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SIXTH EDITION

Essentials
of Sociology
Anthony Giddens
London School of Economics

Mitchell Duneier
City University of New York Graduate Center
Princeton University

Richard P. Appelbaum
University of California, Santa Barbara

Deborah Carr
Rutgers University

W. W. NORTON & COMPANY, INC.

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Contents
PREFACE xix

Chapter 1: Sociology: Theory and Method 2

WHAT IS THE “SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION”? 5
Studying Sociology 7
Developing a Global Perspective 7
Understanding Social Change 8
Globalization by the Numbers: Opinion of the United States 9

WHAT THEORIES DO SOCIOLOGISTS USE? 10

Early Theorists 10
Neglected Founders 14
Modern Theoretical Approaches 16
Digital Life: Bullying Goes Viral 19
Theoretical Thinking in Sociology 20
Levels of Analysis: Microsociology and Macrosociology 21

WHAT KINDS OF QUESTIONS CAN 22

SOCIOLOGISTS ANSWER?

WHAT ARE THE STEPS OF THE 23

RESEARCH PROCESS?
1. Define the Research Problem 24
2. Review the Evidence 24
3. Make the Problem Precise 24
4. Work Out a Design 25

Contents v
 5. Carry Out the Research 25
6. Interpret the Results 25
7. Report the Findings 26

WHAT RESEARCH METHODS DO SOCIOLOGISTS USE? 26

Ethnography 26
Surveys 27
Experiments 30
Comparative and Historical Research 30

WHAT ETHICAL DILEMMAS DO SOCIOLOGISTS FACE? 32

HOW DOES THE SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION 37

AFFECT YOUR LIFE?
The Big Picture 38

Chapter 2: Culture and Society 40

WHAT IS CULTURE? 43
Defining “Culture” 43
Culture and Society 46

HOW DOES HUMAN CULTURE DEVELOP? 47

Early Human Culture: Adaptation to Physical Environment 47
Nature or Nurture? 48
How Nature and Nurture Interact 49
Cultural Diversity 51
Cultural Universals 54
Culture and Social Development 56
Digital Life: The Secret Power of Cultural Norms and Values 57

WHAT HAPPENED TO PREMODERN SOCIETIES? 58

The Earliest Societies: Hunters and Gatherers 58
Pastoral and Agrarian Societies 59
Traditional Societies or Civilizations 60

HOW HAS INDUSTRIALIZATION SHAPED 61

MODERN SOCIETY?
The Industrialized Societies 61
Global Development 62

HOW DOES GLOBALIZATION AFFECT 64

CONTEMPORARY CULTURE?
Does the Internet Promote a Global Culture? 65

vi Contents
Globalization by the Numbers: Internet Connectivity 67
Globalization and Local Cultures 68
The Big Picture 70

Chapter 3: Socialization, the 72

Life Course, and Aging
HOW ARE CHILDREN SOCIALIZED? 75
Theories of Child Development 76
Agents of Socialization 77
Social Roles 81
Identity 81
Gender Socialization 82

WHAT ARE THE FIVE MAJOR STAGES 86

OF THE LIFE COURSE?
Childhood 86
The Teenager 86
Young Adulthood 86
Midlife or “Middle Age” 87
Later Life or “Old Age” 88
Globalization by the Numbers: Life Course Transitions 89

HOW DO PEOPLE AGE? 90

The Meanings of “Age” 90
Growing Old: Trends and Competing Sociological Explanations 91
Digital Life: Apps for Successful Aging 93

WHAT ARE THE CHALLENGES OF AGING 94

IN THE UNITED STATES?
Health Problems 95
Elder Abuse 97
Social Isolation 98
Prejudice 99
The Big Picture 100

Chapter 4: Social Interaction 102

and Everyday Life in the Age
of the Internet
WHAT IS SOCIAL INTERACTION? 104
Nonverbal Communication 106

Contents vii
 HOW DO WE MANAGE IMPRESSIONS IN DAILY LIFE? 109
Impression Management 109
Focused and Unfocused Interaction 109
Audience Segregation 111

WHAT RULES GUIDE HOW WE COMMUNICATE 112

WITH OTHERS?
Ethnomethodology 112
Digital Life: Turning Away from Face-to-Face Interaction 113
Interactional Vandalism 114
Response Cries 116
Personal Space 116
Eye Contact 117

HOW DO TIME AND SPACE AFFECT OUR INTERACTIONS? 117

Clock Time 118
Globalization by the Numbers: Who Owns a Smartphone? 119
The Compulsion of Proximity 120

HOW DO THE RULES OF SOCIAL INTERACTION 122

AFFECT YOUR LIFE?
Women and Men in Public 122
Race and the Public Sphere 123
The Big Picture 126

Chapter 5: Groups, Networks, 128

and Organizations
WHAT ARE SOCIAL GROUPS? 130
Groups: Variety and Characteristics 131
The Effects of Size 132
Types of Leadership 134
Conformity 134

HOW DO WE BENEFIT FROM SOCIAL NETWORKS? 137

The Internet as Social Network 138
Digital Life: Crowdfunding and the Strength of Weak Ties 139

HOW DO ORGANIZATIONS FUNCTION? 140

Theories of Organizations 141

IS BUREAUCRACY AN OUTDATED MODEL? 145

The Transformation of Management 145

viii Contents
Technology and Modern Organizations 146
The “McDonaldization” of Society 148

HOW DO GROUPS AND ORGANIZATIONS AFFECT 149

YOUR LIFE?
Social Capital: The Ties That Bind 149
Globalization by the Numbers: Nonprofit & Volunteer Sector 151
Conclusion 152
The Big Picture 154

Chapter 6: Conformity, Deviance, 156

and Crime
WHAT IS DEVIANT BEHAVIOR? 159
What Is Deviance? 159
Norms and Sanctions 161

WHY DO PEOPLE COMMIT DEVIANT ACTS? 161

The Biological View of Deviance 161
The Psychological View of Deviance 162
Sociological Perspectives on Deviance 163
Theoretical Conclusions 169

HOW DO WE DOCUMENT CRIME? 169

WHOSE LIVES ARE AFFECTED BY CRIME? 172

Gender and Crime 172
Youth and Crime 173
Crimes of the Powerful 175
Organized Crime 177

HOW CAN CRIME BE REDUCED? 177

Are Prisons the Answer? 177
Globalization by the Numbers: Incarceration Rates 179
The Mark of a Criminal Record 180
The Death Penalty 180
Policing 181
Crime and Community 183
Digital Life: Using Cameras to Police the Police 185

HOW DO CRIME AND DEVIANCE AFFECT YOUR LIFE? 186

The Costs of Crime 186
The Functions of Deviance 187
The Big Picture 188

Contents ix
 Chapter 7: Stratification, Class, 190
and Inequality
WHAT IS SOCIAL STRATIFICATION? 193
Slavery 193
Caste Systems 194
Class 195
Theories of Stratification in Modern Societies 196
Digital Life: Does the Digital Divide Still Matter? 197

HOW IS SOCIAL CLASS DEFINED IN THE UNITED STATES? 199

Income 200
Wealth 201
Education 202
Occupation 202
A Picture of the U.S. Class Structure 203
Globalization by the Numbers: Income Inequality 207

WHAT ARE THE CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES 208

OF SOCIAL INEQUALITY IN THE UNITED STATES?
Ethnic Minorities Versus White Americans 208
Social Mobility 210

HOW DOES POVERTY AFFECT INDIVIDUALS? 212

Measuring Poverty 213
Who Are the Poor? 213
Explaining Poverty: The Sociological Debate 217
Social Exclusion 218

HOW DOES SOCIAL INEQUALITY AFFECT YOUR LIFE? 220

The Big Picture 222

Chapter 8: Global Inequality 224

WHAT IS GLOBAL INEQUALITY? 227
High-Income Countries 228
Globalization by the Numbers: An Unequal World 229
Middle-Income Countries 230
Low-Income Countries 230

WHAT IS DAILY LIFE LIKE IN RICH VERSUS 232

POOR COUNTRIES?
Health 232

x Contents
Digital Life: Can Apps Heal Global Inequalities? 233
Hunger and Malnutrition 234
Education and Literacy 235
Child Labor 235

CAN POOR COUNTRIES BECOME RICH? 236

HOW DO SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES EXPLAIN 238

GLOBAL INEQUALITY?
Market-Oriented Theories 238
Dependency Theories 239
World-Systems Theory 240
State-Centered Theories 241
Evaluating Global Theories of Inequality 242

HOW DOES GLOBAL INEQUALITY AFFECT YOUR LIFE? 243

The Big Picture 246

Chapter 9: Gender Inequality 248

ARE GENDER DIFFERENCES DUE TO NATURE, 251
NURTURE, OR BOTH?
The Role of Biology 251
Gender Socialization 253
The Social Construction of Gender 253
Findings from Other Cultures 255

HOW DO GENDER INEQUALITIES AFFECT 258

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS?
Education 258
Women and the Workplace 261
Globalization by the Numbers: Gender Inequality 265
The Family and Gender Issues 268
Gender Inequality in Politics 270

WHY ARE WOMEN THE TARGET OF VIOLENCE? 271

Rape 272
Sexual Violence Against Women: Evidence of “Rape Culture”? 273

HOW DOES SOCIAL THEORY EXPLAIN 274

GENDER INEQUALITY?
Functionalist Approaches 274
Digital Life: “His” and “Hers” Apps? 275
Feminist Approaches 276

Contents xi
 WHAT ARE THE GLOBAL CONSEQUENCES 278
OF GENDER INEQUALITY?
How Gender Inequality Affects Our Lives 279
The Big Picture 280

Chapter 10: Ethnicity and Race 282

WHAT ARE RACE AND ETHNICITY? 285
Racism 287
Psychological Interpretations of Prejudice and Discrimination 288

HOW DO ETHNIC GROUPS COEXIST AND COMPETE? 290

Ethnic Antagonism: A Historical Perspective 290
Globalization by the Numbers: Racial & Ethnic Populations 291
Models of Ethnic Integration 293

WHY DO ETHNIC GROUPS MIGRATE? 293

Migratory Movements 293

HOW DO ETHNIC MINORITIES EXPERIENCE 295

LIFE IN THE UNITED STATES?
Early Colonization 296
Digital Life: What Are You, Anyway? 297
Immigrant America in the Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries 298
African Americans in the United States 300
Hispanics and Latinos in the United States 302
The Asian Connection 304

HOW DOES RACIAL AND ETHNIC INEQUALITY 305

AFFECT YOUR LIFE?
Educational Attainment 305
Employment and Income 306
Health 307
Residential Segregation 308
Political Power 308
Gender and Race 309
Divergent Fortunes 310
Understanding Racial Inequality 312
The Big Picture 314

Chapter 11: Families and Intimate 316

Relationships
Basic Concepts 319

xii Contents
HOW DO SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES 320
CHARACTERIZE FAMILIES?
Functionalism 320
Feminist Approaches 321
New Perspectives in the Sociology of Families 323

HOW HAVE FAMILIES CHANGED OVER TIME? 323

“The Way We Never Were”: Myths of the Traditional Family 324
Changes in Family Patterns Worldwide 324

WHAT DO MARRIAGE AND FAMILY IN THE 327

UNITED STATES LOOK LIKE TODAY?
Race, Ethnicity, and American Families 329
Social Class and the American Family 333
Digital Life: Dating and Mating Online 335
Divorce and Separation 336
Remarriage and Stepparenting 338
Single-Parent Households 339

WHY DOES FAMILY VIOLENCE HAPPEN? 340

Child Abuse 341
Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) 341

HOW DO NEW FAMILY FORMS AFFECT YOUR LIFE? 342

Cohabitation 342
Same-Sex-Parent Families 344
Globalization by the Numbers: Maternity Leave 345
Being Single 347
Being Child-Free 348
The Big Picture 350

Chapter 12: Education and Religion 352

WHY ARE EDUCATION AND LITERACY SO IMPORTANT? 355
Education and Industrialization 355
Sociological Theories of Education 357
Education and Literacy in the Developing World 358
Globalization by the Numbers: Educational Attainment 359

WHAT IS THE LINKAGE BETWEEN EDUCATION 360

AND INEQUALITY?
“Fire in the Ashes” 360
Coleman’s Study of “Between-School Effects” in American Education 362
Tracking and “Within-School Effects” 363

Contents xiii
 The Social Reproduction of Inequality 363
Intelligence and Inequality 364
Educational Reform in the United States 365

HOW DO SOCIOLOGISTS THINK ABOUT RELIGION? 368

Theories of Religion 370

HOW DOES RELIGION AFFECT LIFE THROUGHOUT 374

THE WORLD?
Types of Religious Organizations 374
Globalization and Religion 376

HOW DOES RELIGION AFFECT YOUR LIFE IN THE 378

UNITED STATES?
Trends in Religious Affiliation 378
Digital Life: From Pulpits to iPads? 379
Religious Affiliation and Socioeconomic Status 382
The Big Picture 384

Chapter 13: Politics and Economic Life 386

HOW DID THE STATE DEVELOP? 390
Characteristics of the State 390

HOW DO DEMOCRACIES FUNCTION? 393

Participatory Democracy 393
Monarchies and Liberal Democracies 393
The Spread of Liberal Democracy 394
Democracy in the United States 395
The Political Participation of Women 395
Who Rules? Theories of Democracy 400
Democracy in Trouble? 402

WHAT IS TERRORISM? 404

WHAT IS THE SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF WORK? 405

The Importance of Paid and Unpaid Work 405
The Importance of the Division of Labor 406
Digital Life: Will a Robot Take Your Job? 407
Industrial Work 408
Work and Alienation 408
Industrial Conflict 409
Labor Unions 410

xiv Contents
WHAT ARE KEY ELEMENTS OF THE MODERN ECONOMY? 411
Corporations and Corporate Power 411

HOW DOES WORK AFFECT EVERYDAY LIFE TODAY? 415

Work and Technology 415
Trends in the Occupational Structure 417
Globalization by the Numbers: Unemployment Rates 419
Unemployment 420
The Future of Work 420
The Big Picture 422

Chapter 14: The Sociology of the 424

Body: Health, Illness, and Sexuality
HOW DOES SOCIAL CONTEXT AFFECT 427
THE HUMAN BODY?
Eating Disorders 428
The Obesity Epidemic 429
Globalization by the Numbers: Obesity Rates 431

HOW DO SOCIOLOGISTS UNDERSTAND 432

HEALTH AND ILLNESS?
The Sick Role 433
Illness as “Lived Experience” 434
Changing Conceptions of Health and Illness 435

HOW DO SOCIAL FACTORS AFFECT 438

HEALTH AND ILLNESS?
Social Class–Based Inequalities in Health 438
Digital Life: Can Wearable Tech Keep You Healthy? 439
Race-Based Inequalities in Health 440
Gender-Based Inequalities in Health 442

