Endocrine

Chapter 9
The Endocrine
System
Lecture Presentation by
Patty Bostwick-Taylor
Florence-Darlington Technical College
© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited.

The Endocrine System
▪ Second controlling system of the body

▪ Nervous system is the fast-control system
▪ Uses chemical messengers (hormones) that are
released into the blood
▪ Hormones control several major processes:
▪ Reproduction
▪ Growth and development
▪ Mobilization of body defences
▪ Maintenance of homeostasis
▪ Regulation of metabolism

The Endocrine System
▪ The endocrine system goes along with the nervous

system, coordinates and directs the activity of the
body’s cells. Nervous is fast “built for speed”and
runs through the nerves and uses nerve impulses
while endo is slow and runs through the
bloodstream and uses chemical messengers called
hormones; mobilization of body defenses against
stressors, homeostasis: maintains electrolyte, water
and nutrient balance of the blood; regulating cellular
metabolism and energy balance

Regulation by chemical messengers
▪ Neurotransmitters released by neurons
▪ Hormones release by endocrine glands
endocrine gland
neurotransmitter
axon
hormone
carried by blood
receptor proteins receptor proteins
Lock & Key

system
target cell
▪Endocrine system is composed of small
organs compared with other organs.
Endocrine system is made of bits and
pieces and are spread in widely
separated regions of the body but even
if they are small they make bigger
effects.

▪ Are chemical substances that are secreted by
endocrine cells into the extracellular fluids and
regulate the metabolic activity of other cells in the
body.

▪ Blood transfers hormones to target sites
▪ These hormones regulate the activity of other cells
▪ Endocrinology is the scientific study of hormones
and endocrine organs
▪ Produced by specialized cells
Effect is longer and can be continuous; endocrinology
is the scientific study of hormones and endocrine
organs.

The Chemistry of Hormones
▪Hormones are classified chemically as

▪ Amino acid–based, which includes:
▪ Proteins
▪ Peptides
▪ Amines
▪ Steroids—made from cholesterol
▪ Prostaglandins—made from highly active
lipids that act as local hormones

▪Steroid hormones (made from cholesterol)

include the sex hormones made by the
gonads (ovaries and testes) and the
hormones produced by the adrenal cortex.
All other hormones are nonsteroidal amino
acid derivatives.

Classes of Hormones
▪ Protein-based hormones
▪ polypeptides
▪ small proteins: insulin, ADH insulin
▪ glycoproteins
▪ large proteins + carbohydrate: FSH, LH
▪ amines
▪ modified amino acids: epinephrine, melatonin
▪ Lipid-based hormones
▪ steroids
▪ modified cholesterol: sex hormones, aldosterone
Hormone Action
▪ Hormones affect only certain tissues or organs

(target cells or target organs)
▪ Target cells must have specific protein receptors
▪ Hormone binding alters cellular activity
▪ Hormones came from a Greek word meaning “to
arouse”. They “arouse,” or bring about their effects on
the body’s cells primarily by altering cellular activity—
that is, by increasing or decreasing the rate of a normal,
or usual, metabolic process rather than by stimulating
performance of a new one.

Concept Link

Hormone Action
Hormones arouse cells, or alter cellular activity.

Typically, one or more of the following occurs:
1. Changes in plasma membrane permeability or
electrical state
2. Synthesis of proteins, such as enzymes
3. Activation or inactivation of enzymes
4. Stimulation of mitosis
5. Promotion of secretory activity

▪The precise changes that follow
hormone binding depend on the specific
hormone and the target cell type, but
typically one or more of the following
occurs:

▪ Hormones act by two mechanisms:

1. Direct gene activation
2. Second-messenger system

Direct Gene Activation (Steroid Hormone
Action)
1. Steroid hormones diffuse through the plasma
membrane of target cells
2. Steroid hormones enter the nucleus
3. Steroid hormones bind to a specific protein within
the nucleus
4. Hormone-receptor complex binds to specific sites
on the cell’s DNA
5. Certain genes are activated that result in…
6. Synthesis of new proteins

Figure 9.1a Mechanisms of hormone action. Slide 1
Steroid Cytoplasm Nucleus

hormone
Receptor
1 2 protein
3
Hormone-receptor
complex 4
DNA
mRNA 5
New
protein
Plasma
membrane
of target 6
cell
(a) Steroid hormone action


hormone
Because they 1
are lipid soluble
molecules, the
steroid
hormones can
diffuse through
the plasma
membranes
of their target
cells.


hormone
Receptor
1 2 protein
Once
inside,
the
steroid
hormone
enters
the
nucleus
Figure 9.1a Mechanisms of hormone action.

hormone
Receptor
1 2 protein
3
Hormone-receptor
complex
binds to a
specific
hormone
receptor
there


hormone
Receptor
1 2 protein
The hormone- 3
receptor
Hormone-receptor
complex then
complex 4
1
2 DNA
4
5
3
6
binds to specific
sites on
the cell’s DNA,


hormone
Receptor
1 2 protein
3
Hormone-receptor
complex 4
activating DNA
certain genes
to transcribe mRNA 5
messenger
RNA
(mRNA).


hormone
Receptor
1 2 protein
3
Hormone-receptor
complex 4
DNA
mRNA 5
New
protein
Plasma
membrane
of target 6
cell

