixed methods Survey and Conflict Survey: 415, Moderate WFC was present; average work hours per week
interviews 212/203; and WFC scores were positively and significantly related.
interviews: 14, Organizational (colleagues and administration) and
6/8 personal (family understanding work demands) supports
were influential in reducing WFC.
Romero et al Role strain Quant Survey, cross- Conflict 152, NA ATs acknowledged role strain, including overload, ambiguity,
(2018)62 sectional incongruity, and incompetence and intersender,
intrasender, and role conflict. Role overload and conflict
were the most influential factors in moderate- to high-level
role strain.
Romero et al Role strain Qual Interviews Conflict 34, 34/0 Male ATs discussed role strain stemming from competing
(2018)63 expectations of the athletes, organization, and league,
resulting in WLC. Improved organizational communication

Volume 57  Number 3  March 2022

and increased staffing were recommended to reduce role
strain.
Singe et al (2020)64 General WLB and Quant Survey, cross- Conflict 474, 243/231 WFC was universally experienced among both men and
support sectional women ATs. Time-based conflict was the greatest area of
concern. Social support networks from coworkers, peers,
and family reduced this conflict.
Abbreviations: ATs, athletic trainers; ATSs, athletic training students; NA, not available; Qual, qualitative; Quant, quantitative; WFC, work-family conflict; WFG, work-family guilt; WLB, work-
life balance; WLC, work-life conflict.
a
The population region for all studies was the United States.

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 Table 2. Overview of Studies Focused on Coaches Continued on Next Page
Theoretical Type Article Sample Size, Population
Reference (Year) Framework of Study Methods Focus Men/Women Region Key Findings
Bentzen et al Burnout Mixed Survey and Conflict Survey: 92, Norway Coaches reported FWC as a challenge for work recovery.
(2017)65 methods interviews 86/6; However, coaching motivation influenced recovery
Interviews: activities and decreased burnout symptoms over a long
4, NA season.
Bruening and Dixon Multilevel model Qual Focus group Conflict 41, 0/41 US Coaching mothers discussed self-awareness, organization
(2007)9 and time management, sacrificing aspects of work,
support networks, work-hour flexibility, and family-friendly
work policies and culture as useful coping strategies to
reduce WFC.
Clarkson et al Hegemonic Qual Interviews Conflict 12, 0/12 England Female coaches experienced many challenges, including
(2019)66 masculinity sexism, high levels of scrutiny, WLC, and gender bias.
Mentoring, informal professional support, and male
advocacy helped them succeed.
Darvin (2020)67 Role congruency Qual Interviews Conflict 12, 0/12 US Female former assistant coaches reported WLC. Many who
theory were single without children discussed how a lack of non-
nuclear family connections with cousins, aunts, uncles,
parents, nephews, etc, pushed them out of the field.
Dawson et al Career Qual Interviews Balance 6, 6/0 Australia Coach career development faced challenges related to
(2016)68 development WFB.
theory
Dixon and Bruening Multilevel model Qual Focus group Conflict 41, 0/41 US Coaching mothers were influenced by individual,
(2007)1 organizational, and sociocultural inputs. Work climate and
culture constrained lower-level attitudes and behaviors,
eg, conflict and time management.
Dixon and Sagas Organizational Quant Survey, cross- Conflict 253, NA US Organizational support fully mediated life satisfaction. WFC
(2007)69 support theory sectional partially mediated the relationship between organizational
support and job satisfaction. Job satisfaction partially
mediated the effect of organizational support and WFC on
life satisfaction.
Graham and Dixon Role theory Qual Interviews Balance, 24, 24/0 US Male high school coaches struggled to find balance,
(2017)12 conflict, and experienced high levels of conflict, and found enrichment
enrichment through many sources.
Graham et al General WLB Quant Survey, cross- Balance and 2265, 1433/ US When forced to choose between work and family, work
(2019)10 sectional conflict 832 pressure, family pressure, and role saliency were
influential factors.
Joncheray et al Interactionist theory Qual Interviews Conflict 41, 33/8 France Coaches’ passion for coaching and high levels of work
(2019)70 commitment reduced WLB. Some increased WLB by
reducing administrative tasks, avoiding unnecessary
travel, and creating periods of high devotion to family to
balance periods of overcommitment to coaching.
Lundkvist et al Workaholism and Quant Survey, cross- Conflict 261, NA Sweden Coaches with higher levels of WLC also had high levels of
(2016)71 WLC sectional work exhaustion. Those with higher levels of exhaustion
were at higher risk for burnout.
Olusoga and Kenttä Burnout Qual Interviews Conflict 2, 2/0 Sweden Coaches reported WLC as a contributing factor to burnout

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(2017)72 and reduced career commitment.