WHAT CAUSES INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN 443

DEVELOPING NATIONS?
Colonialism and the Spread of Disease 443
Infectious Diseases Today in the Developing World 444

HOW DOES SOCIAL CONTEXT SHAPE HUMAN 446

SEXUAL BEHAVIOR?
The Diversity of Human Sexuality 446
Sexuality in Western Culture 447

Contents xv
 Sexual Orientation 449
How Does the Social Context of Bodies, Sexuality, and Health 453
Affect Your Life?
The Big Picture 454

Chapter 15: Urbanization, 456

Population, and the Environment
HOW DO CITIES DEVELOP AND EVOLVE? 459
Cities in Traditional Societies 459
Industrialization and Urbanization 460
Theories of Urbanism 461

HOW DO RURAL, SUBURBAN, AND URBAN 465

LIFE DIFFER IN THE UNITED STATES?
The Decline of Rural America? 466
Suburbanization 467
Urban Problems 468
Urban Renewal and Gentrification 469

HOW DOES URBANIZATION AFFECT LIFE 470

ACROSS THE GLOBE?
Global Cities 470
Globalization by the Numbers: Urbanization 471
Inequality and the Global City 472
Urbanization in the Global South 473
The Future of Urbanization in the Developing World 475

WHAT ARE THE FORCES BEHIND WORLD 476

POPULATION GROWTH?
Population Analysis: Demography 476
Dynamics of Population Change 479
Malthusianism 480
The Demographic Transition 481
Prospects for Change 483

HOW DO ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES 485

AFFECT YOUR LIFE?
Global Environmental Threats 485
Global Warming and Climate Change 486
Digital Life: Tracking Your Ecological Footprint 487
A New Ecological Paradigm? 490
The Big Picture 492

x vi Contents
Chapter 16: Globalization in a 494
Changing World
HOW DOES GLOBALIZATION AFFECT SOCIAL CHANGE? 497
The Physical Environment 498
Political Organization 499
Culture 500
Economic Factors 501

WHAT COMES AFTER MODERN INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY? 502

Toward a Postindustrial Society? 502
Postmodernity 502

WHAT ARE SOCIAL MOVEMENTS? 503

Why Do Social Movements Occur? 503
Globalization and Social Movements 507
Technology and Social Movements 509

WHAT FACTORS CONTRIBUTE TO GLOBALIZATION? 510

Information Flows 510
Digital Life: Online Activism Trends Upward 511
Political Changes 512
Economic Changes 515
The Globalization Debate 516

HOW DOES GLOBALIZATION AFFECT YOUR LIFE? 519

The Rise of Individualism 520
Work Patterns 520
Popular Culture 521
Globalization and Risk 522
Globalization and Inequality 523
Globalization by the Numbers: Global Wealth 525
The Big Picture 528

GLOSSARY A1
BIBLIOGRAPHY A11
CREDITS A41
INDEX A43
INDEX OF INFOGRAPHICS A60

Contents x vii
Preface
We believe that sociology plays an essential role in modern intellectual culture
and occupies a central place within the social sciences. We have aimed to write
a book that merges classic sociological theories with up-to-the-minute social
issues that interest sociologists today. We also believe that sociologists must
use rigorous research methods in order to study and understand human behavior. We
highlight findings from ethnographic studies to document the hows and whys of social
behavior, and also present current statistical data to document important social trends.
We aim to present material in a “fair and balanced” way. Although each of the authors has
his or her own perspective on social theories, methods, and social policy, we have worked
hard to ensure that our treatment is unbiased and non-partisan. We strive to present the
most complete picture of sociology possible. Given the vast array of topics encompassed
by sociology, however, we made difficult choices about what the most essential topics in
sociology are today. We hope readers are engaged, intrigued, and occasionally inspired by
the ideas presented in this book.

About the Essentials Edition

The Sixth Edition of Essentials of Sociology is based on the Tenth Edition of our best-selling
text Introduction to Sociology. We created the Essentials Edition for instructors and students
who are looking for a briefer book that can fit into a compressed academic schedule. We
have reduced the length of the book by roughly one-third, and we reduced the number of
chapters from twenty to sixteen. We cut selected topics to focus the chapters on the core
ideas of sociology, while still retaining the themes that have made the text a successful
teaching tool.

Major Themes
The book is constructed around four basic themes that provide its character. The
newest theme is applying sociology to everyday life. Sociological thinking enables
self-understanding, which in turn can be focused back on an improved understanding of

Preface xix
 the social world. Studying sociology can be a liberating experience: It expands our sympa-
thies and imagination, opens up new perspectives on the sources of our own behavior,
and creates an awareness of cultural settings different from our own. Sociological ideas
challenge dogma, teach appreciation of cultural variety, and allow us insight into the
working of social institutions. At a more practical level, the text shows how technology
affects our daily experiences (new “Digital Life” sections) and how countries across the
globe compare on key metrics such as incarceration rate, maternity leave benefits, and
gender inequality (full-page “Globalization by the Numbers” infographics).
Our second theme is inequalities. Throughout the text, we highlight that import-
ant resources—whether education, health, income, or social support—are not fairly or
evenly distributed to all individuals. We highlight the ways that gender, race, social class,
and age shape our daily lives in the United States. We also pay keen attention to global
inequalities, and reveal how differences in economic and natural resources throughout
the world powerfully influence even very personal experiences—including health, reli-
gion, and relationships.
A third theme of the book is that of social and historical context. Sociology was
born of the transformations that wrenched the industrializing social order of the
West away from the lifestyles characteristic of earlier societies. The pace of social change
has continued to accelerate, and it is possible that we now stand on the threshold of
transitions as significant as those that occurred in the late eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries. Sociology has the prime responsibility for charting the transformations of
our past and for grasping the major lines of development taking place today. Our under-
standing of the past also contributes to our understanding of institutions in the present
and future.
The fourth fundamental theme of the book is globalization. For far too long, sociology
has been dominated by the view that societies can be studied as independent entities.
But even in the past, societies never really existed in isolation. Today we can see a clear
acceleration in processes of global integration. This is obvious, for example, in the expan-
sion of international trade across the world. The emphasis on globalization also connects
closely with the weight given to the interdependence of the industrialized and develop-
ing worlds today.
Despite these interconnections, however, societies have their own distinctive attri-
butes, traditions, and experiences. Sociology cannot be taught solely by understanding the
institutions of any one particular society. While we have slanted our discussion toward the
United States, we have also balanced it with a rich variety of materials drawn from other
regions—especially those undergoing rapid social change, such as the Middle East, Asia,
Africa, and Eastern Europe. The book also includes much more material on developing
countries than has been usual in introductory texts.
All of the chapters in the book have been updated and revised to reflect the most recent
available data. Each chapter opens with a contemporary news event or social trend—
ranging from the most local and seemingly trivial (like an email from Yale University
administrators about Halloween costumes) to the most global and profound (such as the
catastrophic earthquakes in Haiti and Japan). These events are used to motivate and explain
the key sociological concepts, themes, and studies that are elaborated throughout the text.
Other substantive changes include:

xx Preface
Chapter 1 Sociology: Theory and Method
The chapter opener has been updated with more current data on cyberbullying and also
includes the findings of a new school climate study focused on the experiences of LGBT
students. The Digital Life box, “Bullying Goes Viral,” has been reworked to reflect the
recent use of anonymous messenger apps like Yik Yak as a medium for cyberbullying,
highlighting the controversies the app has caused on multiple college campuses. The
chapter also features a new discussion of the work of Herbert Spencer. The discussion of
conflict theories in sociology has been expanded. A new full-page Globalization by the
Numbers infographic, titled “Opinion of the United States,” captures the considerable
differences among nations in the proportion of the population that holds favorable atti-
tudes toward the United States—and how these attitudes have changed over time. This
data is also now presented in a new table.

Chapter 2 Culture and Society

A new chapter opener takes readers through a recent controversy at Yale University over a
series of emails written by administrators about Halloween costumes that ultimately led
to two faculty members stepping down from their posts in early 2015. The authors use this
series of events to introduce readers to the concept of cultural appropriation, which has
been added as a key term. Data on current rates of cigarette smoking have been updated.
The Globalization by the Numbers infographic on Internet connectivity throughout the
world has been updated with the most recent data. The section titled “Does the Internet
Promote a Global Culture?” now considers how ISIS rose to power through the Internet.

Chapter 3 Socialization, the Life Course, and Aging

A new chapter opener uses two recent events— Caitlyn Jenner receiving the Arthur
Ashe Courage Award and transgender first-grader Coy Mathis successfully suing her
Colorado school district for the right to use the girls’ restroom—to explore the impor-
tance and complexities of socialization in everyday life. Data on media consumption have
been updated. The section on gender socialization highlights how stores like Target are
starting to move away from dividing sections by gender. A new discussion of race social-
ization, and the messages that are transmitted regarding the meaning and significance
of race, has been added. A new graph looks at how the transition to adulthood is being
delayed today by comparing the proportion of young adults who had hit certain bench-
marks in 1975 versus 2015. A new Digital Life box, titled “Apps for Successful Aging,”
discusses how app developers are adapting their programs to the needs and capacities
of older adults. The Globalization by the Numbers infographic, “Life Course Transitions,”
has been updated with the most current data, and a new data point on life expectancy has
been added. Data related to the graying of U.S. society, including the size and growth of
the elderly population and the sex ratio among older adults, have been updated. Data on
the proportion of older adults who live alone and the proportion who are married have
also been updated.

Chapter 4 Social Interaction and Everyday Life in the Age of the Internet
A new discussion of Internet “trolling” has been added in the section on interactional van-
dalism. The section on race in the public sphere has been expanded with a new discussion

Preface x xi
 of Elijah Anderson’s recent work The Cosmopolitan Canopy. A new Digital Life box, titled
“Turning Away from Face-to-face Interaction,” explores how technology is changing the
nature of face-to-face communication by making it possible to hold simultaneous conver-
sations online and in real life. The box draws on a 2015 Pew Research Center study on how
often people use their phones during social activities as well as MIT researcher Sherry
Turkle’s recent work on how smartphone usage has detrimental effects on our ability to
experience empathy. A new full-page Globalization by the Numbers infographic compares
the rates of smartphone ownership in different countries across the globe to provide a
picture of this new digital divide. The section on women and men in public now includes a
discussion of a recent video demonstration conducted on the streets of New York City that
brought attention to the issue of street harassment.

Chapter 5 Groups, Networks, and Organizations

The chapter opener on the hazing case that rocked Florida A&M University has been
updated to account for recent developments in the case. The Digital Life Box, retitled
“Crowdfunding and the Strength of Weak Ties,” has been updated with more recent
data on crowdfunding and also highlights new examples of projects funded via plat-
forms like Indigogo and Medstartr. Data related to the digital divide and telecommuting
have been updated. The graph depicting the proportion of women CEOs at Fortune 500
companies has also been updated. A more current survey on trust in government has
been added.

Chapter 6 Conformity, Deviance, and Crime

A brand new chapter opener discusses the 2014 shooting of eighteen-year-old Michael
Brown by police officer Darren Wilson and the rise of the Black Lives Matter movement.
The chapter has been updated with the most current data on incarceration rates and prison
populations; hate crimes; crime rates by gender, age, and race; cost of imprisonment; and
numbers and rates of violent crime and property crime in the United States. The discus-
sion of trends in drug use now considers the results of the 2014 National Survey on Drug
Use and Health. The authors have added a discussion of the use of capital punishment in
the United States and a new graph that illustrates how support for the death penalty has
changed over time. The section on policing includes a new discussion of Victor Rios’s book
Punished: Policing the Lives of Black and Latino Boys, which documents the strain that policies
like stop and frisk place on heavily policed communities. There is also a new discussion of
legal scholar Michelle Alexander’s work The New Jim Crow. A new Digital Life Box, “Using
Cameras to Police the Police,” explores how the proliferation of smartphones is enabling
people to document police-civilian interactions and call attention to police brutality in
new ways. The Globalization by the Numbers infographic has been updated with the most
recent data on global incarceration rates.

Chapter 7 Stratification, Class, and Inequality

A new chapter opener tells the story of Viviana Andazola Marquez, a young woman who
was able to beat the odds and rise out of poverty and homelessness to become a student at
Yale University. Drawing on an excerpt from her college essay, the authors use Viviana’s
inspiring story to introduce the concepts of social stratification and social mobility. The dis-
cussion of interracial marriage has been updated with the most recent data. Data on income

x xii Preface
distribution, mean household income by income group and race, and racial disparities in
wealth have all been updated. The discussion of poverty in the United States has been
updated with more current statistics, including poverty rates by age and race. The figure on
the relative social prestige of U.S. occupations has been updated. The new edition explores
how the 2008 recession and slow economic recovery have affected Americans’ perceptions
of whether they consider themselves to be middle class or lower class, whether poverty
is a result of circumstances beyond one’s control or the fault of individuals, and feelings
regarding the U.S. economic climate. A new Digital Life box, titled “Does the Digital Divide
Still Matter?” provides an up-to-date look at the state of the digital divide in 2015. The box
looks at gaps in smartphone ownership and highlights a new Pew Research Center report
on how people of varying socioeconomic backgrounds use technology to search and apply
for jobs. The full-page Globalization by the Numbers infographic on income inequality now
reflects the most recent data. The discussion of homelessness has been updated with more
current statistics, including the number of homeless, the demographic breakdown of the
homeless population, and the proportion of renters who spend more than 30 percent of
their income on rent.

Chapter 8 Global Inequality

The chapter opener, which compares the global responses to the disasters that devastated
Haiti and Japan in recent years, has been updated with more current data on key quality-
of-life indicators in the respective countries. The Globalization by the Numbers infographic,
now titled “An Unequal World,” has been completely revamped with the most recent data
on gross national income per capita, population, population growth, life expectancy, fertil-
ity rate, and infant mortality rate. Global Map 8.1, “Rich and Poor Countries: The World by
Income in 2015,” has been updated to reflect the new World Bank country classifications.
The chapter’s section on health now includes a discussion of the 2014 Ebola epidemic in
West Africa. The section on hunger and malnutrition further explores the link between
conflict and hunger, highlighting the current situation in Syria. Data on global literacy
rates and participation in secondary education have been updated. The discussion of child
labor has been expanded. The Digital Life box in this chapter, which asks, “Can Apps Heal
Global Inequalities?” now details how smartphones apps are helping to reduce maternal
mortality rates and bring vision care to developing nations.