Action of lipid (steroid) hormones
target cell steroid hormone
blood
S
1 S
cross cell membrane protein
S carrier
2
cytoplasm
Alternatively, the steroid
binds to receptor protein hormone may bind to
becomes receptors in the
transcription factor 5 cytoplasm,
mRNA read by ribosome
3 S
plasma membrane
DNA 4
mRNA
6 7
nucleus protein protein secreted
ex: secreted protein = growth factor (hair, bone, muscle, gametes)
Second-Messenger System (Nonsteroid
Hormone Action)
1. Hormone (first messenger) binds to a membrane
receptor
2. Activated receptor sets off a series of reactions
that activates an enzyme
3. Enzyme catalyzes a reaction that produces a
second-messenger molecule (such as cyclic AMP,
or cAMP)
4. Oversees additional intracellular changes to
promote a specific response in the target cell

Water-soluble, nonsteroid hormones—protein
and peptide hormones—are unable to enter
the target cells. Instead, they bind to hormone
receptors situated on the target cell’s plasma
membrane and utilize a second-messenger
system.
Figure 9.1b Mechanisms of hormone action. Slide 1
Nonsteroid Cytoplasm
hormone (first
messenger)
Enzyme
ATP
1 3
2
Second
cAMP messenger
4
Receptor
protein
Effect on cellular function,
such as glycogen
Plasma breakdown
membrane
of target cell
(b) Nonsteroid hormone action

hormone (first
messenger)
1
1 the hormone (first
messenger)
binds to the membrane
receptor
Receptor
protein

hormone (first
messenger)
Enzyme
1
2 The activated
receptor sets off a
series of
reactions (a
Receptor cascade) that
protein activates an
enzyme.

hormone (first
messenger)
Enzyme
ATP
1 3
2
Second
cAMP messenger
Receptor The enzyme,

protein in turn, catalyzes reactions that
produce second messenger
molecules (in this case, cyclic AMP,
also known as cAMP or cyclic
adenine monophosphate)

hormone (first
messenger)
Enzyme
ATP
1 3
2
Second
cAMP messenger
4
Receptor
protein
Effect on cellular function,
such as glycogen
Plasma breakdown
membrane
of target cell

Hormones act by two mechanisms:
1. Direct gene activation
2. Second-messenger system
How do hormones act on target cells
• Lipid-based hormones
– hydrophobic & lipid-soluble
• diffuse across cell membrane & enter cells
• bind to receptor proteins in cytoplasm & nucleus
• bind to DNA as transcription factors
– turn on genes
• Protein-based hormones
– hydrophilic & not lipid soluble
• can’t diffuse across cell membrane
• bind to receptor proteins in cell membrane
• trigger secondary messenger pathway
• activate internal cellular response
© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited. – enzyme action, uptake or secretion of molecules…
Control of Hormone Release
▪ Hormone levels in the blood are maintained mostly

by negative feedback
▪ A stimulus or low hormone levels in the blood
triggers the release of more hormone
▪ Hormone release stops once an appropriate level in
the blood is reached
• negative feedback mechanisms are the

chief means of regulating blood levels of
nearly all hormones. some internal or
external stimulus triggers hormone
secretion
Maintaining homeostasis
hormone 1
gland lowers
body condition
high
specific body condition
low
raises gland
body condition
Negative Feedback
hormone 2 Model
Nervous System Control Feedback
Controlling Body Temperature
nerve signals
hypothalamus
sweat dilates surface

blood vessels
high
body temperature
(37°C)
low
hypothalamus
constricts surface shiver
blood vessels
nerve signals
Endocrine System Control Feedback
Regulation of Blood Sugar
islets of Langerhans
insulin beta islet cells
body liver stores reduces

cells take glycogen appetite
pancreas up sugar
from blood
liver
high
blood sugar level
(90mg/100ml)
low
liver
triggers releases
hunger glucose pancreas
islets of Langerhans
liver glucagon alpha islet cells
Blood Osmolarity Feedback
Endocrine System Control
osmoreceptors in ADH
hypothalamus
increased increase
water thirst
pituitary reabsorption
high nephron
blood osmolarity
blood pressure JuxtaGlomerular
Apparatus
nephron low
increased
adrenal water & salt nephron
gland reabsorption (JGA)
renin
aldosterone
angiotensinogen
angiotensin
Endocrine Gland Stimuli
▪ The stimuli that activate endocrine glands fall into

three major categories:
1. Hormonal
2. Humoral
3. Neural

Hormonal Stimuli of Endocrine Glands
▪ Most common stimulus

▪ Endocrine organs are activated by other hormones
▪ Example:
▪ Anterior pituitary hormones travel to target glands,
such as the thyroid gland, to prompt the release of a
particular hormone, such as thyroid hormone
• endocrine organs are prodded into action by other

hormones. hormones of the hypothalamus stimulate
the anterior pituitary gland to secrete its hormones,
Figure 9.2a Endocrine gland stimuli.
(a) Hormonal stimulus

1 The hypothalamus secretes
hormones that…
Hypothalamus
2 …stimulate
As the hormones produced by the the anterior
Anterior
pituitary
pituitary
final target glands increase in the gland to gland
blood, they “feed back” to inhibit secrete
hormones
the release of anterior pituitary that…
hormones and thus their own
release. Thyroid
gland
Adrenal Gonad
cortex (testis)
3 …stimulate other endocrine

glands to secrete hormones
Humoral Stimuli of Endocrine Glands
▪ Changing blood levels of certain ions and nutrients

stimulate hormone release
▪ Humoral indicates various body fluids, such as blood
and bile
▪ Examples:
▪ Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin are produced in
response to changing levels of blood calcium levels
▪ Insulin is produced in response to changing levels of
blood glucose levels