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218
Theoretical Type Article Sample Size, Population
Reference (Year) Framework of Study Methods Focus Men/Women Region Key Findings
73
Polat et al (2018) General WLB Quant Survey, cross- Conflict 114, 83/31 South Africa Coaches suggested family-friendly work policies (ie,
sectional organizational support) could reduce WLC and enhance
work and nonwork satisfaction.
Ryan (2008)13 Role theory Quant Survey, cross- Conflict 147, NA US School size, coach age, and role preference (teacher or
sectional coach) were significantly related to increased role conflict.
The number of sports coached significantly reduced role
conflict.
Ryan and Sagas Role theory Quant Survey, cross- Conflict 147, NA US Highly related teacher-coach roles often resulted in
(2006)74 sectional satisfaction with both roles. Role interference reduced
satisfaction. Only teaching role satisfaction affected
turnover intent.
Ryan and Sagas Organizational Quant Survey, cross- Conflict 346, NA US Pay satisfaction and occupational turnover were directly
(2009)75 turnover sectional related, but WLC mediated the relationship. Coaches who
are unsatisfied with their pay may be more aware of WLC.
Ryan and Sagas Ecological theory Quant Survey, cross- Enrichment 628, 411/217 US Supervisor support both reduced conflict and increased
(2011)76 sectional enrichment for coaches. Increased autonomy decreased
conflict and increased enrichment.

Volume 57  Number 3  March 2022

Sagas and General WLB Quant Survey, cross- Conflict 115, 52/63 US Collegiate assistant coaches of female teams did not
Cunningham sectional experience high levels of conflict other than moderate
(2005)77 levels of time-based conflict. Time-based conflict was not
connected to job satisfaction.
Sage (1987)14 Role theory Qual Interview and Conflict and 50, NA US High school teacher-coach role overload and role conflict led
observations enrichment to role strain. Coping mechanisms included prioritizing
certain roles and leaving coaching. Coaching role offered
rewards beyond teaching role.
Schenewark and Role theory Quant Survey, cross- Conflict and 282, 192/90 US Collegiate coaches with families experienced conflict and
Dixon (2012)11 sectional enrichment enrichment bidirectionally. However, WFC was higher than
FWC, and WFE was lower than FWE.
Abbreviations: FWC, family-work conflict; FWE, family-to-work enrichment; NA, not available; Qual, qualitative; Quant, quantitative; WFE, work-to-family enrichment; WLB, work-life balance;
WLC, work-life conflict.

