All About History - Book of The Inquisition 1st Edition 2022
All About History - Book of The Inquisition 1st Edition 2022
BOOK OF THE
I N S I D E C AT H O L I C I S M ’ S R U T H L E S S WA R O N H E R E S Y
Edition
PLUS
Digital
TOMÁS THE
T O RT U R E R
INQUISITIONS
AC R O S S T H E
GLOBE
EDITION
FIRST
xx section title xx
Co n f e s s y o u r s i n s !
d
a Spa in’s Iberia n cou sin s soo n followe
Y ou the re! Who is your god? Are you in
just suit, wag ing the ir own campaign s
true believe r? I’m afraid I won’t zil
You destina tion s as far-flu ng as Bra
be able to take your word for it.
s an d Goa .
see, we in the In quisition have way
t Eve n tha t blaspheme r Ma rtin Luther
of exposin g heretics, an d I suspec ld
mit an d his tre acherous Reform ation cou
you ma y be hid ing something. Ad s
faith, not halt the spread of our agent
the truth, con vert to the one true
an d the mission to une arth eve ry
or face the con sequen ces. You only ce
r heretic we could fin d. Our inf luen
nee d to turn the page to discove nd,
eve n crossed the Cha nne l to En gla
wha t these are. to
whe re Bloody Ma ry did her utm ost
Fro m the Ca tha rs in the 12th ism.
anttism
esttan
Pro tes
fig ht the eme rge nce of Prot
century to the mig hty Knigh ts
Our battle to con vert the da mned
Templa rs an d Joa n of Arc, the
all an d save the ir ete rna l souls was
In quisition ruthlessly broug ht the m
to at times cruel, but not eve rythin g
to hee l, burnin g those who refuse d
you’ve rea d ring s true, as you will
yie ld on the sta ke.
lea rn in time. The history of the
Queen Is abe lla of Castile the n
Ca tholic Church ’s quest to force all
picked up the ma ntle, rid din g her e of
the into its embrace awa its you, a tal
kin gd om of heresy an d scourin g
men witchcraft, torture, revolution an d war
New World for the truth. Aid ed by d
tha t spa nne d ove r six centuries an
such as Tom ás de Torquem ad a, the
. cha nged the world for eve r.
rea ch of the In quisition was global
114
BOOK OF THE
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Part of the
bookazine series
CONTENTS
THE WAR
ON HERESY
10 The origins of
the Inquisition
16 Crushing the Cathars
22 Betrayal of the
Knights Templar
30 Bernard Gui
32 Directorium
Inquisitorum
34 Joan of Arc
38 Witchcraft and
the Inquisition
THE SPANISH
INQUISITION
44 Heretic hunters
54 An officer of the
Spanish Inquisition
56 Los Reyes Católicos
64 Tomás the torturer
68 An auto de fé 56
70 Francisco de Cisneros
REFORMATION
38
AND RETRIBUTION
74 The birth of the
Reformation
80 The German
Peasants’ War
82 The Counter-
Reformation
86 The Roman Inquisition
90 A global conspiracy
96 Bloody Mary on trial
106 The Thirty Years’ War
114 The beginning of
the end?
ENDING THE
INQUISITION
120 How Napoleon ended
the Inquisition
124 Confessing the truth
70 10
16
96
44
THE WAR
ON HERESY
10 The origins of
the Inquisition
Centuries before its notorious
32
Spanish offshoot began rooting out
heretics, the first Inquisition was
established in France
22 Betrayal of the
Knights Templar
Once proud protectors of pilgrims
bound for the Holy Land, this
secretive group would be cruelly
brought to its knees
30 Bernard Gui
Meet the man who literally wrote
the book on how to conduct an
Inquisition in the name of god
32 Directorium
30
Inquisitorum
Explore the book that would become
the definitive guide for the agents of
the Spanish Inquisition
34 Joan of Arc
Visionary. Hero. Heretic. In life
Joan inspired her nation to cast off
the yolk of the enemy. In death she
became a martyr
38 Witchcraft and
the Inquisition
While the rest of Europe descended
into a witch-hunting frenzy, the
Inquisition remained superstitious
about the true nature of dark magic
10 38
22 34
The War on Heresy
10
THE ORIGINS
OF THE
INQUISITION
Before the barbarity of the Spanish Inquisition, the
Catholic Church’s earliest counter-strikes against the
threat of heresy cast dark clouds over Europe.
This is the story of the first medieval inquisitions…
Written by Henry Yates
A
s an institution whose roots can be Illinois, writes, “This intrepid reformer finally
traced back to the early 2nd century sealed his testimony with his blood.”
– and a socio-political monolith In times gone by, the Church and its
that would come to dominate every missionaries had treated heretics as lost souls
facet of medieval life – the Roman to be saved rather than sinners to be hunted
Catholic Church would increasingly be called down and viciously corrected. But with the pope
upon to deal with pockets of spiritual dissent becoming an increasingly frontline figure in the
over the passing centuries. Now, as then, heresy fight against heresy as the 12th century unfolded,
has a steady definition, set out by the Code of the Catholic stance on renegade sects hardened to
Canon Law as “the obstinate denial or doubt after granite in November 1184.
the reception of baptism of some truth which is to
be believed by divine and Catholic faith”. Yet the
Church’s attitude towards the wayward religious
sects of Europe would change dramatically – and
darken considerably – over the course of the 12th
and 13th centuries.
Individual heretics were of no great import to
the Church. More troublesome were the growing
number of influential heretical figureheads, such
as the vocal French preacher of the early 12th
century Peter of Bruys, who publicly voiced his
opposition to the baptism of infants, the building
LEFT of new churches, the worship of the cross and
Saint Francis of prayers for the dead in the southern provinces of
Assisi founded the Daupiné and Languedoc.
Franciscan Order
Even faced with such brazen provocation,
RIGHT Dominic for now, the Church largely stayed its hand. In
of Caleruega was
the founder of
any case, when it came to Bruys, there was no
the Dominican need: while burning crosses in the commune of
Order, who would St Gilles in 1131, the outspoken priest would be
become feared
overseers of the hurled onto his own bonfire by an angry Catholic
Inquisition mob. As the Primitive Baptist Library of Carthage,
11
The war on heresy
12
The origins of the Inquisition
“The Inquisition – in
this early form –
was not necessarily
intended to harm”
– was not necessarily intended to harm. In fact,
the guiding principle was to better comprehend
the factors that led an individual to lapse
from Catholic orthodoxy and return them to a
righteous path. “The Inquisition was not born out
of desire to crush diversity or oppress people; it
was rather an attempt to stop unjust executions,”
writes the historian Thomas Madden. “The
simple fact is that the medieval inquisition saved
uncounted thousands of innocent (and even not-
so-innocent) people who would otherwise have
been roasted by secular lords or mob rule.”
The Episcopal Inquisition had many moving
parts. By dividing responsibilities between the
clergy (who were tasked with verifying charges
and correcting heretics) and secular officers (who
assigned punishments for those who would not
recant their wayward beliefs), Ad abolendam
demanded synergy across every strata of
Catholic society.
“Heresy charges could be reviewed by
ecclesiastical courts alone,” writes Kras.
“Individuals suspected of heresy had to prove
their innocence through a procedure called
canonical purgation. Heretics who demonstrated
contrition and declared themselves willing to
reconcile with the Church had their sentence
of excommunication lifted and were given
Images: Getty Images; Alamy
13
The war on heresy
14
The origins of the Inquisition
crush the shinbones. Another favourite torture growing deafening by 1478, the ‘abolition’ cited
was dislocation of the limbs on the rack or the by Pope Lucius III’s earth-shaking papal bull was
wheel on which the heretic – bound hand and becoming a reality faster than anyone had hoped
foot – was drawn up and down while the body or feared. In time it would come to consume the
was weighted with stones. During the procedure, lives of countless more souls.
15
The War on Heresy
Arnaud Amalric
approaching Béziers
with the crusading
army in 1209
16
CRUSHING
THE CATHARS
Concerned by a perceived wave of heresy
sweeping across southern France, Pope Innocent
III launched a brutal campaign that led to
widespread slaughter
Written by Callum McKelvie
F
rom 1209 to 1229, medieval France which they could financially support themselves,
became the site of a brutal campaign of a decision aimed at preventing the faith being
slaughter and destruction. The Catholic monetised. Some 50 per cent of the perfecti
Church was increasingly concerned were female (known as perfectae) and unlike
about the popularity of Catharism, a in Catholicism were able to preach their belief.