Figure 9.2b Endocrine gland stimuli.
(b) Humoral stimulus

1 Capillary blood contains low
concentration of Ca2+, which
stimulates…
Capillary Thyroid gland

(low Ca2+ (posterior view)
in blood)
humoral refers
to the ancient
use of the
word humor to
indicate the
Parathyroid Parathyroid
various body glands glands
fluids PTH
2 …secretion of parathyroid
hormone (PTH) by parathyroid
glands)

Neural Stimuli of Endocrine Glands
▪ Nerve impulses stimulate hormone release

▪ Most are under the control of the sympathetic
nervous system
▪ Examples:
▪ The release of norepinephrine and epinephrine by
the adrenal medulla

Figure 9.2c Endocrine gland stimuli.
(c) Neural stimulus

1 Preganglionic sympathetic
fiber stimulates adrenal medulla
cells…
CNS (spinal cord)
The classic example

is sympathetic
nervous system
stimulation of the
Preganglionic
adrenal medulla to sympathetic fibers
release
Medulla of
norepinephrine and adrenal
epinephrine during gland
periods of stress
Capillary
2 …to secrete catecholamines

(epinephrine and norepinephrine)
Major Endocrine Organs
▪ Pituitary gland
▪ Thyroid gland
▪ Parathyroid glands
▪ Adrenal glands
▪ Pineal gland
▪ Thymus gland
▪ Pancreas
▪ Gonads (ovaries and testes)
▪ Hypothalamus
Figure 9.3 Location of the major endocrine organs of the body.
Pineal gland
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands
Thymus
Adrenal glands
Pancreas
Ovary (female)
Testis (male)

Major Endocrine Organs
▪ Some glands are purely endocrine

▪ Anterior pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, parathyroids
▪ Other glands are mixed glands, with both endocrine
and exocrine functions (pancreas, gonads)
Endocrine glands are ductless glands

Hormones are released directly into blood or lymph
Endocrine and exocrine gland

this glands are made of epithelial
tissue. What is the difference
between endocrine and exocrine
glands?
Pituitary Gland - “master endocrine gland”
Approximately the size of a pea. It

hangs by a stalk from the inferior
surface of the hypothalamus of the
brain, where it is snugly surrounded by
the sella turcica (“Turk’s saddle”) of
the sphenoid bone. Its removal or
destruction has a dramatic effect on the
body
Pituitary Gland - “master endocrine gland”
Two functional lobes:
▪ Has two functional lobes
▪ Anterior pituitary—glandular tissue
▪ Posterior pituitary—nervous tissue

Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
▪ Hypothalamus produces releasing and inhibiting

hormones
▪ Hypothalamus also makes two hormones: oxytocin
and antidiuretic hormone
▪ Carried to posterior pituitary via neurosecretory cells
for storage
Pituitary gland is controlled by the releasing and inhibiting

hormones of the hypothalamus.

Figure 9.4 Hormones released by the posterior lobe of the pituitary and their target organs.
Hypothalamic
neurosecretory
Optic cells
chiasma Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus also
makes two additional
hormones, oxytocin and
antidiuretic hormone,
which are transported along Axon
Arterial blood supply
terminals
the axons of the
hypothalamic
neurosecretory cells to the Posterior lobe
posterior Capillary bed
pituitary for storage. They Venous drainage

are later Anterior lobe
of the pituitary
released into the blood in
response to nerve impulses
from the hypothalamus. ADH Oxytocin
Kidney tubules Mammary glands

Uterine muscles
Posterior Pituitary and Hypothalamic
Hormones
▪ Oxytocin
▪ Stimulates
contractions
of the uterus
during labor,
sexual
relations, and
breastfeeding
▪ Causes milk
ejection (let-
down reflex)
in a
breastfeeding
woman

If you're a man and you've ever had the
feeling after meeting a girl that she may, in
fact, be the one, that's the oxytocin talking.
Oxytocin is responsible for causing us to feel
love, whether it's love from a mother for her
child, or love between partners in an intimate
relationship. “cuddle chemical”; both men
and women release oxytocin during sex.

Posterior Pituitary and Hypothalamic
Hormones
▪ Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
▪ Inhibits urine production (diuresis) by promoting
water reabsorption by the kidneys
▪ In large amounts, causes vasoconstriction of
arterioles, leading to increased blood pressure (the
reason why ADH is known as vasopressin)
▪ Alcohol inhibits ADH secretion
▪ Diabetes insipidus results from ADH hyposecretion

Urine volume decreases, and blood
volume increases. Drinking alcoholic
beverages inhibits ADH secretion and
results in output of large amounts of
urine. The dry mouth and intense thirst
experienced “the morning after” reflect
this dehydrating effect of alcohol.

Diabetes is from the ancient Greek word “to
pass through” refers to the excessive amounts
of urine produced by sufferers. The
consequences of diabetes insipidus is not
obvious until the condition becomes severe,
the volume of urine produced is many liters
each day. Insipidus Latin word in-”not”
sapidus “tasty”. Symptoms becomes obvious
if severe, urination becomes liters per day
Figure 9.4 Hormones released by the posterior lobe of the pituitary and their target organs.
Hypothalamic
neurosecretory
Optic cells
chiasma Hypothalamus
Axon
Arterial blood supply
terminals
Posterior lobe
Capillary bed
Venous drainage
Anterior lobe
of the pituitary
ADH Oxytocin
Kidney tubules Mammary glands

Uterine muscles
Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
▪ Six anterior pituitary hormones

▪ Two affect nonendocrine targets:
1. Growth hormone
2. Prolactin

▪ Four stimulate other endocrine glands to release

hormones (tropic hormones):
1. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (thyrotropic hormone)
2. Adrenocorticotropic hormone
3. Follicle-stimulating hormone
4. Luteinizing hormone