Chapter 9 Gender Inequality

The chapter opener now introduces the concept of intersectionality, a theme that is further
developed throughout the chapter. A discussion of Sandra Lipsitz Bem’s classic The Lenses
of Gender has been added, along with the key term biological essentialism. The discussion of
West and Zimmerman’s classic theory “doing gender” has been expanded to include the
example of Nikki Jones’s study of young inner-city African American women. A new sec-
tion on blurring the boundaries between the genders discusses how growing numbers of
young adults are challenging the male-female dichotomy and embracing both genders. The
authors introduce the term intersex and provides examples of countries that are officially
sanctioning diverse genders through their censuses and birth records. Data on women’s
participation in the labor force and the gender pay gap have been updated. The Globalization
by the Numbers infographic on gender inequality shows countries’ most up-to-date rat-
ings on the Gender Inequality Index as well as current statistics on women’s labor force

Preface x xiii
 participation, representation in government, and participation in secondary school. A new
section on gender inequalities in entrepreneurship provides statistics on women-owned
business firms and discusses Sarah Thébaud’s 2015 experimental research on perceptions
of female business owners. Global data on women’s labor force participation have been
updated. The section on balancing work and child care now includes the term motherhood
penalty, introduces the topic of public policies that can be effective in counteracting employ-
ers’ stereotypical views of mothers in the workplace, and references Michelle Budig’s 2012
cross-cultural study of public attitudes toward working mothers in twenty-two countries.
The section on housework and the second shift now includes a discussion of a 2015 study of
young adults and how they would like to share earning and household/caregiving respon-
sibilities as well as a 2015 study on how same-sex couples share household responsibilities.
The data in the section on gender inequality in politics have been updated. Data on intimate
partner violence have been updated. The section on rape now discusses recent protests
against sexual assault on college campuses, highlighting Emma Sulkowicz’s 2015 protest at
Columbia University. A new “Theories of Intersectionality” section includes a discussion of
transnational feminism, which has been added as a key term.

Chapter 10 Ethnicity and Race

The chapter opener on the controversial Cheerios commercial that featured a mixed-race
family now includes a reference to shows like Blackish and Fresh Off the Boat and features
up-to-date statistics on the multiracial population in the United States and rates of interra-
cial marriage. The discussion of institutional racism now references recent police killings
of unarmed black men in cities across the United States. The Globalization by the Numbers
infographic has been updated to reflect the most up-to-date racial and ethnic populations
in a number of countries. Data in the section on Hispanics and Latinos in the United States,
including data on Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Cubans, have been updated. The
discussion of Puerto Ricans has been updated in light of the island’s decade-long reces-
sion. Data on racial differences in educational attainment, occupational attainment, income,
health, residential segregation, and political power have been updated. The section on
health now documents how the racial gap in infant mortality and life expectancy has actu-
ally decreased in recent years. Data on gender and race, including the wage gap between
black women and white women, have been updated. The section on Asian Americans has
been broadened to discuss how the idea of the “model minority” is problematic as it often-
times masks discrepancies within different Asian groups, and also discusses Jennifer Lee’s
2012 study on the experience of “stereotype promise.”

Chapter 11 Families and Intimate Relationships

The chapter opener has been updated to reflect the June 2015 Supreme Court ruling that
guaranteed individuals the right to same-sex marriage nationwide. Discussions of polyg-
amy, child-free families, single-parent households, and nonmarital childbearing have all
been updated with the most recent research, as have data on age at first marriage, patterns
of childbearing, remarriage rates, the number of Americans living in multigenerational
households, and living situations of black and white children. In the “Race, Ethnicity, and
American Families” section, birth rates by racial group, nonmarital fertility, and black and
white family patterns have all been updated, and the section on social class and American
families has been augmented with a discussion of new research on middle-class black

x xiv Preface
families and the rise of single-person households. The discussion of divorce has been
reworked and now includes coverage of recent research. The section on child abuse has
been updated with more current research. The section on intimate partner violence now
includes a discussion of the National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey. The
discussion of cohabitation now includes coverage of research into men’s and women’s
differing reasons for cohabitating as well as cohabitation as a “stage in the process.” The
section on same-sex-parent families has been updated with the most recent data and
now introduces the terms second-parent adoption and joint adoption. The discussion of
same-sex-parent families now discusses the controversial Regnerus study of children of
same-sex parents. The Globalization by the Numbers infographic for this chapter, titled
“Maternity Leave,” has been updated with new data on countries’ current leave policies.
The Digital Life box, titled “Dating and Mating Online,” has been updated with references
to new dating apps and now discusses Kevin Lewis’s research on the preferences of dat-
ing site users.

Chapter 12 Education and Religion

The chapter opener on Malala Yousafzai has been updated, along with the data about
girls’ education in Pakistan. This chapter’s treatment of sociological theories of educa-
tion has been broadened and now includes a discussion of the differences between func-
tionalist theory and conflict theory. Additionally, survey data on parents’ reasons for
home schooling and statistics on global literacy have been updated. The discussion of
school funding now includes 2013 data on school funding from two different districts in
Chicago. The section on between-school effects features research and statistics from a
new report on the growing resegregation of schools. The Globalization by the Numbers
infographic, titled “Educational Attainment,” now shows the proportion of school-age
populations enrolled in secondary schools in ten countries, along with mean years of
schooling. The section on the global rise of religious nationalism now considers recent
developments in Iran, including the election of Rouhani. The discussion of trends in
religious affiliation has been bolstered by statistics from a 2015 Pew Research Center
study on the “rise of the nones”—Millennials who are religiously unaffiliated. The dis-
cussion of Protestantism has been updated to reflect the recent growth of evangelical
and conservative Protestant churches. The section on Catholicism includes current data
on Mass attendance and now references a more recent poll on Church members’ beliefs.
The discussion of Judaism and Islam has been updated with more current data. Data on
global religious populations as well as religious affiliation in the United States have all
been updated. A new table looks at how religious affiliation in the United States changed
between 2007 and 2014.

Chapter 13 Politics and Economic Life

A new chapter opener examines the recent “Fight for 15” strikes orchestrated by min-
imum wage laborers across the United States and highlights employers and states that
have raised their minimum wages in response. A new figure in the opener provides demo-
graphic data on Americans who currently earn less than $15 per hour. The discussion of
the welfare state now considers the refugee crisis and the subsequent anti-immigrant
backlash. The number of democratic nations across the globe has been updated according
to data from Freedom House. In the section on the Internet and democratization, data

Preface xxv
 on where Americans receive their news have been updated. In the section on voting, the
authors have added more current data on party identification. The discussion of interest
groups now highlights a statistical analysis of nearly 1,800 policy issues and the role of
money in politics. Data on incumbents was updated to consider the 2014 elections, and
data on women’s participation in politics were updated. The discussion of military spend-
ing, as well as the accompanying figure, were updated with 2015 data. A new discussion
of terrorism considers ISIS and Boko Haram as well as hate groups in the United States.
The section on labor unions includes updated statistics on labor union membership and
public opinion of unions as well as a new discussion of why labor unions have confronted
difficulties in the past few decades. The figure showing work stoppages has been updated.
The coverage of types of corporate capitalism now features a new discussion of global
capitalism, whereby giant transnational entities are becoming increasingly stateless. The
new Digital Life box, titled “Will a Robot Take Your Job?” looks at how American com-
panies are employing fewer workers thanks to advances in technology and how rapid
advances in software hold the promise of automating occupations that currently require
college degrees. It also discusses strides in additive manufacturing, or 3D printing. Data
on unemployment, as well as the number of people who have given up looking for work,
have been updated.

Chapter 14 The Sociology of the Body: Health, Illness, and Sexuality

The discussion of obesity now considers new research on eating disorders in boys and
includes updated statistics on obesity rates in the United States. A new Globalization by
the Numbers infographic compares obesity rates worldwide. The section on complemen-
tary and alternative medicine has been updated with more current statistics on usage
and a new figure looks at the use of CAM by educational attainment. The discussions of
race-based and gender-based inequalities in health have been revamped with more cur-
rent data on life expectancy, rates of hypertension, and cigarette smoking. The section on
malaria has been updated with more current data on malaria cases and deaths. Figures
related to global HIV/AIDS diagnoses and deaths, as well as data on HIV/AIDS in the
United States, have all been updated with more current data. A new discussion in the
sexuality section explores recent trends in sexual behavior among high school-age
students, referencing a 2016 National Center for Health Statistics study, and also provides
overviews of Hamilton and Armstrong’s and Paula England’s recent studies of hookup
culture on college campuses. Additionally, the section on homophobia references an
extensive study by the Gay, Lesbian & Straight Education Network on the prevalence
of bullying and harassment faced by LGBT students. The Digital Life box, titled “Can
Wearable Tech Keep You Healthy?” now discusses popular fitness trackers like Fitbit and
Jawbone, and how individuals can use apps to monitor sleep patterns and health habits
such as caffeine consumption.

Chapter 15 Urbanization, Population, and the Environment

The chapter opener has been broadened to include not only a close look at China’s pop-
ulation growth, economic growth, and pollution issues but also details and compares
these trends in India as well. A new graph detailing the proportions of countries whose
populations live in urban areas by income group has been added, and the Globalization
by the Numbers infographic on urbanization has been updated with new data. Data on

x x vi Preface
urbanization have been updated and the discussion of the environmental challenges of
urbanization now considers climate-related problems in Pakistan, including the country’s
water woes. The discussion of possible consequences of demographic changes has been
expanded to include a discussion of widespread migration, referencing the Syrian civil
war and Syrian refugee crisis. A new table detailing the five countries with the oldest and
youngest populations in 2015 has been added. Data on birth rates, death rates, and infant
mortality rates across the globe have been updated. The global map detailing population
growth rates around the world has been updated with new data, and a new figure on the
demographic transition has been added. The section on the demographic transition now
includes a discussion of what the United Nations have deemed the “least developed coun-
tries.” The discussion of global warming and climate change now includes a comparison
of China and the United States, summaries of recent IPCC reports on global warming,
and a discussion of the 2015 Paris agreement. A new section, titled “A New Ecological
Paradigm?” has been added that details the historical treatment of environmental issues
within the field of sociology, introducing the terms human exceptionalism paradigm, new
ecological paradigm and Anthropocene. The new Digital Life box, titled “Tracking Your
Ecological Footprint,” encourages readers to think critically about their current energy
consumption and to visit a site whereby they can learn how many Earths would be
required if every person were to achieve that same lifestyle.

Chapter 16 Globalization in a Changing World

The chapter opener now discusses the Syrian civil war as well as the outcomes of the Arab
Spring protests. This chapter includes contemporary examples of social unrest, move-
ments, and protests, including new discussions of Black Lives Matter, the Fight for 15,
the countermovement against transgender equality in the form of “bathroom bills,”
terror attacks in Paris and Brussels, and the growing awareness of global warming. The
discussion of technology and social movements now considers the Chinese govern-
ment’s “Great Firewall.” The Digital Life Box, titled “Online Activism Trends Upwards,”
now points to Black Lives Matter as an example of a social movement that has effec-
tively used technology to spread its message and garner support. The section on political
changes driving globalization now explores the recent challenges the United Nations and
European Union have faced, including new discussions of the refugee crisis and Brexit.
New examples of IGOs have been added. Data on transnational corporations and the rev-
enues of the top 500 corporations have been updated. Data on global poverty and global
trade have also been updated. The section on the campaign for global justice now consid-
ers recent criticism against free trade agreements levied by Bernie Sanders and Donald
Trump. The section on manufactured risk now references a 2014 report on the recovery
of the ozone layer. Data on farm subsidies in the United States have been updated. A new
Globalization by the Numbers infographic paints a picture of wealth inequality around
the world.

Organization
There is very little abstract discussion of basic sociological concepts at the beginning of
this book. Instead, concepts are explained when they are introduced in the relevant chap-
ters, and we have sought throughout to illustrate them by means of concrete examples.

Preface x x vii
 While these are usually taken from sociological research, we have also used material from
other sources (such as newspaper or popular magazine articles). We have tried to keep the
writing style as simple and direct as possible, while endeavoring to make the book lively
and full of surprises.
The chapters follow a sequence designed to help achieve a progressive mastery of the
different fields of sociology, but we have taken care to ensure that the book can be used
flexibly and is easy to adapt to the needs of individual courses. Chapters can be skipped or
studied in a different order without much loss. Each has been written as a fairly autono-
mous unit, with cross-referencing to other chapters at relevant points.

Study Aids
Every chapter in the Sixth Edition of Essentials of Sociology features:

■■ “Digital Life” boxesin every chapter get students thinking critically about how
the Internet and smartphones are transforming the way we date, manage our
health, and even practice religion.

■■ “Globalization by the Numbers” infographicstransform raw numbers into

visually interesting displays that put the United States in a global context.
Interactive versions in the ebook make the data dynamic and include integrated
assignments that engage students with the data.

■■ “Big Picture” Concept Mapsat the end of every chapter, which integrate the
“Big Questions,” key terms, and “Concept Checks” into a handy and visually
interesting study tool, serve as both a pre-reading guide to the chapter as well as
a post-reading review.

■■ “Concept Checks”throughout each chapter help students assess their

understanding of the major topics in the chapter. Each “Concept Check” has at
least three questions that range from reading comprehension to more advanced
critical thinking skills.

■■ Learning Goalsare outlined at the start of the chapter and then recur throughout
the chapter in marginal notations at the beginning of the relevant sections to
promote active learning.