Gnostic movement that flourished in southern Also, unlike Catholicism, which delivered its
France and northern Italy. When the papal legate biblical teachings exclusively in Latin, preachers
sent to suppress the Cathars was murdered, Pope of Catharism were instead happy to preach in the
Innocent III launched a savage crusade to destroy language of the people, perhaps explaining why
these ‘heretics’ once and for all. This crusade the religion spread so quickly.
would lead to a wave of destruction across Many of these ideas and concepts were highly
France, with the Cathars’ ultimate extinction offensive to the Catholic Church. Additionally,
coming at the hands of the Inquisition. the growing popularity of Catharism began to
Catharism began in the Languedoc, a region in concern Pope Innocent III, as it was thought
southern France. Also known as ‘Albigensians’, that, if something was not done, then it could
due to many of its followers living in the city potentially replace Catholicism as the dominant
of Albi, the Cathars were a dualist religion and religion in Europe. Innocent III dispatched his
believed that there were two gods, one good papal legate, Pierre de Castelnau, to speak to
and one evil. The former was the creator of the the Count of Toulouse, Raymond VI. The count
spiritual realm, while the latter had dominion was considered to not be treating the Cathars
over the Earth, and as such they viewed the firmly enough and allowing heresy to thrive on
material world as evil. While the Cathars followed his lands. As a result, in May of 1207, he had
the teachings of Jesus as the basis for how to been excommunicated.
live a spiritually fulfilling life, they rejected the De Castelnau met with Raymond in 1208
eucharistic notions of the Catholic Church and but the occasion quickly turned frosty. On his
the concept of Jesus having been human. To return to Rome following the meeting Pierre de
them he was a purely spiritual being. Castelnau was ambushed by an assassin and
Cathar priests were known as perfecti, or stabbed by a sword between his ribs. As he lay
perfects, lived a strict life of celibacy and were dying he is alleged to have murmured repeatedly,
pescatarian, meaning they were not allowed to “May God forgive you, even as I forgive you.”
consume animal products, including cheeses, Raymond VI was immediately blamed for de
eggs and fats, with the exception of fish. Castelnau’s death by Innocent III, though it was
Additionally, they had other occupations through never actually proven that he had played any
17
The war on heresy
part. However, this appears to have been the Cathars, a direct threat had now been placed on
moment that Innocent III had been waiting for. their lands by the Pope.
De Castelnau was now a martyr whose death was Arnaud Amalric (also known as Arnaud
to be avenged and the heretics behind it wiped Amaury), the leader of the Cistercian Order and
out completely. the abbot of Cîteaux, was chosen to be the man
In order to achieve this, Innocent III unleashed in charge of the crusade. In 1209 he assembled
a crusade against the Cathars and attempted to his troops and by the summer of that year had
enlist the support of Philip Augustus, King of begun to push slowly into the Languedoc. One
France. Although Augustus declined, he did allow of the key knights on the crusade was Simon
several of the country’s more powerful barons de Montfort, who had taken part in the Fourth
and landowners to participate. Widespread Crusade in Jerusalem, notably being involved in
support was guaranteed by a papal decree, which the Siege of Zara.
stated that the lands of the supposed heretics The first major battle and the first key victory
once confiscated by the crusaders could then for the crusading army came in July of 1209 at
remain in their possession. Many French lords Béziers, a city in the Occitanie region, which had
in the south immediately became disturbed by become a major stronghold for the Cathars. The
this; while they themselves may not have been army easily captured the city, after which a brutal
18
Crushing the Cathars
LEFT
The walls of
the city of
Carcassonne,
attacked in 1209
as part of the
Albigensian
Crusade
INSET A
depiction of
Pope Innocent
III, who began
the Albigensian
Crusade
RIGHT A portrait
of Simon de
Montfort, who led
the Albigensian
Crusade
19
The war on heresy
MASSACRE
AT BÉZIERS
The bloody opening to the
Albigensian Crusade led
to the slaughter of 20,000
inhabitants at Béziers
20
Crushing the Cathars
LEFT
Raymond
VII receiving
absolution from
King Louis IX of
France following
the Treaty of Paris
BELOW LEFT
The ruins of
Montségur
Castle as they
stand today
FAR RIGHT
During the fall
of Carcassonne
the inhabitants
were allowed to
live as long as
they fled with
nothing but their
undergarments
ABOVE
RIGHT Pierre
de Castelnau
chastising
Raymond VI for
not persecuting
the Cathars in
his lands
BELOW RIGHT
Simon de Montfort
is killed after
being hit by a rock
during the Siege of
Toulouse in 1218
He would perish in that same year, making his 400 people suspected to have been sheltering and all remaining Cathars were forced to go into
12-year-old son, Louis IX, king. For two more within its walls. On 2 March 1244, those inside hiding to evade the Church’s clutches.
years the war would drag out, with historian surrendered. If they swore an oath to the Church During the 1290s the powers of the Inquisition
Helen J Nicholson stating the crusaders used “a and submitted to questioning by the Inquisition, were limited by King Philip IV, but they
scorched-earth policy so that the Albigensians’ then they would be allowed to go free. However, returned when he became disturbed by rising
resources were gradually destroyed”. if they refused to recant then they would be anti-monarchist sentiment. In 1308, Bernard
In 1229, the Treaty of Paris officially brought burned as heretics. Some 200 perfects refused to Gui became the inquisitor of Toulouse. He
the conflict to an end. Under its terms Raymond submit to the demands of the Catholics, and on would imprison suspected heretics for many
VII was to give over half of his lands, pledge to 16 March they were burnt on a vast pyre erected years in order to obtain a confession, noted by
quell any further rebellion, and his daughter was outside of the castle walls. the historian James Given as an interrogation
to marry Louis’ brother. Following this event, there was little refuge technique that reached back to the early days of
Despite the military campaign having ended, for any remaining Cathars. Many were betrayed the Inquisition’s role in the Languedoc. Under
Pope Gregory IX was aware that there were still by their families, as happened to Peter Garcias, Gui, Catharism was essentially wiped out.
pockets of Cathars within France. By 1233, the who confided in his cousin over dinner only There are aspects of the Albigensian Crusade
Grand Inquisition had been established, its role to have a curtain whipped back to reveal his that continue to divide historians. Indeed, at the
to eliminate all heretics. In the Languedoc, the testimony being transcribed. Bernard of Caux and beginning of the 21st century, historians such
Dominican Order was placed in charge. Perceived John of St Pierre headed this brutal clampdown, as RI Moore and Mark Pegg questioned whether
heretics faced two choices they could repent and managing to obtain the services of perfects who Catharism existed as an organised religion at all
would then be punished and face charges such allowed fugitives to shelter in their homes and or whether there were multiple groups of dualists
as a pilgrimage, or they could deny the heresy. If immediately handed them over to the forces in the south of France. However, the crusade
this occurred they would be tortured, imprisoned of the Inquisition. Although there was still itself seems almost universally considered an
and lose their personal belongings and property. resistance the Inquisition proved too strong, extraordinarily brutal campaign, excessive in
If, even after this ordeal, they refused to repent, and even figures such as Raymond VII became its use of terror and violence. In his article The
Images: Getty Images; Alamy
then they would be burnt at the stake. vicious towards the heretics, burning them even Albigensian Crusades: Wars Like Any Other?,
During this period Montségur Castle became after they had confessed and repented. Malcolm Barber stated “the unavoidable
a stronghold for Cathars fleeing the flames of Quéribus, the final Cathar stronghold, which collective impression is that this was a conflict in
the Inquisition. From May 1243 to March 1244 had been managing to hold out despite the forces which all the normal conventions of warfare in
the castle was placed under siege, with some massing against it, eventually fell in August 1255 the early thirteenth century were abandoned.”
21
BETRAYAL
OF THE
KNIGHTS
TEMPLAR
In seven years the Order was hunted,
dismantled and executed. Was this
justice for their sacrilegious practices, or
were they the victims of a twisted plot?
J
acques de Molay was calm. Through year you will answer for your crimes before
seven long years of accusations, the presence of god!” After these final words
trials, torture, denials and De Molay fell silent, and the flames claimed
confessions, he had been anything his soul.
but calm, but as the frail, bearded Before the year was over, Pope Clement
man was led out onto the Île aux and Philip IV were dead. Clement finally
Juifs on the Seine, he did not weep succumbed to a long illness on 20 April 1314,
or tremble. A crowd had gathered to watch the and the French king died after a hunting
old man die, and a pyre had been erected on accident on 29 November 1314, aged just 46.
the small island, ready to be lit and claim his De Molay’s order was all but extinct, but the
soul. De Molay was stripped of the rags that curse of the last Grand Master of the Knights
were once clothes, down to his threadbare Templar would live on in infamy.
shirt, then the guards strapped his thin, pale Jacques de Molay’s famous last words may
body to the stake. Finally, the silent man not have actually been spoken by the Grand
spoke. He asked to be turned to face the Master himself. Like so many aspects of the
cathedral of Notre-Dame and that his hands be Knights Templar, they have been distorted
freed so he could die in prayer. These requests by myth and legend, and today we just don’t
were granted, and De Molay bowed his head know if he cursed his betrayers with his
in silent prayer as the pyre was lit. The flames dying breath. Thanks to their sudden and
grew fast, and as the tongues of fire lashed dramatic fall, an array of rumours, myths
up around his body, he spoke once more, his and conspiracies have persisted about the
voice rising above the crackle of the flames. mysterious order, obscuring their true humble
“God knows who is in the wrong and has beginnings and devastating end that rocked
sinned!” he proclaimed. “Misfortune will soon 14th-century Europe.
befall those who have wrongly condemned us; After the city of Jerusalem was captured
god will avenge our deaths. Make no mistake, by Christian forces in the First Crusade,
all who are against us will suffer because of many European pilgrims chose to make the
us!” The flames rose higher, but the pain did journey to the Holy Land. However, this
not tell on his face. “Pope Clement, King Philip route was not safe for Christians to travel
– hear me now!” his voice roared. “Within a along, so several knights charged themselves
22
Betrayal of the Knights Templar
KEY
FIGURES
The men who destroyed
the Order, and those who
fought to defend it
Jacques
de Molay
1243 – 18 MARCH 1314
The 23rd and last Grand
Master of the Knights
Templar. Little is known
of De Molay’s early life, but
he subsequently became the
most well-known Templar. He
aimed to reform the Order, a goal he
was never able to fulfil.