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 Table 3. Overview of Studies Focused on General Athletic Employee Personnel
Reference Theoretical Type Article Sample Size, Population
(Year) Framework of Study Methods Focus Population Men/Women Region Key Findings
Dixon et al Role conflict Qual Interviews Conflict Athletes 9, 9/0 US Minor league baseball players’ coping mechanisms for
(2006)78 single players included a separationist strategy. Players
with families struggled with the dual role and adopted an
integration strategy. Tension sources were travel, lack of
pay, and performance stress.
Fathi et al General WLB Quant Survey, cross- Conflict Government sport 260, NA Iran WFC and the intention to seek employment elsewhere were
(2020)79 sectional organization significantly related. Authors suggested a flexible work
employees situation would improve work performance and reduce
WLC.
Hollings et al Career Qual Interviews Balance Athletes 11, 5/6 New Zealand Athletes who progressed from junior to senior competition
(2014)80 development for levels embraced imbalance among sport, education, and
athletes work ambitions. Those who tried to balance life with
athletic goals did not advance.
Hong et al Organizational Quant Survey, cross- Conflict Referees 260, 231/29 South Korea Internal motivation reduced WLC and acted as a mediator
(2019)81 support theory sectional between perceived organizational support and WLC.
Huml et al Workaholism, Quant Survey, cross- Conflict General athletic 4167, 2175/ US Among collegiate athletic department employees, WLC
(2020)82 engagement, sectional department 1992 mediated the relationship between work engagement and
WLC employees workaholism. WLC may prevent highly engaged workers
from becoming workaholics.
Palmer and Constraint theory Qual Interviews Balance and Athletes 9, 0/9 New Zealand Elite athlete mothers discussed the need to use timing and
Leberman and role identity conflict physical space and build supportive networks to maintain
(2009)83 WFB.
Simmons et al Role conflict Qual Interviews Conflict Athletes 11, 11/0 US Family support via coparticipation, emotional understanding,
(2016)84 and logistics were useful for reducing WLC. Role
management, time management, and prioritization were
important coping strategies.
Smith et al Career construction Qual Interviews Conflict Graduate students 25, 0/25 US Graduate assistants faced challenges related to balancing
(2017)16 theory work, career development, academics, and personal
obligations.
Taylor and Wells Institutional theory Qual Interviews Balance Athletic directors 10, 0/10 US Female athletic directors reported WLB created significant
(2017)19 barriers for women wishing to advance in collegiate
athletic careers. Authors discussed collegiate athletics’
incompatibility with family life, resulting in tension.
Taylor et al Career construction Qual Interviews Balance Conference 8, 0/8 US Female conference commissioners described how work-life
(2018)18 theory commissioners negotiation strategies, especially focusing on integrating
work and family together, were helpful in increasing WFB.
Taylor et al Workaholism, Quant Survey, cross- Conflict General athletic 4453, 2427/ US Workaholism must be a part of the discussion about
(2019)17 burnout, WLC sectional department 2025a nonwork commitments. Organizations should be
employees specifically aware of coaches and the consequences that
differentiate high work engagement from workaholism.
Tekavc et al Holistic athletic Qual Interviews Conflict and Athletes 12, 6/6 Slovenia Elite-level athletes addressed challenges balancing
(2015)85 career model balance academic, athletic, and social roles. Some noted how the
demands of their sport resulted in social trade-offs.
Enriching outcomes of this tradeoff were goal

Journal of Athletic Training

accomplishment, self-esteem, and personal satisfaction.
Abbreviations: Qual, qualitative; Quant, quantitative; NA, not available; WFB, work-family balance; WFC, work-family conflict; WLB, work-life balance; WLC, work-life conflict.
a
The remaining participants did not disclose gender.

219
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role strain (2.89%, (n ¼ 2). Additional specific theories sexism and gender bias were commonly cited sources of
were used as frameworks (eg, role congruency theory, tension.12,57,66
organizational support theory, career construction theory, Along with reporting frequent sources of tension based on
multilevel model of the work-life interface). However, working in sport, scholars described successful coping
application of these theories was somewhat scattered and strategies for reducing work-life conflict and increasing
inconsistent. work-life balance. The coping strategies included improving
time management,12,43,84 compartmentalizing work and
Article Focus personal life,12,50,55,78 integrating work and personal
life,12,18,36,42,78 using formal workplace supports,54,61 using
The focus of each article was also important to map, as it informal workplace supports,58,66 cultivating family-friendly
showed the primary aim. For consistency among studies, work climates,42,43,44,45,51,61 calling on coworker sup-
we classified each as balance, enrichment, or conflict. Some port,31,43,46,51,53,55,56,61 setting work boundaries,36,44,46,51,53,55,70
had a combination of these perspectives and were classified finding successful mentors,31,43,66 increasing workplace
as such. Most authors examined conflict (46.38%, n ¼ 32) flexibility,43,79 increasing autonomy,76 managing priori-
or a mix of conflict and balance (23.19%, n ¼ 16). Balance ties,14,36,42,50,84 maintaining consistent physical exercise,18,50
was the next most common focus (24.64%, n ¼ 17), with relying on supervisor support,46,53,56,61,76 and reducing roles or