Tropic (tro′pik = turn on) hormones; Tropic
hormones stimulate their target organs, which are
also endocrine glands, to secrete their hormones,
which in turn exert their effects on other body
organs and tissues. Tropic hormones stimulate their
target organs, which are also endocrine glands, to
secrete their hormones, which in turn exert their
effects on other body organs and tissues. A tropic
hormone is a hormone that stimulates an
endocrine gland to grow and secrete it's hormones
tropic hormones = target endocrine glands
hypothalamus
thyroid-stimulating
hormone posterior antidiuretic
(TSH) pituitary hormone
Thyroid gland (ADH)
anterior
pituitary Kidney
tubules
Muscles
of uterus
gonadotropic
hormones:
Adrenal follicle-
cortex
stimulating
hormone (FSH)
& luteinizing
hormone (LH)
Melanocyte
Bone Mammary
and muscle glands
Testes Ovaries in mammals
▪Tropins (tropic hormones)
stimulate growth in target
organs/cells (tropic means
nourishment) When the target
organ is another gland, tropic
hormones cause them to
produce & release their own
hormones.
▪ Characteristics of all anterior pituitary hormones

▪ Protein (or peptides) structure
▪ Act through second-messenger systems
▪ Regulated by hormonal stimuli
▪ Regulated mostly by negative feedback

Figure 9.5 Hormones of the anterior pituitary and their major target organs.
Releasing hormones Hypothalamus

secreted into portal
circulation
Anterior pituitary Posterior pituitary

Hypophyseal
portal system Adrenocorticotropic
Growth hormone (GH) hormone (ACTH)
Bones and muscles Prolactin (PRL) Follicle-stimulating Thyrotropic Adrenal cortex

hormone (FSH) hormone (TH)
and luteinizing
Mammary hormone (LH)
glands Thyroid
Testes or ovaries

▪ Growth hormone (GH)

▪ General metabolic hormone
▪ Major effects are directed to growth of skeletal
muscles and long bones
▪ Plays a role in determining final body size
▪ Causes amino acids to be built into proteins
▪ Causes fats to be broken down for a source of
energy

GH is a protein-sparing and anabolic
hormone that causes the building of amino
acids into proteins and stimulates most target
cells to grow in size and divide. It causes fats
to be broken down and used for energy while
it spares glucose, helping to maintain blood
sugar homeostasis. During food deprivation,
growth hormone resists protein breakdown
and favors fat breakdown.
▪ Growth hormone (GH) disorders

▪ Pituitary dwarfism results from hyposecretion of GH
during childhood
▪ Gigantism results from hypersecretion of GH during
childhood
▪ Acromegaly results from hypersecretion of GH
during adulthood

Figure 9.6 Disorders of pituitary growth hormone.
Acromegaly can be caused by

pituitary tumors benign or
malignant tumors causing the
hypersecretion. Acromegaly,
jaw, bony ridges underlying the
eyebrows. feet and hands
enlarges tremendously.
Do you believe in a saying that

when we are still little, we need
sleep to be tall?” Most people
have a rhythm of growth
hormone secretion, with daily
peaks occurring during deep
sleep. Growth hormone
secretion also increases during
This individual exhibiting gigantism (right) exercise and fasting.
stands 8 feet, 1 inch tall. The pituitary dwarf
(left) Limited.
© 2015 Pearson Education, is 2 feet, 5.37 inches tall.
Assignment:
▪ 1. Mr. Hoops has a son who wants to be a

basketball player. Mr. Hoops knows something
about GH. He asked his son’s doctor if he would
prescribe some GH for his son so he can grow
taller. What do you think the doctor tells Mr. Hoops?
The doctor might explain the GH administration

would cause his son to grow taller. He might also
explain that he might develop unwanted changes in
his skeletal structure consistent with acromegaly.
Other side effects are also possible example
abnormal joint formation and diabetes mellitus.
▪ Prolactin (PRL)
▪ Stimulates and maintains milk production following
childbirth
▪ Function in males is unknown
▪ Prolactin promotes breast development during
pregnancy
▪ Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
▪ Regulates endocrine activity of the adrenal cortex

Is this possible? Breastfeeding done by men?
▪ Medical Intervention: estrogen and prolactin
introduced to the system; medications that has side
effects of inducing milk (thorazine: antipsychotic
med, digoxin)
▪ Starvation if proper nourishment is provided later,
pituitary glands recover first than the liver (hormone
destroying)
▪ Pituitary tumor produces more prolactin
▪ Nipple stimulation

▪ Thyrotropic hormone (TH), also called thyroid-

stimulating hormone (TSH)
▪ Influences growth and activity of the thyroid gland

▪ Gonadotropic hormones
▪ Regulate hormonal activity of the gonads
▪ Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
▪ Stimulates follicle development in ovaries
▪ Stimulates sperm development in testes
▪ Luteinizing hormone (LH)
▪ Triggers ovulation of an egg in females
▪ Stimulates testosterone production in males

▪ Gonadotropic hormones are hormones that bind to
membrane-bound regulate the growth, development and
the hormonal activity of the gonads (ovaries and testes).
▪ Leutinizing refers to the corpus luteum of the ovary
causes the ovulation of oocytes causes the ruptured
follicle to produce progesterone and some estrogen and
the secretion of sex hormones estrogen and progesterone
from the ovaries and testosterone from the testes.
▪ Hyposecretion of FSH or LH leads to sterility in both
males and females.