Philip IV
of France
1268 – 29 NOVEMBER 1314
Also known as the Iron
King, Philip led France
from a feudal country to
a centralised state. He had
great belief in an all-powerful
monarchy, and it was his ambition
to fill thrones worldwide with his relatives.
As well as destroying the Knights Templar, he
also expelled Jews from France.
Pope
Clement V
1264-1314
Born Raymond Bertrand
de Got, Clement was
made pope on 5 June
1305. There is some
dispute over his loyalty to
Philip IV, with some painting
him as nothing but a tool for the French
king, while others believe he showed
surprising resistance. Either way, he is now
remembered as the pope who suppressed
the Knights Templar.
Guillaume
de Nogaret
1260–1313
Keeper of the seal to
Philip IV of France,
Guillaume had previously
played a role in the dispute
between Philip and Pope
Boniface, apparently persuading
the king to kidnap the pope. He also had a
central part in the fall of the Knights Templar,
forcing members to give testimony against
the Order.
Geoffroi de
Charney
UNKNOWN – 1314
Serving as preceptor of
Normandy, Charney was
a member of the Knights
Templar from a young age
and rose through the ranks.
Like much of his order, he was
arrested, tortured and confessed to various
charges, then later retracted his statement.
Charney was the only one of the three senior
leaders arrested to rally by his master’s side
and deny the charges.
23
The war on heresy
Grand
TEMPLAR Master
The Grand Master
Marshal
The marshal was in control of everything to do with
war. He was responsible for all the arms and horses,
as well as a host of other military matters. The Grand
Master would consult with the marshal before going
ahead with any battle tactics.
Commanders
of lands
There were commanders
of three lands:
Jerusalem, Antioch and
Tripoli. The commander
of Jerusalem also acted
as treasurer, while the
other commanders
had specific regional
responsibilities
according to their cities.
They were responsible
for the Templar
houses, farms and
castles in their regions.
Commanders
of knights,
houses and
farms
Answering to the
commanders of lands,
these Templars were
responsible for various
estates, ensuring that
day-to-day operations
Knights and sergeants ran smoothly. The
The main bulk of the Order’s military might, knights were of noble position was filled by a
birth and donned the famous white mantle. Sergeants also fought knight or sergeant.
in battle but were not of noble birth and thus ranked lower than
knights, wearing a black or brown mantle instead.
24
Betrayal of the Knights Templar
with protecting the roads from robbers and Templar presences began to feel uneasy . With
brigands. This guild of knights was founded their power, what was to stop the Templars
on Christmas Day 1119 on the spot that marks supporting baronial uprisings in their own
the place where Jesus was crucified. As their territories? The Templars had also been very
headquarters were located on the Temple vocal in their desire to form their own state,
Mount, they became known as ‘Knights of the similar to Prussia’s Teutonic Knights and the
Temple’, or the Knights Templar. Knights Hospitaller, another Catholic military
Although the Order began in virtual order in Rhodes.
poverty, relying on donations to survive, it In 1305, De Molay received a letter from
quickly became one of the most powerful Pope Clement V, then based in France,
monastic orders in the medieval world. concerning the possibility of merging the
With papal approval, money, land and Templars with the Hospitaller. De Molay was
eager young noblemen poured into the ardently against the idea, but in 1306 Clement
Templars’ resources. Serving as the West’s invited both Grand Masters to France to
first uniformed standing army in their white discuss the issue further, instructing them
tunics emblazoned with a fiery red cross, the to “come hither without delay, with as much
Templars achieved legendary status in battle. secrecy as possible”.
This reputation as god’s warriors was De Molay arrived in 1307, but Foulques de
encouraged by their victory at the Battle Villaret, the leader of the Hospitaller, was
of Montgisard, where 500 Templars helped either delayed or sensed something was
an army numbering a few thousand defeat amiss, as he did not arrive, and while the pope
26,000 of Saladin’s soldiers. and De Molay waited, an entirely different
As well as being a mighty subject of discussion was raised.
military force, they also Two years previously, an
controlled a vast financial
Holy Grail ousted Templar had accused
The Holy Grail is perhaps the
network, which has item that the Templars are most the Order of many criminal
been recognised as closely associated with. From Wolfram von charges, and although
Eschenbach’s medieval romance Parzival to Dan
the world’s first they were generally
Brown’s The Da Vinci Code, throughout history the
modern banking Templars have been linked to the mysterious relic. Often believed to be false,
system. Many in fiction the Templars are portrayed as the guardians of the King Philip IV of
nobles who cup that Jesus used in the Last Supper, or even a deep and France had recently
dramatic secret. Interestingly, the city in which the Templars
wished to join the were launched, Troyes, is also the place that the very first brought them back
crusades placed grail romance was written. Any actual link between the into discussion. De
their wealth under Templars and the grail likely emerged due to the fact that Molay, tiring of the
stories of the grail began to become popular in the 12th
the control of the and 13th centuries, when the Templars were at the
ludicrous accusations,
Templars, who then height of their power. Although they were part of asked Clement to look
issued them with society, the Templars were shrouded in secrecy into the matter to rid
letters of credit. This even in their day, so it is no wonder such him of the whole messy
a mysterious vessel was linked to
could be used at Templar the Order. situation. On 24 August,
houses around the world to Clement wrote to Philip,
‘withdraw’ their funds. By the saying that he did not believe the
13th century, the Templars were one of accusations but would start an inquiry “not
the most powerful and wealthy organisations without great sorrow, anxiety and upset of
in the world, entirely unaware that a dramatic heart,” and advised Philip to take no further
TOP Hundreds and terrible fate awaited them. However, it action. Philip did not listen. At dawn on Friday
of Templars would not be the Muslims in the East who 13 October, the king’s forces arrested every
were burned at would bring about their downfall but their Templar they could find in France.
the stake on the
orders of Philip IV fellow Christians in the West. Philip IV’s harsh actions were not
of France After the fall of Acre in 1291, the West lost unprecedented; he had a reputation as a
LEFT De Molay
its last Christian possessions in the Holy Land. rash and violent king. Philip had previously
was forced to sign The Templars were cast out from the lands clashed with Pope Boniface VIII and launched
a letter asking they’d once protected and lost their raison an anti-papal campaign against him. Believing
all Templars to
confess to the d’être. When Jacques de Molay ascended as France should have centralised royal power,
charges Grand Master in 1293, he had one goal in mind the feud escalated and ended with Philip
– to reclaim what the Templars had lost. De attempting to kidnap the pope in 1303 to
Molay travelled across the West to rustle up bring him to France to face charges of heresy.
support; he received it from Pope Boniface The shock ultimately killed Boniface, whose
and Edward I of England. But the crusade successor, Benedict XI, was then only in the
was a disaster, and De Molay lost 120 knights position for nine months before his own
trying to land in Syria. In 1306, the Templars death. This allowed the king to appoint his
supported a coup in Cyprus that forced Henry selection, Clement, to the papacy. Philip
II to abdicate in favour of his brother. had also previously arrested wealthy Italian
These actions did not go by unnoticed. bankers in the city, stripping them of their
Many monarchs in countries with powerful assets; then his target switched to the Jews,