Acknowledgments
Many individuals offered us helpful comments and advice on particular chapters, and, in
some cases, large parts of the text. They helped us see issues in a different light, clarified
some difficult points, and allowed us to take advantage of their specialist knowledge in
their respective fields. We are deeply indebted to them. Special thanks go to Jason Phillips,
who worked assiduously to help us update data in all chapters and contributed significantly
to editing as well; and Dmitry Khodyakov, who wrote thought-provoking Concept Check
questions for each chapter.
We would like to thank the many readers of the text who have written us with
comments, criticisms, and suggestions for improvements. We have adopted many of
their recommendations in this new edition.

x x viii Preface
Adalberto Aguirre, University of California, Kalyna Lesyna, Palomar College
Riverside Danilo Levi, Delgado Community College
Colleen Avedikian, University of Ke Liang, Baruch College
Massachusetts Dartmouth
Devin Molina, Bronx Community College
Debbie Bishop, Lansing Community College
Jayne Mooney, John Jay College of Criminal
Kim Brackett, Auburn University Justice
Joy Branch, Southern Union State Community Kendra Murphy, University of Memphis
College
Rafael Narvaez, Winona State University
Edith Brotman, Towson University
Takamitsu Ono, Anne Arundel Community
Tucker Brown, Austin Peay State University College
Susan Cody-Rydzewski, Georgia Perimeter Carolyn Pevey, Germanna Community College
College
Robert Pullen, Troy University
Caroline Calogero, Brookdale Community
Matt Reynolds, College of Southern Idaho
College
Fernando Rivera, University of Central Florida
Paul Calarco, Hudson Valley Community College
Dan Rose, Chattanooga State Community
Karen Coleman, Winona State University
College
Dawn Conley, Gloucester County College
Rachel Stehle, Cuyahoga Community College
Raymonda Dennis, Delgado Community College
Larry Stern, Collin College
Jason Dixon, Walters State Community
Daniel Steward, University of Illinois at
College
Urbana-Champaign
Jonathon Fish, Trident Technical College
Karen Stewart-Cain, Trident Technical College
Matthew Flynn, University of Texas at Austin
Richard Sweeney, Modesto Junior College
Clare Giesen, Delgado Community College
Adrienne Trier-Bieniek, Valencia College
Ron Hammond, Utah Valley University
Thomas Waller, Tallahassee Community
Nicole Hotchkiss, Washington College College
Howard Housen, Broward College Candace Warner, Columbia State Community
Annie Hubbard, Northwest Vista College College
Onoso Imoagene, University of Pennsylvania Tammy Webb, Goodwin College
Kristin Ingellis, Goodwin College Jessica Williams, Texas Woman’s University
Jennifer Jordan, University of Kristi Williams, Ohio State University
Wisconsin-Milwaukee Annice Yarber, Auburn University
Ryan Kelty, Washington College Erica Yeager, Anne Arundel Community
Andrew Lash, Valencia College College

We have many others to thank as well. Nina Hnatov did a marvelous job of copyedit-
ing the new edition. We are also extremely grateful to project editor David Bradley , who
managed the countless details involved in creating the book. Assistant editor Miranda
Schonbrun skillfully tracked all the moving parts that go into publishing this compli-
cated project. Production manager Sean Mintus did impressive work guiding the book
through production, so that it came out on time and in beautiful shape. We also thank
Eileen Connell, our e-media editor, and Mary Williams, our associate e-media editor, for
developing all of the useful supplements that accompany the book. Agnieszka Gasparska
and the entire team of designers at Kiss Me I’m Polish gave the Sixth Edition a stunning
new design and also managed to digest a huge amount of data to create the “Globalization
by the Numbers” infographics throughout Essentials of Sociology.

Preface x xix
 We are also grateful to our editors at Norton—Steve Dunn, Melea Seward, Karl
Bakeman, and Sasha Levitt—who have made important substantive and creative contri-
butions to the book’s chapters and have ensured that we have referenced the very latest
research. We also would like to register our thanks to a number of current and former grad-
uate students—many of whom are now tenured professors at prestigious universities—
whose contributions over the years have proved invaluable: Wendy Carter, Audrey
Devin-Eller, Neha Gondal, Neil Gross, Black Hawk Hancock, Paul LePore, Alair MacLean,
Ann Meier, Susan Munkres, Josh Rossol, Sharmila Rudrappa, Christopher Wildeman,
David Yamane, and Katherina Zippel.

Anthony Giddens
Mitchell Duneier
Richard Appelbaum
Deborah Carr

xxx Preface
SIXTH EDITION

Essentials
of Sociology
1
THE BIG QUESTIONS

What is the “sociological imagination”?

Learn what sociology covers as a field and
how everyday topics like love and romance
are shaped by social and historical forces.
Recognize that sociology involves developing
a sociological imagination and a global
perspective, and understanding social change.

What theories do sociologists use?

Learn about the development of sociology as
a field. Be able to name some of the lead-
ing social theorists and the concepts they
contributed to sociology. Learn the different
theoretical approaches modern sociologists
bring to the field.

Sociology: What kinds of questions can

sociologists answer?
Be able to describe the different types of ques-

Theory and
tions sociologists address in their research.

What are the steps of the research

process?

Method
Learn the steps of the research process and
be able to complete the process yourself.

What research methods do

sociologists use?
Familiarize yourself with the methods available
to sociological researchers, and know the
advantages and disadvantages of each. See
how researchers use multiple methods in a
real study.

What ethical dilemmas do

sociologists face?
Recognize the ethical problems researchers may
face, and identify possible solutions to these
dilemmas.

How does the sociological imagination

affect your life?
Opinion of the United States Understand how adopting a sociological
perspective allows us to develop a richer
p. 9
understanding of ourselves, our significant
others, and the world.
 In April 2013, fifteen-year-old high school student Audrie Pott
was sexually assaulted by three sixteen-year-old boys at a
classmate’s house party. The boys took cell phone photos of
Audrie while she was unconscious, later sharing them with
other students. Eight days later, Audrie hanged herself.

Sociology is the scientific study of human social life, groups, and societies. It is a
dazzling and compelling enterprise, as its subject matter is our own behavior as
social beings. The scope of sociological study is extremely wide, ranging from the
analysis of how people establish social connections with one another to the investi-
gation of global social processes such as the rise of Islamic fundamentalism.
Sociology teaches us that what we regard as natural, inevitable, good, or true may not be
such and that the “givens” of our life—including things we assume to be genetic or biological—are
strongly influenced by historical, cultural, social, and even technological forces. Understanding
the subtle yet complex and profound ways in which our individual lives reflect the contexts of
our social experience is central to the sociological outlook. A brief example will provide a taste
of the nature and objectives of sociology.
Anyone who has attended middle school or high school knows that bullying is a common
occurrence. Through much of history, teachers, principals, and parents turned a blind eye, often

Sociolog y: Theor y and Method 3

 believing that “boys will be boys.” In recent years this cavalier attitude toward bullying has been
called into question by students, teachers, and policymakers alike. A recent spate of suicides by
sociology
teenagers subjected to merciless bullying has raised awareness that bullying is no longer “kid
The study of human
stuff” and in nearly all states is grounds for suspension, expulsion, or even more serious pun-
groups and societies,
giving particular emphasis ishment. Over the past decade, bullying-related tragedies have been documented throughout the
to analysis of the indus- United States, involving teenagers of all backgrounds—male and female, black and white, Asian
trialized world. Sociology and Latino, gay and straight, cisgender and transgender, rich and poor, rural and suburban.
is one of a group of social For Devin Brown, the bullying began shortly after he started at Rothschild Middle School.
sciences, which include
Things escalated after he reported another student for carrying a knife and threatening a
anthropology, economics,
political science, and teacher. Rather than being regarded as a hero by his classmates, he was derided as a “snitch”
human geography. The and was regularly threatened and beaten up at school. In April 2013, after months of relentless
divisions among the harassment, Brown hanged himself at home in his closet.
various social sciences That same month, fifteen-year-old high school student Audrie Pott hanged herself in her
are not clear-cut, and
San Jose, California, home. Eight days earlier, Pott had been sexually assaulted at a class-
all share a certain range
mate’s house party by three sixteen-year-old boys. She woke up to find her clothes pulled off
of common interests,
concepts, and methods. and her body covered in lewd markings. The trauma didn’t end there, though. The boys took
pictures of Pott while she was unconscious and shared them with other students. Just days
before she took her life, a devastated Pott posted messages on Facebook that read, “My life is
over” and “The whole school knows.”
It’s not just American teens who are killing themselves as a desperate reaction to intol-
erable bullying. In Japan, teen suicide rates spike each year on September 1, the nation’s first
day of school; experts say the specter of going back to school and facing mistreatment by their
peers (along with intense academic pressure) is enough to trigger suicide among depressed
teens (Wright 2015).
Brown and Pott are just two of hundreds of teenagers who have committed suicide after
being bullied and humiliated by their classmates. Today, anti-bullying laws exist in all 50 states;
Montana was the last state to enact such laws in 2015 (Baumann 2015). In 2011, New Jersey
passed the nation’s toughest anti-bullying legislation, triggered in part by the high-profile sui-
cide of Tyler Clementi. In 2010, the eighteen-year-old Rutgers University freshman committed
suicide by jumping off the George Washington Bridge, just two weeks after he started his first
semester in college. The suicide came days after his roommate used a webcam to spy on
Clementi during an intimate encounter with a man in his dorm room and then posted on social
personal troubles media about it.
Difficulties that are located Sociology helps us to understand and analyze scientifically social phenomena like bullying
in individual biographies and suicide. American sociologist C. Wright Mills (1959) observed that social sciences enable
and their immediate people to “translate private troubles into public issues.” What Mills meant is that individuals often
milieu, a seemingly private believe that the problems that they (and others) face are personal, perhaps resulting from their
experience.
own traits or decisions. But social scientists recognize that these seemingly “personal” troubles,
if occurring in patterned ways to large numbers of individuals, reflect important “public issues,”
public issues or consequences of social structures.
For example, Devin Brown, Audrie Pott, and Tyler Clementi all committed suicide shortly
Difficulties or problems
that are linked to the after being tormented by their peers. Some observers might think that the suicides were an
institutional and histori- isolated problem, perhaps the reaction of three teens who were depressed or emotionally
cal possibilities of social unstable. However, a sociologist would look at the social context and try to understand just
structure. how common such events are and to understand whether some subgroups are particularly
vulnerable to such problems. Sociologists might look at historical data to track the timing of

4 CHAPTER 1 Sociology: Theor y and Method

these suicides, as researchers did in Japan. This analysis showed that teen suicides weren’t
spread evenly across the year but rather clustered in early September (Wright 2015).
Sociologists might also consult data from national surveys, such as a 2014 survey by the Pew
Research Center, which found that four in ten Internet users have experienced online harass-
ment. Young Internet users are the most likely to be harassed online: Fully 65 percent of Internet
users between the ages of eighteen and twenty-nine have been the target of online harassment;
the proportion rises to 70 percent for users between eighteen and twenty-four. The study also
detected strong gender differences: Young women (like Audie Pott) are much more likely than
their male counterparts to experience certain forms of online harassment, including stalking
(26 percent vs. 7 percent) and sexual harassment (25 percent vs. 13 percent) (Duggan 2014).
Other sociologists have studied bullying “off-line” and found that gay and lesbian teens
are far more likely than their straight peers to be harassed at school. One survey of more than
7,500 high school students found that nearly 44 percent of gay and 40 percent of lesbian
Rutgers freshman Tyler
teens said they had been bullied in the previous year, compared with just 26 and 15 percent of
Clementi committed suicide
heterosexual boys and girls, respectively (Berlan et al. 2010). A 2013 study of LGBT students
days after his roommate
found that nearly three-quarters of LGBT students had been verbally harassed and more than posted on social media
a third (36 percent) had been physically harassed within the past year (Kosciw et al. 2014). about Clementi’s intimate
Studies such as these help us recognize that the anguish experienced by Clementi, Pott, and encounter with a man in his
Brown is hardly an isolated incident and instead reflects pervasive social problems that require dorm room.

far-reaching solutions. Sociology can help us understand the questions of what, why, and how
public issues and personal troubles arise.

What Is the “Sociological

Imagination”? Learn what sociology
When we learn to think sociologically, we can also better understand the most personal covers as a field and how
aspects of our own lives. For instance, have you ever been in love? Almost certainly you everyday topics like love
and romance are shaped by
have. Most people who are in their teens or older know what being in love is like. Love and
social and historical forces.
romance provide some of the most intense feelings we ever experience. Why do people
Recognize that sociology
fall in love? The answer may seem obvious: Love expresses a mutual physical and per- involves developing a
sonal attachment between two individuals. These days, we might not all think that love is sociological imagination and
“forever,” but falling in love, we may agree, is an experience arising from universal human a global perspective, and
emotions. It seems natural for a couple in love to want personal and sexual fulfillment in understanding social change.

their relationship, perhaps through marriage.

Yet this pattern whereby love leads to marriage is in fact very unusual. Romantic
love is not an experience all people across the world have — and where it does happen,
it is rarely connected to marriage. The idea of romantic love did not become widespread
until fairly recently in our society, and it has never even existed in many other cultures.
Only in modern times have love and sexuality become closely connected. In the Middle
Ages and for centuries afterward, men and women married mainly to keep property in the
hands of the family or to raise children to work the family farm—or, in the case of royalty,
to seal political alliances. Spouses may have become close companions after marriage, but
not before. People sometimes had sexual affairs outside marriage, but these inspired few

What Is the “Sociological Imagination”? 5

 of the emotions we associate with love today. Romantic love was regarded as a weakness
at best and a kind of sickness at worst.
Romantic love developed in courtly circles as a characteristic of extramarital sexual
adventures by members of the aristocracy. Until about two centuries ago, it was confined
to such circles and kept separate from marriage. Relations between husband and wife
among aristocratic groups were often cool and distant. Each spouse had his or her own
bedroom and servants; they may have rarely seen each other in private. Sexual compat-
ibility was not considered relevant to marriage. Among both rich and poor, the decision
of whom to marry was made by one’s immediate and extended family; the individuals
concerned had little or no say in the matter.
This remains true in many non-Western countries today. (Social scientists typi-
cally define “Western” countries as economically rich nations, including most in North
America and Europe, as well as Japan and Australia.) For example, in Afghanistan under
the rule of the Taliban, men were prohibited from speaking to women they were not
related or married to, and marriages were arranged by parents. The Taliban government
saw romantic love as so offensive that it outlawed all nonreligious music and films. Like
many in the non-Western world, the Taliban believed Afghanistan was being inun-
dated by Hollywood movies and American pop music and videos, which are filled with
What is the origin of sexual images.
romantic love? Originally, Neither romantic love, then, nor its association with marriage can be understood as a
romantic love was limited
natural or universal feature of human life. Rather, such love has been shaped by social and
to affairs for medieval
aristocrats such as Tristan historical influences. These are the influences sociologists study.
and Isolde, the subjects of Most of us see the world in terms of the familiar features of our own lives.
a thirteenth-century court Sociology demonstrates the need for a much broader view of our nature and our
romance that inspired actions. It teaches that what we regard as “natural” in our lives is strongly influenced
poems, operas, and films.
by historical and social forces. Understanding the subtle yet profoundly complex ways
in which our individual lives reflect the contexts of our social experience is basic to the
sociological outlook.
Learning to think sociologically means cultivating what sociologist C. Wright Mills
(1959), in a famous phrase, called the sociological imagination. As sociologists, we need to
imagine, for example, what the experience of sex and marriage is like for people who con-
sider the ideals of romantic love to be unfamiliar or absurd. Sociology is not just a routine
process of acquiring knowledge; it requires breaking free from the immediacy of personal
circumstances and putting things in a wider context.
The sociological imagination requires us, above all, to “think ourselves away” from our
sociological daily routines in order to look at them anew. Consider the simple act of drinking a cup of
imagination coffee. What might the sociological point of view illuminate about such apparently unin-
The application of imagina- teresting behavior? An enormous amount. First, coffee possesses symbolic value as part of
tive thought to the asking
our daily social activities. Often the ritual associated with coffee drinking is much more
and answering of sociolog-
important than the act itself. Two people who arrange to meet for coffee are probably more
ical questions. Someone
using the sociological interested in getting together and chatting than in what they actually drink. Drinking and
imagination “thinks himself eating in all societies, in fact, promote social interaction and the enactment of rituals—rich
away” from the familiar subject matter for sociological study.
routines of daily life. Second, coffee contains caffeine, a drug that stimulates the brain. In Western culture,
coffee addicts are not regarded as drug users. Like alcohol, coffee is a socially acceptable

6 CHAPTER 1 Sociology: Theor y and Method

drug, whereas cocaine and opium, for instance, are not. Yet some societies tolerate the
recreational use of opium or even cocaine but frown on coffee and alcohol. Sociologists are
interested in why these contrasts exist.
Third, an individual who drinks a cup of coffee is participating in a complicated set
of social and economic relationships stretching across the world. The production and dis-
tribution of coffee require continuous transactions among people who may be thousands
of miles away from the coffee drinker. Studying such global transactions is an important
task of sociology because many aspects of our lives are now affected by worldwide social
influences and communications.
Finally, the act of sipping a cup of coffee presumes a process of past social and eco-
nomic development. Widespread consumption of coffee—along with other now-familiar
items of Western diets like tea, bananas, potatoes, and white sugar—began only in the late
1800s under Western colonial expansion. Virtually all the coffee we drink today comes
from areas (South America and Africa) that were colonized by Europeans; it is in no sense
a “natural” part of the Western diet.