Figure 9.7a The thyroid gland.
Thyroid Epiglottis
cartilage
• Found at the
base of the
throat
Common
• Consists of two carotid artery
lobes and a Isthmus of
connecting thyroid gland
isthmus
• Produces two
hormones: Trachea Left subclavian
1. Thyroid artery
hormone Brachiocephalic Left lobe of
artery thyroid gland
2. Calcitonin
Aorta
(a) Gross anatomy of the thyroid gland, anterior view

Just inferior to the Adam’s
apple, where it is easily
palpated during a physical
examination. Thyroid gland is
made of two lobes connected
by a narrow band called the
isthmus. One of the largest
endocrine gland and is highly
vascular. Main function is to
secrete thyroid hormones.
Figure 9.7b The thyroid gland.
Colloid-filled
follicles Follicle cells
Internally, the thyroid

gland is
composed of hollow
structures called
follicles
which store a sticky
colloidal material.
Thyroid hormone is
derived from this
colloid.
Parafollicular cells
(b) Photomicrograph of thyroid gland
follicles (380×)
Thyroid Gland
▪ Thyroid hormone
▪ Major metabolic hormone
▪ Controls rate of oxidation of glucose to supply body
heat and chemical energy
▪ Needed for tissue growth and development
▪ Composed of two active iodine-containing hormones
▪ Thyroxine (T4)—secreted by thyroid follicles
▪ Triiodothyronine (T3)—conversion of T4 at target
tissues

▪ Thyroid hormone often referred to as the body’s major
metabolic hormone, regulates the rate of metabolism in
the body, is actually two active iodine-containing
hormones, thyroxine (thi-rok′sin), or T4, and
triiodothyronine (tri″i″odo-thi′ro-ne-n), or T3.
▪ Thyroid hormone is also important for normal tissue
growth and development, especially in the reproductive
and nervous systems.

Figure 9.8 Woman with an enlarged thyroid (goiter).
Without iodine, functional thyroid

hormones cannot
be made.
Thyroid hormone disorders:
Goiters
Thyroid gland enlarges because of lack of iodine
Salt is iodized to prevent goiters
Cretinism
Caused by hyposecretion
of thyroxine
Results in dwarfism
during childhood
Mentally retarded and has a short stature with

abnormally formed skeletal structures. Under
hypothyroidism. Hormone replacement will
prevent mental impairment and other signs and
symptoms of the deficiency.
Myxedema very slow physically and mentally,
physical and mental sluggishness. Other signs are
puffiness of the face, fatigue, poor muscle tone, low
body temperature (the person is always cold),
obesity, and dry skin. Oral thyroxine is prescribed to
treat this condition.
HYPOTHYROIDISM:
Myxedema
- Accumulation of fluid
and other molecules in
the subcutaneous tissue
Eyelid Edema

Elevated rate of metabolism,
extreme nervousness and chronic
fatigue.
HYPERTHYROIDISM:
Grave’s Disease
Graves disease is often
accompanied by
exophthalmia. Caused
by production of
abnormal proteins by
the immune system
that are similar in
structure and function
to TSH. An
autoimmune disease.
No known cause. Can
be genetically
acquired.
Exophthalmia: ex – out; ophthalmos – eye;
bulging of the eyeballs
Thyroid Gland
▪ Thyroid hormone disorders (continued)

▪ Myxedema
▪ Caused by hypothyroidism in adults
▪ Results in physical and mental sluggishness
▪ Graves’ disease
▪ Caused by hyperthyroidism
▪ Results in increased metabolism, heat intolerance,
rapid heartbeat, weight loss, and exophthalmos

Thyroid Gland
▪ Calcitonin
▪ Decreases blood calcium levels by causing calcium
deposition on bone
▪ Antagonistic to parathyroid hormone
▪ Produced by parafollicular cells found between the
follicles
▪ Increased calcium levels happen when there is

tumor or overactive parathyroid glands. A lack of
calcitonin secretion does not result in a prolonged
increase in those levels. There are other
mechanisms that help in the regulation of calcium.

Figure 9.7b The thyroid gland.
Colloid-filled
follicles Follicle cells
Parafollicular cells
(b) Photomicrograph of thyroid gland
follicles (380×)
Parathyroid Glands
▪ Tiny masses on the posterior of the thyroid

▪ Secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH)
▪ Stimulates osteoclasts to remove calcium from bone
▪ Hypercalcemic hormone (increases blood calcium
levels)
▪ Stimulates the kidneys and intestine to absorb more
calcium
PTH is essential in regulating blood

calcium levels. More important
than the calcitonin in regulating
calcium levels in the blood.

Figure 9.10 Hormonal controls of ionic calcium levels in the blood.
Calcitonin
Calcitonin
stimulates
calcium salt
deposit in bone.
Thyroid gland
releases calcitonin.
Stimulus
Rising blood
Ca2+ levels
Calcium homeostasis of blood:

BALANCE 9–11 mg/100 ml BALANCE
Stimulus
Falling blood
Ca2+ levels
Thyroid
gland
Osteoclasts
degrade bone Parathyroid
matrix and release glands Parathyroid
Ca2+ into blood. glands release
parathyroid
PTH hormone (PTH).
PTH binds to membrane-bound receptors of cells
and increases the absorption of Calcium from the
intestine by increasing vitamin D formation (PTH
stimulates the kidney for the final stage of
Vitamin D synthesis; Vitamin D can also be
supplied in the diet. Increases resorption
(breakdown) of bone tissue to release Calcium
into the circulatory system and decreases the rate
at which Ca are lost in the urine.