25
The war on heresy
Shroud of Turin
The rumour that the Knights Templar
secretly hid – and even worshipped – the
IN NUMBERS
Shroud of Turin has more basis in fact than that of
the Holy Grail legend. This length of cloth appearing
to bear the face of Jesus was first put on display by
the family of Geoffroi de Charney, who was burned
at the stake with De Molay, which instantly links it with
20,000
the Templars. An accused Templar, Arnaut Sabbatier, also
claimed that during his initiation ceremony he was shown
“a long linen cloth on which was impressed the figure of a
man” and instructed to venerate the image by kissing its
feet three times. This has led many to conclude that the
icon the Templars were accused of worshipping was,
members at their peak in fact, the Turin Shroud. Radiocarbon dating of
54
the Shroud has found it dates from 1260–1390,
15
witnesses gave which fits neatly alongside this theory and
evidence against has led many people to claim the
the Order before figure is not that of Christ but
12 May 1310 – compared of De Molay.
to 198 after
Templars burned to
597
witnesses defended the
Order before 12 May 1310
death in May 1310 – compared to 14 after
200,000
livres paid by the Knights Hospitallers to
the French king as ‘compensation’
This painting was created when
rumours were rife that De Molay
had re-captured Jerusalem
who were thrown out of the kingdom, a This did little to help the brothers of the with rope that ran up a pulley, raising him
common occurrence throughout Europe temple. Some 15,000 Templars now resided in the air, then dropping him rapidly. The
during the Inquisition. in the prisons of France, many of whom were soles of prisoners’ feet were greased then set
These actions can be easily explained – not nobles or knights but mere farmers and alight with flame, teeth were pulled and limbs
Philip had inherited a kingdom on the brink of shepherds. De Molay didn’t escape capture were flayed. The men were confined to cold,
financial crisis, and he also believed that his either; just a day after acting as pallbearer dark cells, and those who did not survive the
authority was above that of the pope. Not only at the funeral of the king’s sister-in-law, the torture were secretly buried. One anonymous
did he owe the Templars a great deal of money, Grand Master was arrested along with the writer in 1308 wrote of the conditions in the
but their link to the Church made them the rest of his order. Philip seized their land and cells: “The human tongue cannot express
perfect choice for establishing the power of property and set about ensuring he obtained the punishment, afflictions, miseries, taunts,
the monarchy. With their plans to form their the confessions he needed to and dire kinds of torture suffered by the said
own state, the Order had unwittingly sealed smash the Order to pieces. innocents in the space of three
their own fate. The Templars had to fall in There was one very months, since the day of their
order for Philip to rise. simple way of acquiring arrest, since by day and night
When the Templars in France were arrested, confessions, and Philip constant sobs and sighs
the charges put against them were heresy, employed it to great have not ceased in their
sodomy, blasphemy and denying Christ. By success: torture. Philip’s cells, nor have cries and
charging them with heresy, Philip could paint inquisitors utilised a gnashing of teeth ceased in
himself as a soldier of Christ, similar to that variety of horrific and their tortures… Truth kills
of his sainted grandfather Louis IX. But his demoralising methods them, and lies liberate them
actions were a violation of the Church and to break a man’s will. from death.”
Rome’s orders, and Clement was furious. Philip The rack, which stretched It is of no surprise that when
had likely believed the pope to be a frail and a victim’s body and the Templars were brought to
infirm old man and certainly not a threat, but dislocated his joints, was trial, many confessed to the
Clement wrote angrily to Philip, accusing him frequently used, as was various offences put against
of violating every rule in this “act of contempt strappado, which involved them. The Order was faced
towards the Roman Church”. binding a victim’s hands with five initial charges: the
26
Betrayal of the Knights Templar
THE
TEMPLARS
ACROSS
EUROPE
When the pope ordered Christian
monarchs across Europe to arrest
Templars, not all were willing
British Isles
Edward II was initially sceptical about
the Templars’ guilt and had no reason
to view them as a threat. He wrote to
the pope in defence of the Order but
was eventually forced to arrest and try
many Templars. Initially, torture was
not allowed and all the Templars pleaded innocent,
but when the pope’s inquisitors took over confessions
came fast. However, they were spared burning and
simply forced to repent publicly. Those who refused
were incarcerated until death.
Italy
The situation in Italy varied. The Papal States
unsurprisingly acted at once, but in Lombardy there
was widespread support for the
Order. For the number of Templars
confessing to the accusations, there
were just as many claiming that the
others were lying. In Florence, despite
using torture, only six out of 13
Templars confessed.
Pope Honorius II recognised the
Order of the Knights Templar at Cyprus
the Council of Troyes in 1129 King Amaury de Lusignan
had earned his crown thanks
to the Templars, so he was
renouncement of and spitting on the cross about turn. Safely away from Philip’s control, understandably reluctant to
during initiation; the kissing of the initiate De Molay retracted his confession, claiming arrest them. However, the leading
Templars were eventually incarcerated after putting up
on the navel, mouth and posteriors; the he only gave it initially due to the torture he a brave resistance. At trial there were many witnesses
permitting of homosexual acts; that the cord suffered. The other Templars followed suit, who praised the Templars, but the king was murdered
they wore had been wrapped around an and Philip’s plans for a swift and brutal end to during the trial and Henry II, enemy of the Templars,
regained the throne. Torture began almost immediately
idol they worshipped; and that they did not the Order vanished.
and many perished while protesting their innocence.
consecrate the host during mass. During the In an attempt to convince Clement, Philip
trials, the charges against the Templars grew visited him at Poitiers and sent 72 Templars to Portugal
in number, ranging from burning infants confess before him. He had his forces dispense The Templars in Portugal got off lightly
to abusing virgins and even forcing young pamphlets and give speeches concerning compared to their counterparts elsewhere.
King Denis I refused to persecute the Order
brethren to eat the ashes of the dead. Although the depravity of the Templars. Philip warned but could not overrule the papal bull to
these charges seem outrageous and somewhat that if the pope didn’t act he would have to abolish the Templars. Instead, the Templars
farfetched today, Philip was operating be removed in order to defend Catholicism. re-branded themselves as the ‘Order of
Christ’ with the assured protection of Denis
at a time when paranoia and suspicion Harangued, bullied and now under virtual
I, who also negotiated with Clement’s
surrounding god and the devil was so rife house arrest, Clement gave in and ordered successor for the Order to inherit the Templars’ assets.
that it could be reasonably believed that such an investigation into the Templars. De Molay
devilish practices had infiltrated the Church. and the other senior members retracted their Iberian Peninsula
In hearings presided over by the inquisitors retractions and Philip’s grand plans were in Despite initial doubts, James II of Aragon ordered the
arrest of most of the Templars on 6 January 1308,
who had overseen the torture, 134 of 138 motion once again.
before the pope ordered him to do so. However, many
brothers confessed to one or more of the The Templars had nothing in the form of of the Templars set up defences in their castles and
charges. De Molay himself signed a confession legal council; De Molay expressed desires to appealed for help, which unfortunately did not come.
after undergoing the flaying of his limbs defend his order but was unable to as a “poor, All of the Templars pleaded
their innocence. With torture
and testicles. This was quickly followed by unlettered knight”. In 1310, two Templars prohibited no confessions were
matching confessions from all senior members with legal training made an impressive secured, and no Templar was
of the Order. However, when Clement insisted defence against the charges, insisting that condemned to death for heresy.
the confessions be heard before a papal the Templars were not only innocent but also
committee, De Molay and his men did an at the sharp end of a cruel plot. The tide was
27
The war on heresy
GUILTY OR
INNOCENT?
Was there any truth to the charges levelled
against the Knights Templar?
FOR AGAINST
Although often written as one Although De Molay confirmed
of Philip’s many trumped-up that spitting on the cross took
charges, there is evidence that place, chalking this up to heresy
this accusation had basis in shows a lack of understanding.
fact. Not only did a number of De Molay said these practices
Templars confess to it, but were designed to harden a
Philip’s spies, who secretly Templar to the torture he
joined the Order, would be subjected
confirmed it. A to by Saracens,
recent discovery SPITTING ON training them to
of the ‘Chinon
Parchment’ in the
THE CROSS deny their faith
“with the mind
Vatican library further only and not with the
validates the charges. heart”. Philip’s spies may
Under questioning in 1308, very well have witnessed
Jacques de Molay admitted to such acts, but they likely
such practices. misunderstood their purpose.
28
Betrayal of the Knights Templar
LEFT Templars
would often
advance ahead
of the troops in
key battles of the
Crusades
RIGHT Pilgrims
risked being
robbed and
slaughtered on
their journey to
Jerusalem
BELOW LEFT
According to
legend, as he
burned at the
stake, Jacques de
Molay cursed King
Philip IV
BELOW The
Templars were
accused of
worshipping a
pagan idol called beginning to turn in the Templars’ favour, so protested their innocence. They denied their
Baphomet
Philip made a swift and brutal decision. On confessions, insisting their order was nothing
12 May 1310, 54 Templars who had previously but holy and pure. During seven years of
withdrawn their confessions were burned at imprisonment, De Molay had failed to defend
the stake as relapsed heretics and the two his order. Now he was doing it with his life.
Templar defenders disappeared from prison. This was completely unexpected and left
With nobody to defend them, the Templar the cardinals confused about what to do.
case crumbled. Under extreme pressure from When the news reached Philip, he was furious.
Philip and likely wishing to rid himself of He ruled that as the Templars were now
the whole matter once and for all, Clement professing their innocence, they were guilty
issued an edict that officially dissolved the of being relapsed heretics, the punishment
Order. This didn’t mean the brothers were for which was death. Before the end of the
guilty, but it was the end of the Knights day, De Molay and De Charney were dead.
Templar for good. Much to Philip’s Instead of living out his final days
annoyance, a second papal bull in disgrace, De Molay’s act of
was issued that transferred bravery led many to hail him
the Templars’ wealth to
French Revolution as a martyr.