Studying Sociology
The sociological imagination allows us to see that many behaviors or feelings that we view
as private and individualized actually reflect larger social issues. Try applying this sort of
outlook to your own life. Consider, for instance, why you are attending college right now.
You may think that you worked hard in high school, or that you have decided to go to col-
lege so that you have the academic credential required to find a good job; yet other, larger
social forces may also have played a role. Many students who work hard in high school
cannot attend college because their parents cannot afford to send them. Others have their
schooling interrupted by large-scale events like wars or economic depressions. The notion
that we need college to find a good job is also shaped by social context. In past eras, when
most people worked in agricultural or manufacturing rather than professional jobs, college
attendance was rare—rather than an expected rite of passage.
Although we are all influenced by the social contexts in which we find ourselves, none
of us is simply determined in his or her behavior by those contexts. We possess and create
our own individuality. It is the goal of sociology to investigate the connections between what
society makes of us and what we make of ourselves. Our activities structure—give shape
to—the social world around us and at the same time are structured by that social world.
Social structure is an important concept in sociology. It refers to the fact that the social
contexts of our lives do not just consist of random assortments of events or actions; they
are structured, or patterned, in distinct ways. There are regularities in the ways we behave
and in the relationships we have with one another. But social structure is not like a physical
structure, such as a building, which exists independently of human actions. Human societ- structuration
ies are always in the process of structuration. They are reconstructed at every moment by The two-way process
the very “building blocks” that compose them—human beings like you. by which we shape our
social world through our
individual actions and by
Developing a Global Perspective which we are reshaped
As we just saw in our discussion of the sociological dimensions of drinking a cup of by society.
coffee, all our local actions—the ways in which we relate to one another in face-to-face

What Is the “Sociological Imagination”? 7

 contexts—form part of larger social settings that extend around the globe. These connec-
tions between the local and the global are quite new in human history. They have acceler-
ated over the past forty or fifty years as a result of dramatic advances in communications,
information technology, and transportation. The development of jet planes; large, speedy
container ships; and other means of rapid travel has meant that people and goods can be
continuously transported across the world. And our worldwide system of satellite com-
munication, established only some fifty years ago, has made it possible for people to get in
touch with one another instantaneously.
globalization U.S. society is influenced every moment of the day by globalization, the growth of
The economic, political, world interdependence—a social phenomenon that will be discussed throughout this
and social interconnect- book. Globalization should not be thought of simply as the development of worldwide
edness of individuals networks—social and economic systems that are remote from our individual concerns. It
throughout the world. is a local phenomenon, too. For example, in the 1950s and 1960s, most Americans had few
culinary choices when they dined out at restaurants. In many U.S. towns and cities today,
a single street may feature Italian, Mexican, Japanese, Thai, Ethiopian, and other types of
restaurants next door to one another. In turn, the dietary decisions we make can affect food
producers who may live on the other side of the world.
Do college students today have a global perspective? By at least one measure, the
answer is yes. According to a survey of 141,189 first-year college students in 2015,
82 percent reported that they had discussed politics “frequently” or “occasionally” in the
last year. More than one-third (40 percent) of students also reported that keeping up
with political issues is “very important” or “essential,” while nearly three in five students
(59 percent) said “improving my understanding of other countries and cultures” was very
important or essential. More than one-third (36 percent) of students said there was a
“very good chance” that they would study abroad while in college (Eagan et al. 2015).
These data reflect a pervasive awareness among college students today that globalization
has a direct effect on our daily, private lives.
A global perspective not only allows us to become more aware of the ways that
we are connected to people in other societies, it also makes us more aware of the many
problems the world faces at the beginning of the twenty-first century. The global per-
spective opens our eyes to the fact that our interdependence with other societies means
that our actions have consequences for others, and that the world’s problems have con-
sequences for us.

Understanding Social Change

The changes in human ways of life in the last 200 years, such as globalization, have
been far reaching. We have become accustomed, for example, to the fact that most of
the population lives in towns and cities rather than in small agricultural communities.
But this was not the case until the middle of the nineteenth century. For most of human
history, the vast majority of people had to produce their own food and shelter and lived
in tiny groups or in small village communities. Even at the height of the most devel-
oped traditional civilizations—such as ancient Rome or pre-industrial China—less than
10 percent of the population lived in urban areas; everyone else was engaged in food
production in a rural setting. Today, in most industrialized societies, these proportions

8 CHAPTER 1 Sociology: Theor y and Method

The extent to which people hold favorable attitudes toward the United States varies considerably across nations,
highlighting how macrosocial factors—migration patterns, economic factors, religion, history of military conflict—can
shape individual-level attitudes. Although there are strong national and regional patterns of support for the United
States, we also see considerable historical variation, with some countries, like Egypt, demonstrating a steady decline
over time, and others, like Russia, showing a precipitous drop.
 have become almost completely reversed. By 2050, 66 percent of the world population
is expected to live in urban areas. In more developed regions, including Europe, North
CONCEPT CHECKS America, Australia, New Zealand, and Japan, an estimated 85 percent will live in urban
areas (UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs 2015c).
1. How does sociology
These sweeping social transformations have radically altered, and continue to alter, the
help us understand the
causes of bullying? most personal and intimate side of our daily existence. To extend a previous example, the
spread of ideals of romantic love was strongly conditioned by the transition from a rural
2. Contrast public issues
and personal troubles. to an urban, industrialized society. As people moved into urban areas and began to work in
industrial production, marriage was no longer prompted mainly by economic motives—by
3. What is the sociological
imagination, according the need to control the inheritance of land and to work the land as a family unit. “Arranged”
to C. Wright Mills? marriages—fixed through the negotiations of parents and relatives—became less and less

4. How does the concept common. Individuals began to initiate marriage relationships on the bases of emotional
of social structure help attraction and personal fulfillment. The idea of “falling in love” as a precondition for mar-
sociologists better under- riage was formed in this context.
stand social phenomena? Sociology was founded by thinkers who sought to understand the initial impact of
5. What is globalization? How transformations that accompanied industrialization in the West. Although our world today
might it affect the lives of is radically different from that of former ages, the original goal of sociologists remains: to
college students today? understand our world and what future it is likely to hold for us.

What Theories Do
Sociologists Use?
Learn about the Sociologists do more than collect facts; they also want to know why things happen. For
development of sociology
instance, we know that industrialization has had a major influence on the emergence of
as a field. Be able to
name some of the leading modern societies. But what are the origins and preconditions of industrialization? Why
social theorists and the is industrialization associated with changes in methods of criminal punishment or in
concepts they contributed family and marriage systems? To respond to such questions, we must construct explana-
to sociology. Learn the tory theories.
different theoretical
Theories involve constructing abstract interpretations that can be used to explain a
approaches modern
wide variety of situations. Of course, factual research and theories can never be completely
sociologists bring to
the field. separated. Sociologists aiming to document facts must begin their studies with a theory
that they will evaluate. Theory helps researchers identify and frame a factual question,
yet facts are needed to evaluate the strength of a theory. Conversely, once facts have been
obtained, sociologists must use theory to interpret and make sense of these facts.
Theoretical thinking also must respond to general problems posed by the study of
human social life, including issues that are philosophical in nature. For example, based on
their theoretical and methodological orientations, sociologists hold very different beliefs
about whether sociology should be modeled on the natural sciences.

Early Theorists
Humans have always been curious about why we behave as we do, but for thousands of
years our attempts to understand ourselves relied on ways of thinking passed down from

10 CHAPTER 1 Sociology: Theor y and Method

generation to generation, often expressed in religious rather than scientific terms. The
systematic scientific study of human behavior is a relatively recent development, dating
back to the late 1700s and early 1800s. The sweeping changes ushered in by the French
Revolution of 1789 and the emergence of the Industrial Revolution in Europe formed the
backdrop for the development of sociology. These major historical events shattered tradi-
tional ways of life and forced thinkers to develop new understandings of both the social
and natural worlds.
A key development was the use of science instead of religion to understand the world.
The types of questions these nineteenth-century thinkers sought to answer are the very
same questions sociologists try to answer today: What is human nature? How and why do
societies change?

AUGUSTE COMTE
Many scholars contributed to early sociological thinking, yet particular credit is given to
the French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798–1857), if only because he invented the word
sociology. Comte originally used the term social physics, but some of his intellectual rivals Auguste Comte (1798–1857)
at the time were also making use of that term. Comte wanted to distinguish his own
views from theirs, so he introduced the term sociology to describe the subject he wished
to establish.
Comte believed that this new field could produce a knowledge of society based on
scientific evidence. He regarded sociology as the last science to be developed— following
physics, chemistry, and biology—but as the most significant and complex of all the
sciences. Sociology, he believed, should contribute to the welfare of humanity by using
science to understand, predict, and control human behavior. Late in his career, Comte
drew up ambitious plans for the reconstruction of both French society in particular and
human societies in general, based on scientific knowledge.

HERBERT SPENCER
Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) — a British philosopher, biologist, anthropologist, and
political theorist—was both highly influenced by and highly critical of Comte’s writing.
Spencer held that development is a natural outcome of individual achievement. In The
Study of Sociology (1873), he argued that society can change and improve the quality of
life for all people only when everyone changes their behavior to maximize their indi-
vidual potential. In other words, he believed privileged members of society enjoyed a
high quality of life because they had earned this status. He further argued that the state
should not assist in improving the life chances of individuals, as it interferes with the
natural order: The best persons succeed and the rest fall behind due to their own lack of
effort or ability.
While Spencer’s writings are considered an important influence on functionalist per-
spectives, which we will learn about later in this chapter, his ideas have fallen out of favor
with many contemporary sociologists. His ideas were roundly attacked by Lester Frank
Herbert Spencer (1820–1903)
Ward, the first president of the American Sociological Association (Carneiro and Perrin
2002). However, Spencer’s belief in the “survival of the fittest” had a profound influence on
economics and political science, especially among scholars and policymakers endorsing a
“laissez-faire” approach.

What Theories Do Sociologists Use? 11

 ÉMILE DURKHEIM
Another French scholar, Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), has had a much more lasting and
central impact on modern sociology than either Comte or Spencer. Although he drew on
aspects of Comte’s work, Durkheim thought that many of his predecessor’s ideas were
too speculative and vague and that Comte had not successfully established a scientific
basis for studying human behavior. To become a science, according to Durkheim, sociol-
ogy must study social facts, aspects of social life that shape our actions as individuals,
such as the state of the economy or the influence of religion. Durkheim believed that we
must study social life with the same objectivity as scientists who study the natural world.
In fact, he viewed sociology as “the science of social facts.” His famous first principle of
sociology was “Study social facts as things!” By this he meant that social life can be ana-
lyzed as rigorously as objects or events in nature. The key task of the sociologist, according
Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) to Durkheim, was to search for correlations among social facts in order to reveal laws of
social structure.
Like a biologist studying the human body, Durkheim saw society as a set of indepen-
dent parts, each of which could be studied separately. These ideas drew on the writings of
Spencer, who also likened society to a biological organism. A body consists of specialized
parts, each of which contributes to sustaining the continuing life of the organism. These
parts necessarily work in harmony with one another; if they do not, the life of the organ-
social facts ism is under threat. So it is, according to Durkheim, with society. For a society to function
According to Émile and persist over time, its specialized institutions (such as the political system, religion,
Durkheim, the aspects of the family, and the educational system) must work in harmony with one another and
social life that shape our
function as an integrated whole. Durkheim referred to this social cohesion as “organic
actions as individuals.
solidarity.” He argued that the continuation of a society thus depends on cooperation,
Durkheim believed that
social facts could be which in turn presumes a consensus, or agreement, among its members over basic values
studied scientifically. and customs.
Another major theme pursued by Durkheim, and by many others since, is that the
society exerts social constraint over the actions of its members. Durkheim argued that
organic solidarity society is far more than the sum of individual acts; when we analyze social structures, we
According to Émile are studying characteristics that have “solidity” comparable to structures in the physical
Durkheim, the social
world. Social structure, according to Durkheim, constrains our activities in a parallel way,
cohesion that results from
setting limits on what we can do as individuals. It is “external” to us, just as the walls of a
the various parts of a
society functioning as an room are.
integrated whole. One of Durkheim’s most influential studies was concerned with the analysis of suicide
(Durkheim 1897). Suicide may appear to be a purely personal act, the outcome of extreme
personal unhappiness. Durkheim showed, however, that social factors exert a fundamental
social constraint influence on suicidal behavior—anomie, a feeling of aimlessness or despair provoked by
The conditioning influence modern social life, being one of these influences. Suicide rates show regular patterns from
on our behavior by the
year to year, he argued, and these patterns must be explained sociologically. According
groups and societies of
to Durkheim, changes in the modern world are so rapid and intense that they give rise to
which we are members.
Social constraint was major social difficulties, which he linked to anomie. Traditional moral controls and stan-
regarded by Émile Durkheim dards, which were supplied by religion in earlier times, are largely broken down by modern
as one of the distinctive social development; this leaves individuals in many societies feeling that their daily lives
properties of social facts. lack meaning. Many criticisms of Durkheim’s study can be raised, but it remains a classic
work that is relevant to sociology today.