Parathyroid Glands
▪ Tetany – uncontrollable spasms due to low blood
calcium levels.
▪ Tetany - Neurons become extremely irritable and
overactive. What is its difference in rickets? Rickets is a
nutritional deficiency (lack of vitamin D, calcium or
phosphate in the diet). Increased calcium levels in the
blood can be deposited in soft tissues like the kidneys.
▪ Hyperparathyroidism – high PTH levels, due to a
tumor in the parathyroid glands. Result: bones are soft,
deformed and are easily fractured. Elevated blood
calcium levels makes the nerve and muscles less
excitable resulting in fatigue and muscle weakness.
Other complications: kidney stones.
▪ Hypoparathyroidism – Cause: surgical removeal of the
thyroid and parathyroid glands.
Adrenal Glands
▪ Sit on top of the kidneys
▪ Two regions:
1. Adrenal cortex—outer
glandular region has
three layers that
produce corticosteroids
▪ Mineralocorticoids are
secreted by outermost
layer
▪ Glucocorticoids are
secreted by middle layer
▪ Sex hormones are
secreted by innermost
layer
2. Adrenal medulla—
inner neural tissue
region

▪ The adrenal cortex produces three major groups of
steroid hormones, which are collectively called
corticosteroids (kor″ti-ko-ster′oidz)—mineralocorticoids,
glucocorticoids, and sex hormones.the adrenal gland
looks like a single organ, it is structurally and
functionally two endocrine organs in one. Much like the
pituitary gland, it has glandular (cortex) and neural tissue
(medulla) parts. The adrenal cortex produces three major
groups of steroid hormones, which are collectively called
corticosteroids (kor″ti-ko-ster′oidz)—mineralocorticoids,
glucocorticoids, and sex hormones.

Figure 9.11 Microscopic structure of the adrenal gland.
Adrenal
Capsule
gland
Mineralocorticoid-
Kidney secreting area
Glucocorticoid-
secreting area
Cortex
Adrenal gland Adrenal
• Medulla cortex
• Cortex
Sex hormone–
Medulla
Adrenal
medulla

Adrenal Glands
▪ Sit on top of the kidneys
▪ Two regions:
three layers that
produce corticosteroids
▪ Mineralocorticoids are
secreted by outermost
layer
▪ Glucocorticoids are
▪ Sex hormones are
secreted by innermost
layer
inner neural tissue
region

The mineralocorticoids, mainly aldosterone (al″dos-ter′oˉ n),
are produced by the outermost adrenal cortex cell layer.
mineralocorticoids are important in regulating the mineral
(or salt) content of the blood, particularly the concentrations
of sodium and potassium ions. Target organ: kidney tubules
(selectively reabsorb the minerals or allow them to be
flushed out of the body in urine. Where sodium is, water
follows. Regulates both water and salt.

Figure 9.12 Major mechanisms controlling aldosterone release from the adrenal cortex.
Decreased Na+ or
increased K+ in Stress
Factors that results in the release blood

Hypothalamus
of mineralocorticoids – humoral Decreased

blood volume
Corticotropin-
releasing
and/or blood hormone
(low sodium or high potassium pressure Anterior pituitary
levels in the blood); hormonal – Increased

blood pressure
ACTH
release of ACTH, release of Kidney or blood volume
Renin (produced by the kidneys)

when BP drops also causes the Renin
Indirect
Heart
stimulating
release of aldosterone by effect via
Atrial natriuretic
angiotensin
triggering a series of reactions Angiotensin II
peptide (ANP)
(next slide) that form Direct

Inhibitory
stimulating
angiotensin II, a potent effect effect
stimulator of aldosterone Mineralocorticoid-

producing part of
release. Increased BP=Atrial adrenal cortex
Enhanced secretion
Natriuretic Peptide=inhibits of aldosterone targets
kidney tubules
aldosterone=reduced BP.
Increased absorption Increased blood
of Na+ and water; volume and
increased K+ excretion blood pressure
Blood Osmolarity Feedback
Endocrine System Control
osmoreceptors in ADH
hypothalamus
increased increase
water thirst
pituitary reabsorption
high nephron
blood osmolarity
blood pressure JuxtaGlomerular
Apparatus
nephron low
increased
adrenal water & salt nephron
gland reabsorption (JGA)
renin
aldosterone
angiotensinogen
© 2015 Pearson Education, Limited. angiotensin
Figure 9.12 Major mechanisms controlling aldosterone release from the adrenal cortex.
Decreased Na+ or
increased K+ in Stress
blood
Hypothalamus
Decreased Corticotropin-
blood volume releasing
and/or blood hormone
pressure Anterior pituitary
Increased
ACTH blood pressure
Kidney or blood volume
Increased BP=Atrial
Natriuretic Renin Heart
Indirect
stimulating
effect via
Peptide=inhibits angiotensin Atrial natriuretic
peptide (ANP)
aldosterone=reduced Angiotensin II
Direct
BP. stimulating
effect
Inhibitory
effect
Mineralocorticoid-
producing part of
adrenal cortex
Enhanced secretion
of aldosterone targets
kidney tubules
Increased absorption Increased blood

of Na+ and water; volume and
increased K+ excretion blood pressure
Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
▪ Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone)

▪ Produced in outer adrenal cortex
▪ Regulate mineral content in blood, particularly
sodium and potassium ions
▪ Regulate water and electrolyte balance
▪ Target organ is the kidney

Adrenal Glands
• Sit on top of the kidneys
• Two regions:
three layers that produce
corticosteroids
• Mineralocorticoids are
secreted by outermost layer
• Glucocorticoids are
• Sex hormones are secreted
by innermost layer
inner neural tissue
region

▪ Glucocorticoids (including cortisone and cortisol)

▪ Produced by middle layer of adrenal cortex
▪ Promote normal cell metabolism
▪ Helps regulate blood nutrient levels

▪ Glucocorticoids: Cortisol
▪ “Stress Hormone”
▪ Help resist long-term stressors by increasing blood
glucose levels (hyperglycemic hormone),
increases break down of protein and fat and
increases their conversion to be used as energy
sources by the body.
▪ When blood levels of glucocorticoids are high, fats and even proteins are broken
down by body cells and converted to glucose, which is released to the blood. For
this reason, glucocorticoids are said to be hyperglycemic hormones. Cortisol aids
the body in responding to stressful situations by providing energy sources for
tissues..