When Louis XVI was executed by
the Hospitaller. Finally, the guillotine at the height of the French The remaining
the bull Considerantes Revolution, according to some sources a man Templars were not
jumped up onto the platform and dipped his fingers
Dudum allowed each in the blood. He then cried out “Jacques de Molay,
released from their
province to deal with thus you are avenged!” Then the crowd cheered. The monastic vows and
the Templars residing legend that the Templars would enact revenge upon many were subjected
there as they saw fit. the French monarchy who had damned them was a to penances such
popular rumour at the time, so speculation that they
The fate of the leaders, played a key part in starting the French Revolution as lengthy prison
however, was in the was rife. This legend works alongside the idea that sentences. Others joined
hands of the Church. the remaining Templars went underground to the Knights Hospitallers,
continue their work in secret, so it relies on
De Molay and three quite a leap of faith. But nevertheless,
and some were sent to live
of his senior members Jacques de Molay did indeed out their remaining days in
languished in prison, have his revenge. monasteries. Even with these
awaiting news of their fates. numbers accounted for, there are
Finally, on 18 March 1314, the leaders still questions over what happened
were led out to a platform in front of Notre to the tens of thousands of brothers across
Dame to hear their sentences. All four were old Europe. The Order’s archive was never found
men; De Molay was, by now, at least 70, while along with the majority of their treasures,
the others ranged from 50 to 60. Due to their leading many to believe that the Templars
earlier confessions, they were found guilty of received some sort of warning, allowing many
heresy and condemned to life imprisonment. to escape prior to the initial arrests.
© Alamy, Corbis, Getty Images, Joe Cummings
Two of the men silently accepted their fate, Various conspiracy theories regarding the
but faced with living out the rest of his life fate of the remaining Templars have been
starving in a dank, dark cell as the last leader concocted, from the proposition that they
of a humiliated and disgraced order, De escaped on a fleet of ships to western Scotland
Molay finally found his voice. To the shock to them becoming Swiss freedom fighters.
of the crowd and the horror of the cardinals, Although we do know the sad tale that ended
the Grand Master and his loyal master of the Order, the mystery of what became of the
Normandy, Geoffroi de Charney, loudly surviving Templars will likely never be solved.
29
The War on Heresy
30
BERNARD GUI
Meet the man who wrote the guidebook
for inquisitors everywhere
Written by Katharine Marsh
A
bove all else, Bernard Gui was a man was not to ask Christian heretics if they were
Gui died at Laroux Castle
of god. Born around 1261 or 1262 in subverting the true teachings of Christ, because in in 1331 (pictured), and his
the Limousin region of France, he their eyes they wouldn’t be lying if they said they body was transported
entered the Dominican monastery weren’t. Instead, he would question them on the to Limoges to be buried
in the Dominican
at Limoges in the early 1270s. individual tenets of the Roman Catholic Church, monastery there
His monastic career saw him study grammar, asking the heretic if they believe in them and
logic, philosophy and theology before taking on swear before God. If the question was dodged, the
administrative roles in Dominican houses across accused was indeed a heretic. If they swore falsely,
southern France. He became a prior in 1294 – and it became a legal matter with punishment handed
again at Carcassonne in 1297, Castres in 1301 and down by the secular institution.
Limoges in 1305. He would later become Bishop of When not in the pulpit, Gui was writing
Tui, but before that he had a more important role furiously. Alongside an illustrated genealogy of the
to play. kings of France and a list of sentences he handed
In 1307, Gui was given a monumental task: down through the inquisition, he penned Practica
heading up Toulouse’s inquisition as its chief inquisitionis heretice pravitatis, a comprehensive
inquisitor. That name wasn’t grand enough, manual for inquisitors. “A vigorous inquisitor
though – he styled himself ‘Friar Bernard Gui, must not allow himself to be worked upon…”
of the Order of Preachers, inquisitor of heretical he advises, “but proceed firmly till he make
depravity delegated to the kingdom of France by these people confess their error.” At a time when
the apostolic authority’. While everything in the inquisitors had no formal training, this five-part
title was true – he was asked to take up his mantle compendium – handily written in medieval Latin,
by popes Clement V and John XXII – it was still which educated inquisitors across Europe would
quite a mouthful. understand – contained interrogation guidance,
Travelling France and preaching hellfire for advice on penalties, and descriptions of the beliefs
sinners, Gui was known as one of the more zealous and practices of so-called heretics like the Cathars,
inquisitors of the time. His view was that the Waldensians, Pseudo-Apostles, Beguines and female. It was ritual chanting, conception magic
inquisition was more of a debate competition – the relapsed Jews. and fortune tellers who claimed to draw their
heretic wanted to conceal his wrongdoings, but the It seemed that converts to Judaism sparked a power from a pagan goddess.
inquisitor needed to convince an audience that the particular religious fervour in Gui. In his eyes, they In the Catholic crusade against heresy, Gui was a
heretic was really guilty. His signature technique threatened Christianity’s superiority with their general with God (and the pope, his representative
“intolerable blasphemy”. But some attention was on Earth) as his commanding officer. Below him
also given to “sorcerers, diviners and invokers of were inquisitors who he was all too ready to send
demons”, which has proven that inquisitions were into battle. In his eyes, perhaps the heretical
concerning themselves with witches more than resistance to the Catholic Church wouldn’t be so
150 years before the publication of the Malleus strong if kings didn’t keep interfering with the
maleficarum, or Hammer of Witches, by Kramer in Inquisition’s divine work.
1487. However, these weren’t the witches that had Today, Gui remains one of the most famous
orgies in the woods or baby-eaters – these were medieval inquisitors, and he was arguably one of
the people following pagan beliefs, “the weirding- the most influential thanks to his handbook. It was
women, called the good ones who, as they say, copied and read throughout medieval Europe and
go by night”. Necromancy was a big concern for it took 100 years for its contents to be superseded
the pope back in Rome, and guarding against – it was Catalan Nicholas Eymerich’s Directorium
that and invocations of demons was becoming Inquisitorum that would mostly replace it.
of utmost importance. Regardless, it seems as Gui saw prominence more recently as a
though Gui never actually tried a case of heretical secondary antagonist in Umberto Eco’s best-
sorcery himself. selling historical novel The Name of the Rose in
Six manuscripts of the Gender seemed to play a part in his rulings, 1980, adapted for TV as recently as 2019. While
Practica survive today.
They are housed in too. “Men are cross-examined in one way and inquisitions seem to be a part of the past, Gui’s
Toulouse, the Vatican women in another,” he wrote. We don’t know how name is nevertheless still bandied about today, as a
Images: Alamy
31
DIRECTORIUM
INQUISITORUM
A GUIDE FOR INQUISITORS
Looking for some advice on how to get your
heretic to crack? Want to learn the ins and outs
of evil sorcery? One Spanish inquisitor had all the
answers you needed
Written by Katharine Marsh
I
f inquisitors were going to be able to do
their job properly, they needed a guide. In Eymerich touted the
benefits of torture for
Spain, it was the grand inquisitor of Aragon heretics and even found
who took this job upon himself, penning a loophole to allow
them to be tortured
the Directorium Inquisitorum around 1376. more than once
This man was Nicholas Eymerich, a Catholic
theologian native to northern Catalonia.
Influenced by other guides for inquisitors, like
the works of Bernard Gui, Eymerich was already a
known author, having written earlier in his life on
sorcery and the dangers it brought to society. His
hunt for witches came in handy when drafting
the Directorium Inquisitorum, in which he used
confiscated ‘magical’ texts to detail forbidden
practices that inquisitors needed to keep an
eye out for. This included putting salt on fires,
burning the bodies of animals, conjuring spirits
and chiromancy, or palmistry. There’s no doubt
that sorcery was considered a form of heresy at
the time – most Inquisitorial guides included it –
but Eymerich gave it special attention, splitting
it into three variants, drawing his ideas from the
Bible, Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas.
Making sacrifices and praying to or
worshipping devils was going to lead to a
conviction as the most serious form of heresy.