12 CHAPTER 1 Sociology: Theor y and Method

KARL MARX
The ideas of the German philosopher Karl Marx (1818–1883) contrast sharply with those
of Comte and Durkheim, but like them, he sought to explain the societal changes that
took place during the Industrial Revolution. When Marx was a young man, his political
activities brought him into conflict with the German authorities; after a brief stay in
France, he settled permanently in exile in Great Britain. Marx’s viewpoint was founded
on what he called the materialist conception of history. According to this view, it is
not the ideas or values human beings hold that are the main sources of social change, as
Durkheim claimed. Rather, social change is prompted primarily by economic influences.
The conflicts between classes—the rich versus the poor—provide the motivation for
historical development. In Marx’s words, “All human history thus far is the history of
class struggles.”
Though he wrote about many historical periods, Marx concentrated on change in
modern times. For him, the most important changes were bound up with the development
of capitalism. Capitalism is a system of production that contrasts radically with previous Karl Marx (1818–1883)
economic systems in history. It involves the production of goods and services sold to a
wide range of consumers. Those who own capital, or factories, machines, and large sums
of money, form a ruling class. The mass of the population make up the working class, or
wage workers who do not own the means of their livelihood but must find employment
provided by the owners of capital. Marx saw capitalism as a class system in which conflict
between classes is a common occurrence because it is in the interests of the ruling class
to exploit the working class and in the interests of the workers to seek to overcome that anomie
exploitation.
A concept first brought into
Marx predicted that in the future capitalism will be supplanted by a society in wide usage in sociology
which there are no classes—no divisions between rich and poor. He didn’t mean that by Durkheim, referring to
all inequalities would disappear; rather, societies will no longer be split into a small a situation in which social
class that monopolizes economic and political power and the large mass of people norms lose their hold over
who benefit little from the wealth their work creates. The economic system will come individual behavior.

under communal ownership, and a more equal society than we know at present will
be established. materialist
Marx’s work had a far-reaching effect in the twentieth century. Through most of the conception of
century, until the fall of Soviet communism in the early 1990s, more than a third of the history
world population lived in societies whose governments claimed to derive their inspiration The view developed by Marx,
from Marx’s ideas. In addition, many sociologists have been influenced by Marx’s ideas according to which material,
about class inequalities. or economic, factors have
a prime role in determining
MAX WEBER historical change.

Like Marx, Max Weber (pronounced “VAY-ber”; 1864–1920) cannot be labeled simply a
sociologist; his interests and concerns ranged across many areas. Born in Germany, where capitalism
he spent most of his academic career, Weber was educated in a range of fields. Like other
An economic system based
thinkers of his time, Weber sought to understand social change. He was influenced by on the private ownership of
Marx but was also strongly critical of some of Marx’s views. He rejected the materialist wealth, which is invested
conception of history and saw class conflict as less significant than Marx did. In Weber’s and reinvested in order to
view, economic factors are important, but ideas and values have just as much effect on produce profit.

social change.

What Theories Do Sociologists Use? 13

 Some of Weber’s most influential writings compared the leading religious systems
in China and India with those of the West. Weber concluded that certain aspects of
Christian beliefs strongly influenced the rise of capitalism. He argued that the capital-
ist outlook of Western societies did not emerge only from economic changes, as Marx
had argued. In Weber’s view, cultural ideas and values help shape society and affect our
individual actions.
One of the most influential aspects of Weber’s work was his study of bureaucracy.
A bureaucracy is a large organization that is divided into jobs based on specific func-
tions and staffed by officials ranked according to a hierarchy. Industrial firms, government
organizations, hospitals, and schools are examples of bureaucracies. Bureaucracy makes it
possible for these large organizations to run efficiently, but at the same time it poses prob-
lems for effective democratic participation in modern societies. Bureaucracy involves the
rule of experts, whose decisions are made without much consultation with those whose
lives are affected by those decisions.
Max Weber (1864–1920) Weber’s contributions range over many other areas, including the study of the devel-
opment of cities, systems of law, types of economy, and the nature of classes. He also wrote
about the overall character of sociology itself. According to Weber, humans are thinking,
reasoning beings: We attach meaning and significance to most of what we do, and any dis-
cipline that deals with human behavior must acknowledge this.

Neglected Founders
Durkheim, Marx, and Weber are widely acknowledged as foundational figures in sociology,
yet other important thinkers from the same period made valuable contributions to sociolog-
ical thought as well. Very few women or members of racial minorities were given the oppor-
tunity to become professional sociologists during the “classical” period of the late nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries. Their contributions deserve the attention of sociologists today.

HARRIET MARTINEAU
Harriet Martineau (1802–1876) was born and educated in England. She was the author
of more than fifty books and numerous essays. Martineau is now credited with intro-
ducing sociology to England through her translation of Comte’s founding treatise of the
field, Positive Philosophy (Rossi 1973). She also conducted a firsthand systematic study of
American society during her extensive travels throughout the United States in the 1830s,
which is the subject of her book Society in America.
Martineau is significant to sociologists today for several reasons. First, she argued
that when one studies a society, one must focus on all its aspects, including key political,
religious, and social institutions. Second, she insisted that an analysis of a society must
include an understanding of women’s lives. Third, she was the first to turn a sociological
eye on previously ignored issues such as marriage, children, domestic and religious life,
and race relations. Finally, she argued that sociologists should do more than just observe;
they should also act in ways that benefit society. Martineau herself was an active propo-
Harriet Martineau
(1802–1876) nent of women’s rights and the emancipation of slaves.

W. E. B. DU BOIS
W. E. B. Du Bois (1868–1963) was the first African American to earn a doctorate at Harvard
University. Du Bois made many contributions to sociology. Perhaps most important is the

14 CHAPTER 1 Sociology: Theor y and Method

TABLE 1.1

Interpreting Modern Development

Durkheim 1. The main dynamic of modern development is the division of labor as a basis for social cohesion and
organic solidarity.
2. Durkheim believed that sociology must study social facts as things, just as science would analyze the natural world.
His study of suicide led him to stress the important influence of social factors, qualities of a society external to the
individual, on a person’s actions. Durkheim argued that society exerts social constraint over our actions.

Marx 1. The main dynamic of modern development is the expansion of capitalism. Rather than being cohesive,
society is divided by class differences.
2. Marx believed that we must study the divisions within a society that are derived from the economic
inequalities of capitalism.

Weber 1. The main dynamic of modern development is the rationalization of social and economic life.
2. Weber focused on why Western societies developed so differently from other societies. He also emphasized the
importance of cultural ideas and values on social change.

concept of “double consciousness,” which is a way of talking about identity through the
lens of the particular experiences of African Americans (Morris 2015). He argued that
American society lets African Americans see themselves only through the eyes of others:
“It is a particular sensation, this double consciousness, this sense of always measuring
one’s soul by the tape of a world that looks on in amused contempt and pity. One ever
feels his two-ness—an American, a Negro, two souls, two thoughts, two unreconciled
strivings, two warring ideals in one dark body, whose dogged strength alone keeps it from
being torn asunder” (1903). Du Bois made a persuasive claim that one’s sense of self and
one’s identity are greatly influenced by historical experiences and social circumstances—
in the case of African Americans, the effect of slavery and, after emancipation, segregation
and prejudice.
Throughout his career, Du Bois focused on race relations in the United States. As he
said in an often-repeated quote, “The problem of the twentieth century is the problem of
the color line.” His influence on sociology today is evidenced by continued interest in the
questions that he raised, particularly his concern that sociology must explain “the contact
of diverse races of men.” Du Bois was also the first social researcher to trace the problems
faced by African Americans to their social and economic underpinnings, a connection that
most sociologists now widely accept. Finally, Du Bois became known for connecting social
analysis to social reform. He was one of the founding members of the National Association
W. E. B. Du Bois
for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and a longtime advocate for the collec-
(1868–1963)
tive struggle of African Americans.
Later in his life, Du Bois became disenchanted by the lack of progress in American
race relations. He moved to the African nation of Ghana in 1961 when he was invited
by the nation’s president to direct the Encyclopedia Africana. He died in Ghana in 1963.

What Theories Do Sociologists Use? 15

 Although Du Bois receded from American life in his later years, his impact on American
social thought and activism has been particularly profound, with many ideas of the Black
Lives Matter movement informed by his writings (Morris 2015).

Modern Theoretical Approaches

The origins of sociology were mainly European, yet the subject is now firmly established
worldwide—with some of the most important developments having taken place in the
United States.

SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
The work of George Herbert Mead (1863–1931), a philosopher teaching at the University of
Chicago, had an important influence on the development of sociological thought, in partic-
symbolic ular through a perspective called symbolic interactionism. Mead placed great importance
interactionism on the study of language in analyzing the social world. He reasoned that language allows
A theoretical approach in us to become self-conscious beings—aware of our own individuality. The key element in
sociology developed by this process is the symbol, something that stands for something else. For example, the
George Herbert Mead that word tree is a symbol that represents the object tree. Once we have mastered such a con-
emphasizes the role of
cept, Mead argued, we can think of a tree even if none is visible; we have learned to think
symbols and language as
core elements of all human of the object symbolically. Symbolic thought frees us from being limited in our experience
interaction. to what we actually see, hear, or feel.
Unlike animals, according to Mead, human beings live in a richly symbolic universe.
This applies even to our very sense of self. Each of us is a self-conscious being because we
symbol learn to look at ourselves as if from the outside—we see ourselves as others see us. When a
One item used to stand for child begins to use “I” to refer to that object (herself) whom others call “you,” she is exhibi­
or represent another—as ting the beginnings of self-consciousness.
in the case of a flag, which
Virtually all interactions between individuals involve an exchange of symbols, accord-
symbolizes a nation.
ing to symbolic interactionists. When we interact with others, we constantly look for clues
to what type of behavior is appropriate in the context and how to interpret what others are
doing and saying. Symbolic interactionism directs our attention to the detail of interper-
sonal interaction and how that detail is used to make sense of what others say and do. For
instance, suppose two people are out on a date for the first time. Each is likely to spend a
good part of the evening sizing the other up and assessing how the relationship is likely to
develop, if at all. Both individuals are careful about their own behavior, making every effort
to present themselves in a favorable light; but, knowing this, both are likely to be looking
for aspects of the other’s behavior that would reveal his or her true beliefs and traits. A com-
plex and subtle process of symbolic interpretation shapes the interaction between the two.
functionalism
A theoretical perspective FUNCTIONALISM
based on the notion that
Symbolic interactionism is open to the criticism that it concentrates too much on things
social events can best be
that are small in scope. Symbolic interactionists have found difficulty in dealing with
explained in terms of the
functions they perform— larger-scale structures and processes—the very thing that a rival tradition of thought,
that is, the contributions functionalism, tends to emphasize. Functionalist thinking in sociology was originally
they make to the continuity pioneered by Comte and by Spencer.
of a society. To study the function of a social activity is to analyze the contribution that the activ-
ity makes to the continuation of the society as a whole. The best way to understand this

16 CHAPTER 1 Sociology: Theor y and Method

idea is by analogy to the human body, a comparison Comte, Durkheim, Spencer, and other
functionalist authors made. To study an organ such as the heart, we need to show how it
relates to other parts of the body. When we learn how the heart pumps blood around the
body, we then understand that the heart plays a vital role in the continuation of the life
of the organism. Similarly, analyzing the function of some aspect of society, such as reli-
gion, means showing the part it plays in the continued existence and health of a society.
Functionalism emphasizes the importance of moral consensus in maintaining order and
stability in society. Moral consensus exists when most people in a society share the same
values. Functionalists regard order and balance as the normal state of society—a social
equilibrium grounded in the existence of a moral consensus among the members of society.
Functionalism became prominent in sociology in the mid-twentieth century through
the writings of Talcott Parsons and Robert K. Merton, each of whom saw functionalist analy­
sis as providing the key to the development of sociological theory and research. Merton’s
version of functionalism has been particularly influential. Merton distinguished between
manifest and latent functions. Manifest functions are those known to, and intended by, manifest
the participants in a specific type of social activity. Latent functions are consequences of functions
that activity of which participants are unaware. To illustrate this distinction, Merton used The functions of a
the example of a rain dance performed by the Hopi tribe of Arizona and New Mexico. The particular social activity
that are known to and
Hopi believe that the ceremony will bring the rain they need for their crops (manifest
intended by the individuals
function). This is why they organize and participate in it. But using Durkheim’s theory of
involved in the activity.
religion, Merton argued that the rain dance also has the effect of promoting the cohesion
of the Hopi society (latent function). A major part of sociological explanation, according to
Merton, consists in uncovering the latent functions of social activities and institutions. latent functions
For much of the twentieth century, functionalist thought was considered the leading Functional consequences
theoretical tradition in sociology, particularly in the United States. In recent years, its pop- that are not intended or
ularity has declined as its limitations have become apparent. Many functionalist thinkers recognized by the members
of a social system in which
(Talcott Parsons is an example) unduly stressed factors leading to social cohesion at the
they occur.
expense of those producing division and conflict. In addition, many critics argue that func-
tional analysis attributes to societies qualities they do not have. Functionalists often wrote
as though societies have “needs” and “purposes,” even though these concepts make sense
only when applied to individual human beings.

CONFLICT THEORIES
conflict theories
A third influential approach is conflict theory. In general, conflict theories underscore
A sociological perspective
the role of coercion and power in producing social order. Social order is believed to be that emphasizes the role
maintained by domination, with power in the hands of those with the greatest political, of political and economic
economic, and social resources; historically, this would include white men with ample power and oppression as
economic and political resources. Two particular approaches typically classified under the contributing to the existing
social order.
broad heading of conflict theories are Marxism and feminist theories.

Marxism Marxists, of course, trace their views back to the writings of Karl Marx. But
numerous interpretations of Marx’s major ideas are possible, and today there are schools Marxism
of Marxist thought that take very different theoretical positions. In all of its versions, A body of thought deriving
Marxism differs from non-Marxist perspectives in that its adherents see it as a combi- its main elements from
nation of sociological analysis and political reform. Marxism is supposed to generate a Karl Marx’s ideas.

program of radical political change.