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researchers either entirely or partially focusing on enrich- tasks.14,70 Although using organizational supports, such as
ment (7.25%, n ¼ 5). Some counts overlapped because the formal workplace policies, was discussed less often,
focus was split among 2 or 3 of the possible constructs. orientation sessions increased the awareness of and confi-
Also, some scholars used different verbiage for conflict, dence in them and administrator support. 34,58 Au-
such as interference, but we classified these articles as thors9,12,46,53,64,67,83 also determined that nonwork social
conflict focused as well. support (eg, support from spouse, family, extended family,
or friends) was a strong influence in decreasing work-life
Summary of Article Findings conflict and increasing work-life balance. Many research-
ers2,13,14,32,38,67,70,72 found that participants viewed the sport
Although our goal was to map the ways in which the industry as fundamentally incompatible with having a
work-life interface has been studied in the sport industry, it balanced life52 and saw career exit and change as the only
is still beneficial to summarize and highlight the key solutions for restoring work-life balance.
findings of these studies. Such a summary provides As we indicated, working in sport presents several
practitioners and researchers with insight into both the challenges for achieving work-life balance, especially from
items that are well understood and those that are less well an organizational perspective. That is, the primary sources
understood. A summary of each study is available in Tables of challenge to the work-life interface come from
1, 2, and 3. However, in the following section, we briefly organizational pressures and dynamics. To compound this
highlight the connections and commonalities among the challenge, those working in sport believe the primary
studies. responsibility for coping rests with the individual. It
In this body of literature, the experiences of work-life appears that working in the sport industry, no matter the
conflict and struggles with work-life balance were nearly capacity, is associated with tension and stress regarding the
universal.17,64 In a single study,77 the researchers reported work-life interface. Consequently, understanding these
collegiate assistant coaches experienced only mild levels of dynamics remains important for those researching the
work-life conflict but commented on the surprising nature work-life interface in sport. In the following section, we
of this finding. Several common causes of increased work- suggest ways the field might continue to progress.
life conflict and reduced levels of work-life balance were
identified among the investigations. For ATs, coaches, and DISCUSSION
other sport personnel, most sources of increasing work-life
conflict or reduced levels of work-life balance were The body of literature focused on the work-life interface
organizational factors. Of the organizational factors, the of those working in the sport industry is expanding. Of the
most typically cited sources of tension were work 69 articles included in this study, 56 were published
demands,10,40,41,46,47,49,53,63,64 work climate,1 lack of auton- between 2011 and 2020, and 38 of those were published
omy,9,32,49 travel requirements,1,9,46,47 low salaries,32,78 between 2016 and 2020. This suggests a rapidly expanding
managerial incompetency,62 role strain,37,62 long work hour scholarly conversation centered on ways to help ATs,
requirements,1,9,12,32,40,46 and inadequate staffing.47,53,63 coaches, athletes, and others in the sport industry achieve
Individual factors were also important reasons for increases balance between work and nonwork activities, reduce
in work-life conflict or decreases in work-life balance. conflict, and enrich their work and personal lives. With that
in mind, several areas in the literature need clarification.
These individual factors included items such as personal
Additionally, certain research questions still need to be
life stage,29,30,38,40 age,13,29,30 workaholism,17,82 and career
asked and answered. In the following sections, we discuss
stage.13,16,29,30 In some studies, the family situation (eg,
these needs in more detail.
being a parent) was discussed as an individual contributing
factor.9,12,38,41,52 However, a number of authors clearly
outlined that work-life conflict was experienced by both Clarity With Terminology
men and women10,11,33,47,64 and pointed out that those One area that may benefit the overall field would be
without children also experienced increased levels of work- unified and clear definitions of the terms related to the
life conflict and reduced work-life balance as a result of work-life interface. For example, several researchers used
working in sport.16,47,67 From a sociocultural perspective, work-family language instead of work-life language.