The second category involved talking about
devils alongside saints and angels, asking for heresy. In fact, he was one of the first to do so,
the intercession before God. Here, ‘Saracens’ and it kept the Directorium Inquisitorum in main
(or Muslims) were seen as heretics for their circulation in Europe well into the 17th century.
veneration of the prophet Muhammad – a His work would go on to influence texts like
hangover from the Reconquista. Malleus Maleficarum (Hammer of the Witches)
Eymerich’s third category was reserved for and the European witch hunts.
any who sought help from a demon. Here he had But sorcery wasn’t Eymerich’s only topic of
the added benefit of being able to quote Pope fascination. His guide also delves into methods
Innocent V; according to him, if someone was able of extracting confessions from accused heretics –
to receive aid from a demon then they must have unfortunately for his victims, this involved some
entered into a pact with them. It was Eymerich outright torture as well as medieval psychological
who took this a step further and equated it to manipulation. Apparently “torture [was]
32
Directorium Inquisitorum
A
young woman whose faith led Vaucouleurs and begged Robert de Baudricourt, THE BLACK DEATH
her to challenge kings and inspire the captain of the garrison, to give her a military From 1348 to 1350, the Black Death ravaged
armies, Joan of Arc’s devout belief escort to Charles’ court at Chinon. Baudricourt England, claiming the lives of some 1.5 million
that God had appointed her to replied that she should be taken home and people. Carried by fleas, in turn carried by
lead the French to victory against beaten. However, Joan would not be deterred and the rats infesting London, the bubonic plague
the English drove her from the village of her returned in January the next year. spread through overpopulated towns and cities.
birth and onto the battlefield. In her brief time She claimed she was the subject of a prophecy England’s economy and resources would suffer
she became a national figurehead, a symbol of from 1398 about a maid who would “deliver the its effects for decades to come.
resistance. It was an image she cultivated and one kingdom of France from the enemy.” Baudricourt
EMISSARIES FROM GOD
that would ultimately lead to her death. turned her down again, but her efforts were
Joan of Arc was not the first woman to claim the
Flames secured Joan’s martyrdom, just as gaining traction. She curried favour with local heavenly host had spoken to her. Hildegard of
they provoked her fierce patriotism. Jehanne nobility, particularly the Duke of Lorraine. Bingen (1098–1179) railed against corruption in
D’Arc, or la Pucelle (the Maid) as she Although Joan refused to attempt to the clergy, St Clare of Assisi (1194–1253) claimed
came to be known, was born in 1412 cure his gout, the Duke agreed to to be able to hear and see Mass on the wall of
in the village of Domrémy, located
She give her a small escort, and in her room when she was too ill to move, and
across the river from Burgundy claimed to have February she travelled in men’s Catherine of Siena (1347–1380) travelled Italy
territory. The Burgundians, her first vision at clothes to Chinon, where she urging states to make peace with Rome.
allies of the English, regularly the age of 12, when St was presented to the court.
attacked French territory. In Charles was cautious
FROM BOWS TO CANNONS
July 1428, Joan’s family fled a
Catherine, St Michael but curious. Taking advice
As the Hundred Years’ War raged on through
the decades, the technology of warfare began
raid and returned to find the and St Margaret from a mad heretic could be to change. The English longbows at Agincourt
enemy had burned their town, appeared to her devastating to his campaign, in 1415 were the difference between victory and
fields and church. Joan had heard but her story appealed to his love defeat, but as open battles were often replaced
in a field
angelic voices since the age of 12 of astrology and fortune-telling, by lengthy sieges, cannon fire became a deciding
or 13, urging her to remain pious, but and besides, he desperately needed factor. By the Siege of Orléans both sides
now they gave her a specific mission. The any help he could get. Joan immediately deployed cannons.
voices of Archangel Michael, St Catherine and St picked him out from the crowd and pledged her
Margaret directed her to go into France and find allegiance: “Most illustrious Lord Dauphin, I come HERESY TRIALS
The definition of heresy covers a great deal of
her king, the Dauphin Charles. and am sent from God to give assistance to you
sins, but the term boils down to denying any
The alliance between England and Burgundy and the kingdom.” He was impressed, but ordered
established Christian dogma. In the Middle
had kept Charles from claiming the French she be tested before giving any official credence Ages, heresy trials became more common and
crown. His enemies not only occupied Paris but to her claims. A key figure in these trials was the Catholic Church aggressively pursued any
also held the city of Reims, where coronations Yolande of Aragon, one of the true powers behind enemies. This continued into the 19th century,
took place. The crown would have to wait, Charles and an intelligent strategist. After Joan’s claiming countless victims.
however, as the French city of Orléans was in the maidenhood was proved, she faced questions
grip of a protracted siege. Orléans needed help from clergy and theologians and passed with THE BAVARIAN HUSSITES
and Joan believed she was the one to deliver flying colours. Whether or not they truly believed Czech religious reformer Jan Huss was burned
it. On 13 May 1428, the 16-year-old arrived in in her voices was irrelevant. Charles now had a at the stake in 1415 for heresy. After his death,
the Hussite movement was born, separating
itself from Rome. The Hussites declared that
“Her story appealed to his love of astrology communion should be given with bread and
wine, they believed in poverty of the priesthood,
messenger of God, and Yolande raised a convoy strategy. In her frustration she hurled insults at
for this messenger to lead. the English from the battlements.
In April 1429, Joan rode out, holding her When an attack was decided upon on 4 May
white standard and wearing a suit of armour 1428, Joan was not even told by the commanders
commissioned by Charles. She announced that and woke up as the fight was in progress. She
her sword would be found in the church of arrived just in time to rally her troops and
Sainte-Catherine-de-Fierbois, hidden behind the inspire them to capture their target: the small
altar. It was an old gift to the church from the fortress of Saint-Loup. It was their first victory
crusades, and the discovery was treated and Joan’s confidence grew. She dictated
as a miracle. Her pious conduct a fearsome final letter to the English,
became renowned; she forced her ordering them to leave, and on 6
THE soldiers to stop taking the Lord’s
name in vain and expelled
Joan sent many May another attack was mounted.
Inspired by Joan, the French
1412
l Birth of a warrior l Domrémy burns l Journey to Vaucouleurs l Audience with the king l The sword is found
Joan is born to a The territory across the In 1428 Joan’s voices tell her Joan is granted a meeting After convincing the
farming family in the river from Domrémy is to travel to France and talk with the Dauphin Charles, clergy and theologians
town of Domrémy. Burgundian, and a raid to the Dauphin Charles. She who sees value in her of her gift, Joan is
She never receives into French territory travels to Vaucouleurs to for his military campaign allowed to lead a force to
formal education or proves a defining moment demand an escort, beginning to free Orléans. Joan Orléans. She announces
learns how to read and for Joan. Her family flees a series of attempts ending immediately identifies her sword can be found
write, instead learning to Neufchâteau and in success after convincing him in a room full of in the church of Sainte-
about religion from returns to find the enemy nobles that she is the people and impresses Catherine-de-Fierbois,
her mother Isabelle. have burnt their town. fulfilment of a prophecy. him with her fervour. which it is.
1412 1428 May 1428 6 March 1429 April 1429
36
Joan of Arc
Joan dressed
in men’s clothes,
Duke of Alençon led the army, her hereditary nobility but made
but he was a firm believer in
claiming the spirits sure she stayed with him, which
Joan of Arc was burnt
at the stake in 1431
the young female warrior and told her to. She also wore frustrated Joan. It was her duty
frequently deferred to her. her hair short, but this is to be on the battlefield expelling
They swept quickly through often not depicted in the enemy from her home soil, not
the English resistance and laid rotting in court.
siege to Beaugency. The English
portraits By 1430, the English were
surrendered without realising a preparing a full-scale invasion of France
relief force was on its way, a force the to reclaim their recently lost territory. When
French promptly set off after. They met at Patay the city of Compiègne refused to surrender,
on 18 June, where the ill-prepared English were Joan rode to support them without Charles’
decimated, with over 2,000 dead and all but one authorisation. On 23 May she led an attack from
senior officer captured. Joan played little part in the city, but the English reinforcements cut her
this victory but by this point that mattered not, off at the rear and she could not retreat. She was
as her legend only grew stronger. By now, Charles pulled from her horse and forced to surrender
was ready to head for Reims and his coronation. to the Burgundians. She testified that constant
He led a grand procession, entered the city on sexual harassment was the reason she remained
16 July and was crowned the next day as Joan in men’s clothing, while the voices in her head
looked on proudly. She was desperate for the told her not to escape. Defying them, she leapt
king to attack Paris, but he chose to leave Reims from the tower but was injured in the fall and
instead, only to be barred from crossing the Seine promptly recaptured.
by English troops. Joan was ecstatic as the only The English needed to make an example of
remaining option was an attack on the capital. Joan, and the Parisian theologians, as dictated
After skirmishes throughout August and a by the rules of the Catholic Inquisition, wanted
truce with Burgundy, on 8 September Joan finally to try her for heresy, idolatry and witchcraft. She
witnessed the assault on Paris she had been needed to answer for the way in which she had
itching for. She stood on the moat, demanding circumvented the church by claiming to receive secular authorities that would carry out her death
surrender, but the only reply she received was her instructions from her ‘voices’, while her ability sentence. Joan wavered as the sentence began to
an English arrow through her leg. After hours to inspire followers had to be stopped. If she be read out. In front of the crowd, she recanted
of constant bombardment, her men reached were convicted by a foreign power the damage and was sentenced to life imprisonment and to
her under the cover of darkness, but she was to Charles’ reputation would be severe, so the wear women’s clothes.
determined to continue the fight the next day. French court paid the Duke of Burgundy £10,000 Two days later Joan changed her mind.