What Theories Do Sociologists Use? 17

 Moreover, Marxists place more emphasis on conflict, class divisions, power, and ide-
ology than many non-Marxist sociologists, especially those influenced by functionalism.
power
The concept of power and a closely associated notion, ideology, are of great importance to
The ability of individuals or
Marxist sociologists and to sociology in general. Power refers to the ability of individuals
the members of a group to
achieve aims or further the or groups to make their own concerns or interests count, even when others resist. Power
interests they hold. sometimes involves the direct use of force but is almost always accompanied by the devel-
opment of ideology: ideas that are used to justify the actions of the powerful. Power, ide-
ology, and conflict are always closely connected. Many conflicts are about power, because
ideology of the rewards it can bring. Those who hold the most power may depend mainly on
Shared ideas or beliefs the influence of ideology to retain their dominance but are usually also able to use force
that serve to justify the
if necessary.
interests of dominant
groups. Ideologies are Feminism and Feminist Theory Feminist theory is one of the most prominent areas
found in all societies in of contemporary sociology. This is a notable development because issues of gender are
which there are systematic nearly absent in the work of the major figures who established the discipline. The success
and ingrained inequalities
of feminism’s entry into sociology required a fundamental—and often contested—shift in
among groups. The con-
cept of ideology connects the discipline’s approach.
closely with that of power. Many feminist theorists brought their experiences in the women’s movement of
the 1960s and 1970s to their work as sociologists. Like Marxism, feminism makes a link
between sociological theory and political reform. Feminist sociologists often have been
feminism advocates for political and social action to remedy the inequalities between women and
Advocacy of the rights of men in both the public and private spheres.
women to be equal with
Feminist sociologists argue that women’s lives and experiences are central to the
men in all spheres of life.
Feminism dates from the late study of society. Historically, sociology, like most academic disciplines, has presumed a
eighteenth century in Europe. male point of view. Driven by a concern with women’s subordination in American society,
feminist sociologists highlight gender relations and gender inequality as important deter-
minants of social life in terms of both social interaction and social institutions such as
feminist theory
the family, the workplace, and the educational system. Feminist theory emphasizes that
A sociological perspec- gender differences are not natural but socially constructed.
tive that emphasizes the
Today, feminist sociology often encompasses a focus on the intersection of gender,
centrality of gender in
analyzing the social world race, and class. A feminist approach to the study of inequality has influenced new academic
and particularly the experi- fields, like LGBTQ studies. Taken together, these theoretical perspectives underscore
ences of women. There are power imbalances and draw attention to the ways that social change must entail shifts in
many strands of feminist the balance of power—consistent with the overarching themes of conflict theories.
theory, but they all share the
intention to explain gender POSTMODERN THEORY
inequalities in society and to
work to overcome them. Postmodernists claim that the very foundation upon which classic social thought is based
has collapsed. Early thinkers were inspired by the idea that history unfolds sequentially and
leads to progress. Adherents of postmodernism counter that there are no longer any “grand
postmodernism
narratives,” or metanarratives—overall conceptions of history or society—that make any
The belief that society is no
sense (Lyotard 1985). Some go so far as to argue there is no such thing as history.
longer governed by history
The postmodern world is not destined, as Marx hoped, to be a socialist one. Instead, it
or progress. Postmodern
society is highly pluralistic is one dominated by the new media, which “take us out” of our past. Postmodern society is
and diverse, with no “grand highly pluralistic and diverse. In countless films, videos, TV shows, and websites, images
narrative” guiding its circulate around the world. We are exposed to many ideas and values, but these have little
development. connection with the history of places where we live, or with our own personal histories.
The world is constantly in flux.

18 CHAPTER 1 Sociology: Theor y and Method

DIGITAL LIFE

Bullying Goes Viral

Social life in the twenty-first century has “gone digital”—for both good and bad. For you
and your college classmates, bullying often occurs online. As we saw earlier in this chap-
ter, teens like Audrie Pott and Tyler Clementi were tormented by tech-savvy classmates
who shared images and videos of their victims with untold numbers of people. How did
this happen? How did these incidents, which happened behind closed doors, “go viral”
for all to see? Bullying, once considered the antics of a few “bad apples,” is now under-
stood to be a more sweeping social problem—one that exemplifies the core themes of the
sociological imagination.
Countless websites and apps facilitate cyberbullying—the use of the Internet, smart-
phones, or other electronic devices to embarrass or hurt another person (Sagan 2013).
The problem is particularly widespread today because hate-spewing bullies can hide
behind the anonymity of the Internet; teens who would never dream of bullying a class-
mate face-to-face may get lured into the cruel behavior online (Hoffman 2010). Take Yik
Yak, for example. An anonymous social networking app, Yik Yak has been described as
a “Twitter without handles” (Haskell 2014). The app, which functions as a virtual bulle-
tin board, sorts messages, or “yaks,” by geographic location. Users can then read and
comment on messages posted within a 1.5-mile radius, the hyper-local aspect making it
popular on college campuses and even high schools (Mahler 2015).
Since it launched in 2013, the app has been at the center of countless campus contro-
versies. At Penn State, the University of North Carolina, and Cal State Fresno, among oth-
ers, users have posted threats of mass shootings. Students at Eastern Michigan University
used the app to post sexually explicit messages about female professors (Dewey 2015).
Young people are at the highest
At the University of Missouri, racist commentary and threats on the app played a role in
the high-profile campus protests that ultimately led to the resignation of the university’s risk of online harassment. Fully
president in fall 2015 (Nelson 2015). 70 percent of Internet users
Supporters of Yik Yak will argue that the app is mostly used for positive purposes. It between the ages of eighteen
gives shy students a chance to reach out to others for advice about classes and get infor- and twenty-four have been
mation on everything from embarrassing health problems to the address of the evening’s harassed online.
hottest party. Others argue that Yik Yak is a forum for marginalized voices, including
LGBT students and students of color, as well as an outlet for students struggling with
mental illness. For example, within hours of a Michigan student posting suicidal thoughts
on the app, users had organized an impromptu campus rally to provide resources to those
struggling with depression (Hess 2015).
The Internet has the potential to promote positive social action. Dozens of apps have
been developed to combat online bullying. For example, STOPit and Stop Bullies allows
users to record videos and take photos to send to campus police or school authorities,
while Back Off Bully lets students book appointments with their school counselors. The
“It Gets Better” project, created by columnist Dan Savage and his partner, has inspired
more than 50,000 user-created videos that convey a message of hope to lesbian, gay,
bisexual, transgender, and questioning (LGBTQ) youth facing bullying.
Does the explosion of cyberbullying indicate that today’s youth are cruel and insensi-
tive to others’ vulnerabilities? Or is there something about the current cyber culture that
promotes cruelty and insensitivity? Revising Mills’s notions of “personal troubles” and
“public issues,” how might you explain cyberbullying? Do you think anti-bullying apps can
be effective, or are larger social changes needed?
New York City’s Times
Square serves as the
backdrop for live television
programs such as ESPN’s
SportsCenter and movies
like Midnight Cowboy and
Captain America. Covered
with advertisements
and constantly in flux, it
epitomizes Baudrillard’s
theories of postmodern
society.

One of the important theorists of postmodernism is the French philosopher and

sociologist Jean Baudrillard, who believes that the electronic media have destroyed our
relationship to our past and created a chaotic, empty world. Baudrillard was strongly influ-
enced by Marxism in his early years. However, he argues that the spread of electronic com-
munication and the mass media have reversed the Marxist theorem that economic forces
shape society. Rather, social life is influenced above all by signs and images.
In a media-dominated age, Baudrillard says, meaning is created by the flow of images,
as in TV programs. Much of our world has become a sort of make-believe universe in
which we are responding to media images rather than to real persons or places. Is “reality”
television a portrayal of social “reality,” or does it feature televised people who are per-
ceived to be “real”? Do hunters in Louisiana really look and act like the Robertson family
on Duck Dynasty, and do the tough guys in Amish Mafia resemble the peaceful Amish who
live and work in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania? Baudrillard would say no and would
describe such images as “the dissolution of life into TV.”

Theoretical Thinking in Sociology

We have described four overarching theoretical approaches, which refer to broad orienta-
tions to the subject matter of sociology. Yet theoretical approaches are distinct from the-
ories. Theories are more narrowly focused and represent attempts to explain particular
social conditions or events. They are usually formed as part of the research process and in
turn suggest problems to be investigated by researchers. An example would be Durkheim’s
theory of suicide, referred to earlier in this chapter.
Sometimes theories are set out very precisely and are even occasionally expressed
in mathematical form—although this is more common in other social sciences (espe-
cially economics) than in sociology. Some theories, by contrast, have a much broader
scope. Sociologists do not share a unified position on whether theories should be spe-
cific, wide-ranging, or somewhere in between. Robert K. Merton (1957), for example,
argues forcefully that sociologists should concentrate their attention on what he calls
middle-range theories. Middle-range theories are specific enough to be tested directly by
empirical research, yet are sufficiently general to cover a range of different phenomena.

20 CHAPTER 1 Sociology: Theor y and Method

 Relative deprivation theory is an example of a middle-range theory. It holds that how
people evaluate their circumstances depends on whom they compare themselves with.
Feelings of deprivation do not necessarily correspond to the absolute level of material
deprivation one experiences. A family living in a small home in a poor area where every-
one is in more or less similar circumstances is likely to feel less deprived than a family
living in a similar house in a neighborhood where the majority of the other homes are
much larger and neighbors are wealthier.
Assessing theories, and especially theoretical approaches, in sociology is a challeng-
ing and formidable task. The fact that there is not a single theoretical approach that dom- microsociology
inates the field of sociology might be viewed as a limitation. But this is not the case at all: The study of human
The jostling of rival theoretical approaches and theories reveals the vitality of the socio- behavior in contexts of
logical enterprise. This variety rescues us from dogma or narrow-mindedness. Human face-to-face interaction.
behavior is complex, and no single theoretical perspective could adequately cover all of
its aspects. Diversity in theoretical thinking provides a rich source of ideas that can be
macrosociology
drawn on in research, and stimulates the imaginative capacities so essential to progress
The study of large-scale
in sociological work.
groups, organizations, or
Levels of Analysis: Microsociology social systems.

and Macrosociology
One important distinction among the different theoretical perspectives we have dis-
cussed in this chapter involves the level of analysis at which each is directed. The study
of everyday behavior in situations of face-to-face interaction is usually called micro­
sociology. Macrosociology, by contrast, is the analysis of large-scale social systems, like
the political system or the economy. It also includes the analysis of long-term processes of CONCEPT CHECKS
change, such as industrialization. At first glance, it may seem as though micro and macro
perspectives are distinct from each other. In fact, the two are closely connected (Giddens 1. What role does theory
play in sociological
1984; Knorr-Cetina and Cicourel 1981).
research?
Macro analysis is essential if we are to understand the institutional background of
daily life. The ways in which people live their everyday lives are shaped by the broader 2. According to Émile
Durkheim, what makes
institutional framework. For example, because of societal-level technological develop-
sociology a social
ments, we have many ways of maintaining friendships today. We may choose to call, send science? Why?
an email or text message, or communicate via Facebook or Skype, yet we may also choose
3. According to Karl Marx,
to fly thousands of miles to spend the weekend with a friend.
what are the differences
Micro studies, in turn, are necessary for illuminating broad institutional patterns. between the classes
Face-to-face interaction is clearly the main basis of all forms of social organization, no that make up a capitalist
matter how large scale. Suppose we are interested in understanding how business corpo- society?
rations function. We could analyze the face-to-face interactions of directors in the board- 4. What are the differences
room, staff working in their offices, or workers on the factory floor. We would not build between symbolic
up a picture of the whole corporation in this way, since some of its business is transacted interactionist and
through printed materials, letters, the telephone, and computers. Yet we would certainly functionalist approaches
gain a good understanding of how the organization works. to the analysis of society?

In later chapters, we will explore further examples of how interaction in micro 5. How are macro and
contexts affects larger social processes, and how macro systems in turn influence more micro analyses of
confined settings of social life. society connected?

What Theories Do Sociologists Use? 21

 What Kinds of Questions
Can Sociologists Answer?
Be able to describe
Can we really study human social life in a scientific way? To answer this question, we must
the different types of
first define the word science.
questions sociologists
address in their research. Science is the use of systematic methods of empirical investigation, the analysis
of data, theoretical thinking, and the logical assessment of arguments to develop a
body of knowledge about a particular subject matter. Sociology is a scientific endeavor,
according to this definition. It involves systematic methods of empirical investiga-
tion, the analysis of data, and the assessment of theories in the light of evidence and
science
logical argument.
The disciplined marshaling
High-quality sociological research goes beyond surface-level descriptions of ordi-
of empirical data, combined
with theoretical approaches nary life; rather, it helps us understand our social lives in a new way. Sociologists are
and theories that illuminate interested in the same questions that other people worry about and debate: Why do rac-
or explain those data. ism and sexism exist? How can mass starvation exist in a world that is far wealthier than
it has ever been before? How does the Internet affect our lives? However, sociologists
often develop answers that run counter to our commonsense beliefs—and that gener-
empirical
ate further questions. One major feature that helps distinguish science from other idea
investigation
systems (such as religion) is the assumption that all scientific ideas are open to criticism
Factual inquiry carried out in
and revision.
any area of sociological study.
Good sociological work also tries to make the questions as precise as possible
and seeks to gather factual evidence before coming to conclusions. Some of the ques-
factual questions tions that sociologists ask in their research studies are largely factual, or empirical,
Questions that raise issues questions.
concerning matters of fact Factual information about one society, of course, will not always tell us whether we
(rather than theoretical or
are dealing with an unusual case or a general set of influences. For this reason, sociologists
moral issues).
often want to ask comparative questions, relating one social context within a society to
another or contrasting examples drawn from different societies. A typical comparative
comparative question might be, How much do patterns of criminal behavior and law enforcement
questions vary between the United States and Canada? Similarly, developmental questions ask
Questions concerned with whether patterns in a given society have shifted over time: How is the past different from
drawing comparisons among the present?
different human societies. Yet sociologists are interested in more than just answering factual questions, how-
ever important and interesting they may be. To obtain an understanding of human
behavior, sociologists also pose broader theoretical questions that encompass a wide
developmental
questions array of specific phenomena (Table 1.2). For example, a factual question may ask: To
what extent do expected earnings affect one’s choice of an occupation? By contrast, a
Questions that sociolo-
gists pose when looking theoretical question may ask: To what extent does the maximization of rewards affect
at the origins and path human decision making?
of development of social Sociologists do not strive to attain theoretical or factual knowledge simply for its
institutions. own sake. Social scientists agree that personal values should not be permitted to bias
conclusions, but at the same time research should pose questions that are relevant

22 CHAPTER 1 Sociology: Theor y and Method

TABLE 1. 2

A Sociologist’s Line of Questioning theoretical

questions
Questions posed by sociol-
Factual What happened? Did the proportion of women in their ogists when seeking to
Question forties bearing children for the first time explain a particular range
increase, decrease, or stay the same during of observed events. The
the 2010s? asking of theoretical ques-
tions is crucial to allowing
Comparative Did this happen Was this a global phenomenon or did it occur us to generalize about the
everywhere? just in the United States or only in a certain nature of social life.
Question
region of the United States?

Developmental Has this happened What have been the patterns of childbearing
Question over time? over time?

Theoretical What underlies Why are more women now waiting until
Question this phenomenon? their thirties and older to bear children?
What factors would we look at to explain
this change?