▪ Glucocorticoids: Cortisol
▪ “Stress Hormone”
▪ Help resist long-term stressors by increasing blood glucose
levels (hyperglycemic hormone), increases break down of
protein and fat and increases their conversion to be used as
energy sources by the body.
▪ When blood glucose levels decline, cortisol secretion increases.
Low blood glucose-hypothalamus-release of ACTH releasing
hormone-pituitary gland-ACTH-binds to membrane bound
receptors of the adrenal cortex-cortisol secretion. ACTH
molecules from the APG binds to the membrane-bound
receptors and regulates the secretion of cortisol. Without ACTH
adrenal cortex atrophies. Situations when ACTH is inhibited.
Prolonged use or large doses of cortisone can damage the
adrenal cortex because cortisone inhibits ACTH secretion from
the APG. Cortisol also reduces the inflammatory response

▪ Glucocorticoids: Cortisone
▪ Anti-inflammatory effect, closely related to cortisol,
by inhibiting pain-causing molecules prostaglandins.
Given as a medication (hydrocortisone) to reduce
inflammation during allergic reactions and injuries.

▪ Sex hormones (Androgens)

▪ Produced in the inner layer of the adrenal cortex
▪ Small amounts are made throughout life
▪ Mostly androgens (male sex hormones) are made,
but some estrogens (female sex hormones) are also
formed
▪ Named androgens for their ability to stimulate the
development of male sexual characteristics. In adult
males, most androgens are secreted by the testes.
In adult females, the adrenal androgens influence
the female sex drive.

Adrenal Glands
▪ Adrenal cortex disorders

▪ Addison’s disease
▪ Results from hyposecretion of all adrenal cortex
hormones
▪ Bronze skin tone, muscle weakness, burnout,
susceptibility to infection
▪ Hyperaldosteronism
▪ May result from an ACTH-releasing tumor
▪ Excess water and sodium are retained, leading to
high blood pressure and edema

Adrenal Glands
▪ Adrenal cortex disorders (continued)

▪ Cushing’s syndrome
▪ Results from a tumor in the middle cortical area of the
adrenal cortex
▪ “Moon face,” “buffalo hump” on the upper back, high
blood pressure, hyperglycemia, weakening of bones,
depression
▪ Masculinization
▪ Results from hypersecretion of sex hormones
▪ Beard and male distribution of hair growth

Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla
▪ Produces two similar hormones: (catecholamines)

1. Epinephrine (adrenaline)
2. Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
▪ These hormones prepare the body to deal with
short-term stress (“fight or flight”) by:
▪ Increasing heart rate, blood pressure, blood glucose
levels
▪ Dilating small passageways of lungs

Figure 9.11 Microscopic structure of the adrenal gland.
Adrenal
Capsule
gland
Mineralocorticoid-
Glucocorticoid-
secreting area
Cortex
Adrenal gland Adrenal
• Medulla cortex
• Cortex
Sex hormone–
Medulla
Adrenal
medulla

Figure 9.13 Roles of the hypothalamus, adrenal medulla, and adrenal cortex in the stress response.
Short term Stress More prolonged

Hypothalamus
Releasing hormones
Nerve impulses
Spinal cord
Corticotropic cells of
anterior pituitary
Preganglionic ACTH
Adrenal
sympathetic cortex
Adrenal fibers
medulla
Mineralocorticoids Glucocorticoids
Short-term stress response Long-term stress response

1. Increased heart rate 1. Retention of sodium 1. Proteins and fats
Catecholamines
2. Increased blood pressure and water by kidneys converted to
(epinephrine and
3. Liver converts glycogen 2. Increased blood glucose or broken
norepinephrine)
to glucose and releases volume and blood down for energy
glucose to blood pressure 2. Increased blood
4. Dilation of bronchioles sugar
5. Changes in blood flow 3. Suppression of
patterns, leading to immune system
increased alertness and
decreased digestive and
kidney activity
6. Increased metabolic rate
Pancreatic Islets
▪ Pancreas
▪ Located in the abdomen, close to stomach
▪ Mixed gland, with both endocrine and exocrine
functions
▪ The pancreatic islets produce hormones
▪ Insulin—produced by beta cells
▪ Glucagon—produced by alpha cells
▪ These hormones are antagonists that maintain blood
sugar homeostasis

Figure 9.14a Pancreatic tissue.
Stomach
Pancreas
(a)

Figure 9.14b Pancreatic tissue.
Exocrine
cells of
pancreas
Pancreatic
(b) islets

Figure 9.14c Pancreatic tissue.
Exocrine Alpha (𝛂)

cells of cells
pancreas
Capillaries
Cord of beta (𝛃) cells

secreting insulin into
(c) capillaries
Pancreatic Islets
▪ Insulin
▪ Released when blood glucose levels are high
▪ Increases the rate of glucose uptake and metabolism
by body cells
▪ Glucagon
▪ Released when blood glucose levels are low
▪ Stimulates the liver to release glucose to blood, thus
increasing blood glucose levels