However, once Charles saw the number of French to hand his prize over. Demanding she be allowed to attend mass, Joan
casualties he ordered her to return to his side. Six rounds of questioning took place between was found in men’s clothes, claiming the voices
The attack had failed and Joan’s usefulness 21 February and 3 March 1431, with nine more had told her that her abjuration was treason. Now
was now suddenly cast into doubt. She needed a between 10 and 17 March, all conducted in her the only possible outcome was her execution.
victory to restore her reputation but in November cell. Joan never changed her story. On 24 May, On 30 May she was allowed to make her
1429 she failed to take the castle of La Charité she was taken to the scaffold and told that if confession and take communion before she was
after a long siege. On return to court, Charles gave she did not abjure, she would be given to the taken to the Old Market in Rouen and tied to
the stake. She was given a small crucifix and
a Dominican priest held a parish cross high so
she could see it even as the flames began to lick
Defining moment around her. The young warrior who had led her
country to such great victories over the English
Siege of Orléans 29 April – 8 May 1429 cried out “Jesus!” repeatedly before leaving this
Joan arrives at Orléans amid great fanfare from the citizens of the
city but is met with indifference by her fellow commanders. She is world. The king she had helped crown, Charles
determined to mount an attack as soon as possible but is told to wait VII, refused to intervene. She was merely a tool
for a relief effort. She is so poorly regarded by the other generals that that had stopped being useful. However, the
when a sortie takes place, she’s not told beforehand. Instead, she
legend of Jehanne la Pucelle only grew stronger
races out and joins the attack just in time to rally the flagging troops,
ultimately claiming a fortress. This will be the first in a series of with time. In 1456, after a lengthy investigation,
victories that would liberate Orléans and confirm her status for many the sentence was annulled, and in 1920, Joan of
as a heaven-sent hero. Arc was canonised by Pope Benedict XV.
1456
l Charles is crowned l A failed siege l Capture l Trial l Burned to death Late justice l
After swiftly clearing the Following Charles’ While leading an Needing to regain superiority, Having recanted her Charles orders that Joan’s
Loire region of English coronation, Joan is unsanctioned relief the church interrogates Joan, abjuration, Joan is trial be investigated,
resistance, Charles finally convinced that Paris will effort of Compiègne, telling her she can abjure or sentenced to be burned a process that takes
travels to Reims, where fall. However, the siege fails Joan decides to attack face a secular court that will at the stake. A Dominican roughly six years to
he is crowned King as 1,500 men are slain by the Burgundian troops execute her. She retracts her priest holds a cross up complete. Finally,
Charles VII of France. The the English bombardment, surrounding the city. She statement, only to change her high enough for her to see in 1456, the original
coronation fulfils another with Joan herself wounded, is cut off by the English mind days later, stating she’d from the flames. She calls verdict is found to be
part of the prophecy having to be pulled from the and pulled from her horse rather die than deny what she out “Jesus!” several times unjust and is annulled.
© Alamy
foretold by Joan’s voices. battlefield under nightfall. while trying to escape. knows to be true. as she burns to death. 1456
17 July 1429 8 September 1429 23 March 1430 9 January–24 May 1431 30 May 1431
37
The War on Heresy
38
The Beginning of the End?
WITCHCRAFT
AND THE
INQUISITION
The safest place to be accused of witchcraft
in early modern Europe were the lands
where the Inquisition held sway
Written by Edoardo Albert
“I
have not found the slightest evidence learned opinion, including university scholars,
from which to infer that a single act was absolutely certain of the existence of magic
of witchcraft has really occurred.” and witchcraft. Indeed, the parallel exploration
This statement, written at the of science and magic was a feature of the age:
height of the witch frenzy in 1612, a century later, Isaac Newton would spend as
when elsewhere in Europe thousands of women much intellectual energy on occult studies as
and men were being executed, was written not he did on the laws of universal gravitation and
by a sceptical scholar or rational scientist but by a motion. Magic was a given, accepted as totally
Spanish inquisitor named Alonso de Salazar then as climate change is today. What was more
Frías. What’s more, in his report to the Suprema, controversial was whether witches did actually
the governing council of the Inquisition, Salazar attend sabbats, gatherings of witches where they
Frías went on to say, “The evidence of the swore allegiance to the devil and indulged in all
accused alone, without external proof, is manner of perverted practices.
insufficient to justify arrest… three-quarters While the meeting convened by the Inquisitor
and more have accused themselves and their General voted by six to four that witches did
accomplices falsely.” attend sabbats in reality and not just in their
The Supreme Council of the Inquisition (or imagination, two of the four dissenting votes
Suprema) had sent Salazar Frías to investigate the belonged to the eminent jurist Hernando de
auto de fé that had taken place in Navarre on 7 Guevara and the future Inquisitor General,
November 1610. As a result of the auto de fé, six of Fernando de Valdés. Despite having voted
the 29 people accused of witchcraft were burned on the truth of witches’ sabbats, the meeting
in person and five in effigy. nevertheless concluded that it was more
This was so contrary to the Inquisition’s important to educate witches than to punish
previous practice that the Suprema ordered them. This was very different from the attitude
Salazar Frías to find out what had gone on and in northern Europe. Developing this view, the
why Navarre had, apparently, become the centre
of witchcraft in Spain. For up until this auto de
LEFT
Giving birth was
fé, Spain had remained largely free from the “Spain had
witchcraft hysteria that had gripped much of
dangerous. Should
the mother and
baby die, the
northern Europe. While the secular authorities in remained largely
Spain investigated allegations of witchcraft and,
midwife could
easily become when they did so, often applied the death penalty, free from the
a scapegoat, as the Inquisition had historically been much more
in this case of a
French midwife,
reluctant to do so. witchcraft hysteria
Louisa Mabree, This policy dated from a meeting in 1526
who was executed
by being burned
when the Inquisitor General convened a meeting that had gripped
to decide whether witches really did attend
in a cage full of
black cats witches’ sabbats. At this time in Europe all much of Europe”
39
The war
War on heresy
Heresy
40
Witchcraft and the Inquisition
LEFT
Although the
Inquisition did
not generally take
part in the witch-
hunting frenzy,
the 1610 auto de
fé in Navarre was
an exception
LEFT INSET
The witch-hunting
frenzy seized
Europe from
1560 onwards.
This drawing by
Johann Jakob
Wick shows
three women
being executed
in Switzerland
LEFT BOTTOM
Goya painted an
earlier view of a
witches’ sabbat:
note the brighter
tones and cleaner
composition
RIGHT In the
early modern
period, magic
went from the
pages of romances
to being thought
of as practised accused a local woman, Isabel Amada, who had
in the next street refused to give them alms, of killing two of their
or house
mules and 30 sheep by witchcraft, the Inquisition
FAR RIGHT The ordered that Amada be released.
publication in While the Inquisition remained thoroughly
1486 of Malleus
Maleficarum sceptical of the existence of witchcraft throughout
prepared the the European witch craze, the secular authorities
ground for the
European witch
in Spain were more susceptible to the hysteria
frenzy by equating and continued to execute witches. However,
magic and sorcery because of the resistance of the Inquisition, the
with heresy
number of innocent people – mainly women –
executed in Spain was much fewer than in other
Navarre in 1610 that Alonso de Salazar Frías was from the experience that there were neither parts of Europe. Indeed, contrary to popular
sent to investigate. Looking at the events in more witches nor bewitched until they were talked and belief, a woman or man accused of witchcraft and
detail shows how the witchcraft panic could written about.” brought before the Inquisition had a far greater
spread, creating a frenzy of fear. If this seems In effect, Salazar Frías was saying that the chance of being acquitted and released in Spain
very far away, think of how various groups were entire witch frenzy was what we would call today than anywhere else in Europe.
falsely scapegoated for spreading the virus during a case of mass hysteria. The Suprema considered Scholars now estimate that between 40,000
the recent pandemic: these emotions are still his report and accepted it in its entirety. The and 60,000 people were executed in Europe
active today. Suprema then issued fresh instructions requiring and North America during the witch-hunting
Navarre borders on to France and there inquisitors to be sceptical about witches frenzy of the modern era. The vast majority
a notorious French judge, Pierre de Lancre, and to practise leniency when investigating of these people were innocent of any crimes
had led a witch hunt in 1609 that resulted in accusations. In effect, the Suprema had decided whatsoever. The prevalence and virulence of the
the execution of 80 supposed witches. The that all testimony of witchcraft was the result of trials are a salutary reminder of what people will
fear inspired by Pierre de Lancre’s witch hunt delusions – even in cases where the witness was do when in the grip of collective hysteria.
spread across the border, leading to widespread the witch herself. Almost alone among major European
accusations of witchcraft. The inquisitors of So certain was the Inquisition of the institutions, the Inquisition remained immune
Logroño in Navarre, swept up in the general delusionary nature of witchcraft that even when to this collective hysteria, staying true to its
hysteria, declared an auto de fé on Sunday 7 it had definite evidence of its practice it still did conviction that accusations of witchcraft, even
November 1610, which led to the executions not impose extreme penalties. In Barcelona in when given in confession by the supposed
detailed at the start of the article. 1665, the Inquisition investigated a coven of rich witch herself, were in fact delusions and fantasies
In response, the Suprema sent Salazar Frías Satanists who performed black masses, attempted rather than real events. As a result, Spain, and
to investigate. He spent nine months on his to summon demons and sacrificed goats during the territories where the King of Spain had
inquiries, and having examined all the evidence, their rituals. One of the coven was a priest: he was authority, were the safest places in all of Europe
he decided that it was all nonsense. suspended from holy order for five years. Another in which to be accused of witchcraft during those
“I also feel certain that… in the diseased state member was a surgeon who was whipped and terrible decades.