CONCEPT CHECKS
to real-world concerns. In this chapter, we further explore such issues by asking
whether it is possible to produce objective knowledge. First, we examine the steps 1. Why is sociology
involved in sociological research. We then compare the most widely used research considered a science?

methods as we consider some actual investigations. As we shall see, there are often 2. What are the differences
significant differences between the way research should ideally be carried out and between comparative and
real-world studies. developmental questions?

What Are the Steps of the

Research Process?
Learn the steps of the
The research process begins with the definition of a research question and ends with the
research process and
dissemination of the study findings (Figure 1.1). Although researchers do not necessarily be able to complete the
follow all seven steps in the order set forth here, these steps serve as a model for how to process yourself.
conduct a sociological study. Conducting research is a bit like cooking. New researchers,
like novice cooks, may follow the “recipe” to a tee. Experienced cooks often don’t work
from recipes at all, instead relying on the skills and insights they’ve acquired through
years of hands-on experience.

What A re the Steps of the Research Process? 23

F IGU RE 1.1
1. Define the Research Problem
Steps in the Research Process All research starts from a research problem. Often,
researchers strive to uncover a fact: What proportion of
the U.S. population attends weekly religious services?
DEFINE THE PROBLEM
Select a topic for research. How far does the economic position of women lag behind
that of men? Do LGBTQ and straight teens differ in their
REVIEW THE EVIDENCE levels of self-esteem?
Familiarize yourself with existing The best sociological research, however, begins with
research on the topic.
problems that are also puzzles. A puzzle is not just a lack
of information but a gap in our understanding. The most
FORMULATE A HYPOTHESIS
What do you intend to test? What is the intriguing and influential sociological research correctly
relationship among the
identifies and solves important puzzles.
variables?
Rather than simply answering the question “What is
SELECT A RESEARCH DESIGN happening?” skilled researchers contribute to our under-
Choose one or more research methods:
standing by asking “Why is this phenomenon happening?”
experiment, survey, observation,
use of existing sources. We might ask, for example, “Why are women underrep-
resented in science and technology jobs?” or “What are
CARRY OUT THE RESEARCH
the characteristics of high schools with high levels of
Collect your data; record information.
bullying?”

INTERPRET THE RESULTS

Research does not take place in a vacuum. A sociol-
Work out the implications of the data ogist may discover puzzles by reading the work of other
you collect.
researchers in books and professional journals or by being
aware of emerging trends in society.
REPORT THE RESEARCH FINDINGS
What is their significance? How do they
relate to previous findings? 2. Review the Evidence
Once a research problem is identified, the next step is
Your findings are registered and to review the available evidence; it’s possible that other
discussed in the wider academic
community, leading perhaps to researchers have already satisfactorily clarified the prob-
the initiation of further research. lem. If not, the sociologist will need to sift through what-
ever related research does exist to see how useful it is
for his or her purposes. What have others found? If their
findings conflict with one another, what accounts for
the conflict? What aspects of the problem has their research left unanalyzed? Have they
looked only at small segments of the population, such as one age group, gender, or region?
Drawing on others’ ideas helps the sociologist clarify the issues that may be raised and the
methods that could be used in the research.

3. Make the Problem Precise

hypothesis A third stage involves working out a clear formulation of the research problem. If rele-
An idea or a guess about vant literature already exists, the researcher may have a good idea of how to approach the
a given state of affairs, problem. Hunches about the nature of the problem can sometimes be turned into a definite
put forward as a basis for hypothesis—an educated guess about what is going on—at this stage. A hypothesis must
empirical testing. be formulated in such a way that the factual material gathered will provide evidence either
supporting or disproving it.

24 CHAPTER 1 Sociology: Theor y and Method

 In looking at this painting
by Brueghel, we can
observe the number of
people, what each is doing,
the style of the buildings,
or the colors the painter
chose. But without the title,
Netherlandish Proverbs
(1559), these facts tell us
nothing about the picture’s
meaning. In the same way,
sociologists need theory
as a context for their
observations.

4. Work Out a Design

The researcher must then decide how to collect the research material, or data. Many dif- data
ferent research methods exist, and researchers should choose the method (or methods) Factual information used as
that are best suited to the study’s overall objectives and topic. For some purposes, a survey a basis for reasoning, discus-
(in which questionnaires are normally used) might be suitable. In other circumstances, sion, or calculation. Social
science data often refer to
interviews or an observational study may be appropriate.
individuals’ responses to
survey questions.
5. Carry Out the Research
Researchers then proceed to carry out the plan developed in step 4. However, practical
difficulties may arise, forcing the researcher to rethink his or her initial strategy. Potential
subjects may not agree to answer questionnaires or participate in interviews. A business
firm may not give a researcher access to its records. Yet omitting such persons or institu-
tions from the study could bias the results, creating an inaccurate or incomplete picture of
social reality. For example, it would be difficult for a researcher to answer questions about
how corporations have complied with affirmative action programs if companies that have
not complied do not want to be studied.

6. Interpret the Results

Once the information has been gathered, the researcher’s work is not over—it is just
beginning! The data must be analyzed, trends tracked, and hypotheses tested. Most
important, researchers must interpret their results in such a way that they tell a clear
story and directly address the research puzzle outlined in step 1.

What A re the Steps of the Research Process? 25

 7. Report the Findings
The research report, usually published as a book or an article in a scholarly journal, provides
CONCEPT CHECKS an account of the research question, methods, findings, and implications of the findings for
social theory, public policy, or practice. This is a final stage only in terms of addressing the
1. What are the seven original research puzzle. In their written reports, most social scientists pose questions that
steps of the research
remain unanswered and suggest new questions that might be explored in future studies.
process?
Each individual study contributes to the larger, collective process of understanding the
2. What is a hypothesis? human condition.

What Research Methods

Do Sociologists Use?
Familiarize yourself with Sociologists have a range of methods at their disposal. While methods are often classified
the methods available to as qualitative or quantitative, scholars today are increasingly interested in mixed methods,
sociological researchers,
which combine the two. Qualitative methods can be broadly thought of as approaches
and know the advantages
that explore the deeper meaning of a particular setting. Sociologists using qualitative
and disadvantages of each.
See how researchers use methods may rely on personal and collective accounts or observations of a person or sit-
multiple methods in a uation. These observations are strictly subjective, suggesting an interpretive approach to
real study. describing actors and their social contexts. Quantitative methods, by contrast, use data
that are objective and statistical. This type of research often focuses on documenting
trends, comparing subgroups, or exploring correlations.

Ethnography
One widely used qualitative method is ethnography, or firsthand studies of people using
qualitative observations, interviews, or both. Here, the investigator socializes, works, or lives with
methods members of a group, organization, or community. In the case of participant observation, the
Approaches to sociological researcher may participate directly in the activities he or she is studying. An ethnographer
research that often rely on
cannot secretly infiltrate the groups she studies but must explain and justify her presence to
personal and/or collective
its members. She must gain the cooperation of the community and sustain it over a period
interviews, accounts, or
observations of a person of time if any worthwhile results are to be achieved. Other ethnographers, by contrast, may
or situation. observe at a distance and may not participate directly in the activities under observation.
For a long while, research reports based on participant observation usually omitted
any account of the hazards or problems that the researcher had to overcome, but more
quantitative recently the published reminiscences and diaries of field-workers have been more honest
methods
and open. The researcher may be frustrated because the members of the group refuse to
Approaches to sociological
talk frankly about themselves; direct queries may be welcomed in some contexts but met
research that draw on
with a chilly silence in others. Some types of fieldwork may be emotionally isolating or
objective and statistical
data and often focuses even physically dangerous; for instance, a researcher studying a street gang might be seen
on documenting trends, as a police informer or might become unwittingly embroiled in conflicts with rival gangs.
comparing subgroups, or In traditional works of ethnography, accounts were presented without very much infor-
exploring correlations. mation about the observer. It was believed that ethnographers could present “objective”
observations of the things they studied. More recently, ethnographers have been willing to

26 CHAPTER 1 Sociology: Theor y and Method

 Harvard sociologist Matthew
Desmond spent more than
a year doing participant
observation research of
tenants and their landlords
in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, for
his ethnography on eviction.

talk and write about themselves and the nature of their connection to the people under study,
even acknowledging possible sources of bias in their observations. For example, a researcher
ethnography
might discuss how her race, class, gender, or sexual orientation affected the work, or how
The firsthand study of
the status differences between observer and observed distorted the dialogue between them.
people using observation,
in-depth interviewing, or
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF FIELDWORK both. Also called fieldwork.
Where it is successful, ethnography provides rich information on the behavior of people in
real-world settings. We may develop a better understanding not only of the group but of
social processes that transcend the situation under study.
participant
observation
But fieldwork also has serious limitations. Only fairly small groups or communities
A method of research
can be studied. And much depends on the skill of the researcher in gaining the confi-
widely used in sociology
dence of the individuals involved; without this skill, the research is unlikely to get off the
and anthropology in which
ground at all. The reverse is also possible. A researcher may begin to identify so closely the researcher takes part in
with the group that she loses the perspective of an objective observer. Or she may reach the activities of the group or
conclusions that are more about her own effects on the situation than she or her readers community being studied.
ever realize. Finally, the findings of field studies are seldom generalizable, meaning that
researchers’ conclusions may not hold true for other groups or settings.
survey
Surveys A method of sociological
research in which
Quantitative methodologists have a range of analytical tools and data resources at questionnaires are
their disposal, but surveys are the most commonly used. When conducting a survey, administered to the
researchers ask subjects to provide answers to structured questionnaires. The population being studied.

researcher may administer the survey in person or mail it to a study participant who

What Research Methods Do Sociologists Use? 27

 will then return it by mail. Survey results— especially those based on random samples
of the larger population— can often be generalized to the population at large, yet this
method provides less in-depth information than the highly descriptive, nuanced slices
of life obtained in fieldwork.

STANDARDIZED AND OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS

Two types of questions are used in surveys. With standardized, or fixed-choice questions,
only a fixed range of responses is possible—for instance, Yes/No/Don’t Know or Very
Likely/Likely/Unlikely/Very Unlikely. Such questions have the advantage that responses
are easy to compare and count up because only a small number of categories are involved.
However, the information they yield is limited because they do not allow for subtleties of
opinion or verbal expression. For example, in a national survey of high school and middle
school students’ experiences with bullying, study participants answered Yes/No questions

“How would you like me to

such as “Has someone ever sent you a threatening or aggressive email, instant message, or
answer that question? As a text message?” but this question does not tell how severe the threat was or how upset a
member of my ethnic group, student was by this event (Lenhart 2007; Lenhart et al. 2011).
educational class, income Open-ended questions, by contrast, typically provide more detailed information because
group, or religious category?” respondents may express their views in their own words. In fact, responses to open-ended
survey questions are considered qualitative data, as they often convey thoughts, percep-
tions, and feelings. Open-ended questions allow researchers to probe more deeply into what
the respondent thinks. However, the lack of standardization means that answers may be
difficult to compare across respondents. For example, the national study of Internet bullying
supplemented its survey with open-ended interviews. These data allowed researchers to
understand more fully what bullying entailed.
In surveys, all the items must be readily understandable to interviewers and inter-
viewees alike. Questions are usually asked in a set order. Large national surveys are con-
ducted regularly by government agencies and research organizations, with interviews
carried out more or less simultaneously across the whole country. Those who conduct the
interviews and those who analyze the data could not do their work effectively if they con-
stantly had to be checking with one another about ambiguities in the questions or answers.
pilot study Survey researchers take care to ensure that respondents can easily understand both
A trial run in survey the questions and the response categories posed. For instance, a seemingly simple ques-
research. tion like “What is your relationship status?” might baffle some people. It would be more
appropriate to ask “Are you single, married, separated, divorced, or widowed?” Many sur-
vey questions are tried-and-true measures that have been used successfully in numerous
sampling
prior studies. Researchers developing new survey questions often conduct a pilot study to
Studying a proportion
test out new items. A pilot study is a trial run in which a questionnaire is completed by a
of individuals or cases
small number of people, and problematic questions are identified and revised.
from a larger population
as representative of that Although surveys have been used primarily to obtain information on individuals, in
population as a whole. recent years, social scientists have used surveys to learn about members of the respon-
dent’s social network and have developed techniques to link the survey reports of one
individual to his or her friends, high school classmates, family members, or spouse. These
sample complex data allow researchers to understand social networks; sociologists are increas-
A small proportion of a ingly interested in the ways that aspects of one’s social network, such as how diverse one’s
larger population. friends are, or how large one’s networks are, shape even highly personal attributes like
one’s political attitudes or body weight (Christakis and Fowler 2009).

28 CHAPTER 1 Sociology: Theor y and Method

TABLE 1.3

Three of the Main Methods Used in Sociological Research

RESEARCH METHOD STRENGTHS LIMITATIONS

Ethnography Usually generates richer and more in-depth Can be used to study only relatively small
information than other methods. groups or communities.
Provides a broader understanding of social Findings might apply only to groups or
processes. communities studied; not easily generalizable.

Surveys Make possible the efficient collection of data Material gathered may be superficial; if
on large numbers of individuals. questionnaire is highly standardized, important
differences among respondents’ viewpoints
Allow for precise comparisons to be made
may be glossed over.
among the answers of respondents.
Responses may be what people profess to
believe rather than what they actually believe.

Experiments Influence of specific variables can be Many aspects of social life cannot be brought
controlled by the investigator. into the laboratory.

Are usually easier for subsequent researchers Responses of those studied may be affected by
to repeat. the experimental situation.

SAMPLING
Often sociologists are interested in the characteristics of large numbers of individuals—
for example, the political attitudes of the American population as a whole. It would be
impossible to study all these people directly, so researchers’ solution is to use sampling—
they concentrate on a sample, or small proportion, of the overall group. Sampling strat-
egies, or the processes through which one selects cases or individuals to study, is an representative
important step in both quantitative and qualitative research. However, for reasons we sample
will see later, it is much more likely that a quantitative sample will be generalizable to A sample from a larger
the overall population. We can usually be confident that results from a population sample population that is
can be generalized to the total population, as long as the sample was properly chosen. statistically typical of
that population.
Studies of only 2,000–3,000 voters, for instance, can give a very accurate indication of
the attitudes and voting intentions of the entire population. But to achieve such accuracy,
we need a representative sample: The group of individuals studied must be typical of the
random sampling
population as a whole.
Sampling method in which
A single best procedure for ensuring that a sample is representative is random sam­
a sample is chosen so
pling, in which a sample is chosen so that every member of the population has an equal that every member of
probability of being included. The most sophisticated way of obtaining a random sample the population has the
is to assign each member of the population a number and then use a computer to generate same probability of
a random numbers list from which the sample is derived—for instance, by picking every being included.
tenth number. Random sampling is often done by researchers doing large population-based

What Research Methods Do Sociologists Use? 29