BioFlix™: Homeostasis

Homeostatic Imbalance
▪ Diabetes mellitus
▪ Occurs in the absence of insulin
▪ Blood sugar levels increase dramatically
▪ Blood glucose is lost in the urine; water follows
▪ Three cardinal signs:
1. Polyuria
2. Polydipsia
3. Polyphagia

Figure 9.15 Regulation of blood glucose levels by a negative feedback mechanism involving pancreatic hormones.
Uptake of glucose from
blood is enhanced in
most body cells
Insulin-secreting cells Insulin Tissue cells
of the pancreas activated;
release insulin into the
blood
Pancreas Glucose Glycogen
Blood glucose
falls to homeostatic
set point; stimulus
Elevated blood for insulin release
Liver takes up
sugar level diminishes
glucose and stores
as glycogen
Stimulus
Blood
glucose level
(e.g., after
eating four
jelly doughnuts) Stimulus
Blood glucose
level (e.g., after
Blood glucose rises skipping a meal)
to homeostatic Low blood sugar level
set point; stimulus
for glucagon
release diminishes
Glucagon-releasing
Glucose Glycogen cells of pancreas
Liver breaks activated; release
down glycogen glucagon into blood
stores and Liver
releases glucose Glucagon
to the blood
Pineal Gland
▪ Located posterior to the third ventricle of the brain

▪ Secretes melatonin
▪ Helps establish the body’s sleep/wake cycles as well
as biological rhythms
▪ Believed to coordinate the hormones of fertility in
humans

Pineal gland
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands
Thymus
Adrenal glands
Pancreas
Ovary (female)
Testis (male)

Thymus Gland
▪ Located posterior to the sternum

▪ Largest in infants and children
▪ Produces thymosin
▪ Matures some types of white blood cells
▪ Important in developing the immune system
▪ Produces T cells

Gonads
▪ Ovaries
▪ Produce eggs
▪ Produce two groups of steroid hormones:
1. Estrogens
2. Progesterone
▪ Testes
▪ Produce sperm
▪ Produce androgens, such as testosterone

Pineal gland
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands
Thymus
Adrenal glands
Pancreas
Ovary (female)
Testis (male)

Hormones of the Ovaries
▪ Estrogens
▪ Stimulate the development of secondary female
characteristics
▪ Mature female reproductive organs
▪ With progesterone, estrogens also
▪ Promote breast development
▪ Regulate menstrual cycle

Hormones of the Ovaries
▪ Progesterone
▪ Acts with estrogen to bring about the menstrual cycle
▪ Helps in the implantation of an embryo in the uterus
▪ Helps prepare breasts for lactation

Hormones of the Testes
▪ Produce several androgens

▪ Testosterone is the most important androgen
▪ Responsible for adult male secondary sex
characteristics
▪ Promotes growth and maturation of male
reproductive system
▪ Required for sperm cell production

Table 9.1 Major Endocrine Glands and Some of Their Hormones (1 of 5).





Other Hormone-Producing Tissues and
Organs
▪ Parts of the small intestine
▪ Parts of the stomach
▪ Kidneys
▪ Heart
▪ Many other areas have scattered endocrine cells

Placenta
▪ Produces hormones that maintain pregnancy

▪ Some hormones play a part in the delivery of the
baby
▪ Produces human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in
addition to estrogen, progesterone, and other
hormones

Table 9.2 Hormones Produced by Organs Other Than the Major Endocrine Organs (1 of 3).



Developmental Aspects of the Endocrine
System
▪ In the absence of disease, efficiency of the
endocrine system remains high until old age
▪ Decreasing function of female ovaries at
menopause leads to such symptoms as
osteoporosis, increased chance of heart disease,
and possible mood changes

Developmental Aspects of the Endocrine
System
▪ Efficiency of all endocrine glands gradually
decreases with aging, which leads to a generalized
increase in incidence of:
▪ Diabetes mellitus
▪ Immune system depression
▪ Lower metabolic rate
▪ Cancer rates in some areas

Endocrine

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Endocrine

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Chapter 9

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▪ Second controlling system of the body

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▪ The endocrine system goes along with the nervous

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receptor proteins receptor proteins

Lock & Key

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▪Hormones are classified chemically as

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▪Steroid hormones (made from cholesterol)

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▪ Hormones affect only certain tissues or organs

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Hormones arouse cells, or alter cellular activity.

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▪ Hormones act by two mechanisms:

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Steroid Cytoplasm Nucleus

(a) Steroid hormone action

Steroid Cytoplasm Nucleus

(a) Steroid hormone action

Steroid Cytoplasm Nucleus

Steroid Cytoplasm Nucleus

(a) Steroid hormone action

Steroid Cytoplasm Nucleus

(a) Steroid hormone action

Steroid Cytoplasm Nucleus

(a) Steroid hormone action

Steroid Cytoplasm Nucleus

(a) Steroid hormone action

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(b) Nonsteroid hormone action

(b) Nonsteroid hormone action

(b) Nonsteroid hormone action

Receptor The enzyme,

(b) Nonsteroid hormone action

(b) Nonsteroid hormone action

▪ Hormone levels in the blood are maintained mostly

• negative feedback mechanisms are the

sweat dilates surface

body liver stores reduces

▪ The stimuli that activate endocrine glands fall into

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▪ Most common stimulus

• endocrine organs are prodded into action by other

(a) Hormonal stimulus

3 …stimulate other endocrine

▪ Changing blood levels of certain ions and nutrients

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(b) Humoral stimulus

Capillary Thyroid gland

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▪ Nerve impulses stimulate hormone release

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(c) Neural stimulus

The classic example