220 Volume 57  Number 3  March 2022

Typically, as long as the work-family construct is being researchers have addressed this bidirectionality in detail.
used to describe work and family life, this language is In several studies9,12,22,23 in this review, the importance of
descriptive and useful. However, if work-family is used to building support networks outside work was discussed.
describe populations generally and not specifically in the Thus, examining the experiences of life-work enrichment or
context of actual family dynamics, more inclusive work-life life-work conflict and their outcomes on work could
terminology should be used. contribute to the literature.
Another area that could be improved is the use of the Finally, giving a voice to athletes’ experiences of
terms balance and conflict. As noted in the introduction, managing various life roles would add to the literature.
balance and conflict are constructs with specific, indepen- Based on anecdotal evidence, gaining access to athletes as
dent meanings. That is, balance is not defined as the research participants can be a major challenge. Nonethe-
absence of conflict.86 Yet when discussing experiences of less, athletes likely have distinct experiences and perspec-
balance and conflict in sport, investigators often used the tives that are important to examine. Exploring these
terms interchangeably, which may cause confusion among perspectives may provide important contributions to the
readers and practitioners. In addition, some authors37,62,74 overall understanding of the work-life interface. Exploring
used role conflict in place of work-life conflict or the athletes’ perspectives will also probably have important
construct of interference instead of conflict. A new scholar outcomes for practitioners, as understanding coping

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in the field who wants to examine the work-life interface of strategies or outcomes of conflict may provide avenues
employees in the sport industry may feel confused and for performance enhancement.
uncertain about these terms and meanings. Being particular
about terminology and focusing with clarity on specific, LIMITATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
independent constructs will help advance the literature.
Although a scoping review was useful in allowing us to
Research Questions Outstanding address the current literature on the work-life interface in
sport, this study was not without its weaknesses. As with
In this scoping review, we also highlighted gaps in the many scoping reviews, our investigation suffered from a
field that require attention. Some of the biggest needs are lack of evaluation about the quality of the articles
advancing scholarship on enrichment, developing an reviewed.24 That is, all articles included in the scoping
international voice, considering directionality, and charac- review were weighed equally despite their quality. This
terizing the athlete perspective. Future researchers should leads to a potential for bias in the overall results. To combat
highlight the experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans- this bias, we provided extensive notes on and insights into
gender, queer, and other individuals and racial and ethnic the articles used for the review (Tables 1–3), as well as a
minority populations. Furthermore, comparing work-life transparent description of the process used to find and
interface policies, procedures, and cultures among sport review the articles that were included in the final study.
organizations would also provide useful insight. As A second weakness, which is true of all review types, is
mentioned in the Results, only 7.25% (n ¼ 5) of the sample that our review likely missed important articles not
explored enrichment. As the trend toward positive organi- contained in the databases or not identified in the citations
zational behavior studies increases,87 looking at enrichment during the article collection process. Because the literature
will be more important. Consequently, focusing on on the sport industry is broad, we encourage researchers to
enrichment and its antecedents, experiences, and outcomes publish reviews to guide the advance of new work in the
will be a rich area of study. field. In addition, because of the nature of the review, we
Another gap in the literature is the failure to highlight included only studies that involved data collection. This
international populations. Although samples from several necessitated the removal of several important and influen-
countries were included in this review, most researchers tial manuscripts that have shaped the discussion of the
focused on US populations (82.61%, n ¼ 57). Broadening work-life interface in sport. Although these omissions were
the literature beyond the United States will likely allow a regrettable, it was important to apply a consistent set of
more nuanced understanding of the work-life interface to selection criteria to the articles in the final sample, which
emerge. Input from people working in sport who have resulted in the removal of several.
different priorities, cultures, experiences, and perspective The culture of sport and its emphasis on performance,
on negotiating work and nonwork responsibilities will competition, and winning have serious outcomes for those
enhance the literature and demonstrate the nuances of these working in the field. Consequently, more study is needed to
experiences. In general, examining cultural differences progress our understanding of the experiences of various
between work-life enriching places of employment and populations working in and around sport. Gaining insight
those filled with conflict, as well as how different races and into the theoretical and practical sides of the work-life
ethnicities view the experiences of managing work and interface will provide useful and important findings, which
nonwork obligations in the sport industry, will broaden our can be used to slowly improve the ability of those in the
understanding. Characterizing international populations
sport industry to successfully manage work and nonwork
may be challenging for those focusing on ATs, however,
obligations and improve their overall quality of life.
as many countries do not yet recognize this profession.88
Even so, pushing outward to include broader populations
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Address correspondence to Jeffrey A. Graham, PhD, University of Tennessee, 1914 Andy Holt Avenue, Knoxville, TN 37996. Address
email to [email protected].

224 Volume 57  Number 3  March 2022