Images: Alamy
of the public mind every agitation of the matter banished for five years. None were executed. The Inquisition has many sins on its record.
is harmful and increases the evil… and reserve Lower down the social scale, when shepherds The persecution of witches was not one of them.
41
THE SPANISH
INQUISITION
44 Heretic hunters
When it came to forcing non-
believers to confess their sins, the
44
Catholic Church would stop at
nothing. Even torture
54 An officer of the
Spanish Inquisition
Find out what daily life was like
for the men charged with exposing
heresy for the Church
70 Francisco de Cisneros
They say that the only thing
necessary for evil to triumph is for
good men to do nothing. However,
sometimes a good man can act and
still leave the world worse off
“Many unfortunate
souls would be
hung from their
arms until their
shoulder joints
ruptured”
56
70
T H E S PA N I S H I N Q U I S I T I O N
HERETIC
HUNTERSDiscover the torture tactics and grisly
executions that terrorised a nation
Written by Ben Gazur
I
t is a Sunday in 1481 and you have just Spain under the Muslims (known as
been to church. After the celebration al-Andalus) became one of the foremost
of the mass a sermon is read out. The centres of learning in Europe. Scholarship
message of the priest is clear – every flourished and many Christians came to learn.
sinner in town has 30 days grace to Because many Greek texts were lost in Europe
come forward and confess their sins. If you but had been preserved in Arabic translations
fail to confess you may find yourself tied to there was much that could be learned in
a stake, screaming in agony as the flames lick al-Andalus that was otherwise unavailable.
up your scorching flesh. Everyone has been The French scholar Gerbert of Aurillac in the
warned. If you’re a sinner, a heretic, or are 10th century learned mathematics and science
simply deemed suspicious, then you should in al-Andalus. He reintroduced the abacus and
expect a call from the Spanish Inquisition. armillary spheres to Europe and encouraged
study of Greek and Arabic texts. When Gerbert
FOUNDING THE TERROR was elected to the papacy as Sylvester II,
The Iberian Peninsula of the 15th century however, some saw his Arabic education as a
was not unified under Spain as it is today. sign of devilry. He was suspected of witchcraft
Nor was it wholly Christian. In the early 8th – some said his vast knowledge was derived
century the Umayyad Caliphate conquered from a brazen head automaton that he could
the Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania and consult by using magic. Suspicion between
controlled almost the entire Iberian Peninsula. faiths was common at the time.
For over 700 years there would continue to be Yet in al-Andalus, Muslims, Jews and
sovereign Islamic states there. Christians managed to coexist in relative
44
Illustrations by: Joe Cummings
45
The Spanish Inquisition
peace. Some historians speak of La Convivencia and Waldensians had all been detected and
– a spirit of toleration that existed between the destroyed by inquisitors sanctioned by the pope.
faiths. This concept may be a simplification, but In Spain the Inquisition was to be run
it is true that many Christians adopted Muslim differently. A papal bull of 1478 granting the
habits of dress and speech, and Jewish people formation of an Inquisition in Spain also gave
did not face the persecution they experienced Ferdinand and Isabella unique control of their
elsewhere in Europe. investigations into potential heresy. Instead of
For many Christians, however, the presence acting directly under the pope, the inquisitors of
of Muslim forces in Europe was an affront. Spain were appointed by the monarchs.
Campaigns against al-Andalus began almost at
UNDER SUSPICION
MASTER OR
once. These wars, known as the Reconquista,
would not stop until the last remnants of the The Spanish Inquisition was a religious
MONSTER?
Muslim states in Grenada were finally captured institution that had authority only over
in 1492. Christians. Jewish and Muslim people faced so
The Iberian Peninsula by then was divided many impediments in Catholic Spain that many
The name Torquemada has into three main kingdoms: Portugal, Castile and had converted to Christianity. These conversos,
become synonymous with the Aragon. Castile was ruled by Queen Isabella (converts from Judaism), and moriscos, (converts
worst excesses of the Inquisition and Aragon by her husband King Ferdinand II. from Islam), were often treated as highly suspect
Together they ruled one of the great powers by their Christian neighbours. In fact it was to
of Europe and became known as the Catholic hunt down ‘crypto-Jews’ and secret Muslims
Tomás de Torquemada was born into a
Monarchs (los Reyes Católicos) among these converts that the Inquisition was
prominent Catholic family in 1420. Despite his
later campaigns targeting conversos, one of While these two were undoubtedly devout initially formed.
his ancestors had converted from Judaism. Catholics, a question remained; how to protect There had long been a strong anti-Semitic
Torquemada struck up a friendship with Princess Catholicism in a realm riddled with those streak in Christian thought, and in Spain this
Isabella and became her personal confessor, recently converted from Judaism and Islam? was revealed by writers such as Alfonso de
giving him access to the highest levels of The answer was an Inquisition. Inquisitions Espina. In a work of 1460 he openly accused
government when she ascended to the throne. had been used for centuries across Europe Jewish people of poisoning wells and murdering
It was during a royal visit to Seville that to root out heretics. Cathars, Anabaptists, children, but he also targeted the conversos.
Torquemada convinced the king and queen
of the dangers posed by the city’s large
population of former Jews and Muslims. When “If you’re a sinner, a heretic, or simply
the Inquisition was given papal approval it
was Torquemada who became the first Grand deemed suspicious, then you should expect
Inquisitor, governing the whole operation of
hunting down heretics. For his zeal he was called
‘the hammer of heretics, the light of Spain, the
a call from the Spanish Inquisition”
saviour of his country, the honour of his order’.
Torquemada created the handbook that would
shape Inquisition investigations and set out the
punishments doled out to heretics. He ruled that
torture could only be used once on a suspect,
though the Inquisition managed to get around
this by declaring a session of torture ‘suspended’
to allow them to restart it later. His work did say
that “reconciled heretics and apostates should
be treated with much mercy and kindness”, yet
many complained of his harshness.
Torquemada may have been less zealous than
some of those who followed him, but he was
decisive in getting his monarchs to expel all Jews
from Spain in 1492. Those Jewish people who
converted in order to stay in Spain then found
themselves under the tender ministrations of
Torquemada and his Inquisition.
Tomás de Torquemada,
Grand Inquisitor of the
Spanish Inquisition, with
King Ferdinand II and
Queen Isabella in 1478
46
He wrote, “I believe that if a real Inquisition LEFT & INSET
Following the
were introduced among us, countless numbers capture of Grenada
of them would be condemned to the stake; for in 1492 Ferdinand
countless numbers combine the adherence to and Isabella had to
decide how to deal
Jewish customs with the observance of the with their new
Christian religion.” Muslim subjects
This formed the basis of how the Inquisition
BELOW The
would operate – hunting down any converso or spread of the
morisco who still held on to practices from their Spanish Empire
into the New
former religions. When the inquisitors came to World furthered
a town or city they would read a sermon that the reach of the
enjoined people to either confess their sins or Inquisition
religious backsliding, or for neighbours to come
forward and report those they suspected.
The list of ways that people who were clinging
to Judaism could be detected was extensive.
Did your neighbour’s chimney not smoke on a
Saturday? That could be a sign that they were
observing the Jewish Sabbath. Did they cook
with olive oil instead of pork fat? Looks like they
might be observing Jewish dietary laws.
Those who converted to Christianity but
were suspected of continuing to be Muslim
could expect to meet the Inquisition if one of
their neighbours saw them keeping Friday as
a holy day, wearing clean clothes at suspicious
times, or failing to drink wine. Just giving your
child a Moorish name was enough to bring the
inquisitors calling.
Even death was not enough to escape the
attentions of the Inquisition – after you were
dead your sins and activities could still be
investigated. If you were found guilty then you
could be burned in effigy. No one escaped the
wrath of the Inquisition.
After the expulsion of Jews from Spain in 1492
following the issuing of the Alhambra Decree,
and the reneging on a promise to respect
Muslims’ faith in Grenada, many thousands
of people converted to Christianity to escape
deportation. Their conversions, however,
brought them under the watchful jurisdiction
of the Inquisition.
THE COMING OF
THE INQUISITORS
Once the Inquisition turned its attention to a
certain location the 30 days of grace began in
which you could either come forward to confess
any wrongdoing or tell them of a neighbour’s
crimes. Once the period of grace ended the
Inquisition would move swiftly. The first sign
that you were under suspicion might be a knock
on the door.
People who were taken by the Inquisition
simply disappeared. You might not see a
friend for a year or two before they suddenly
reappeared. The actions of the Inquisition were
kept entirely secret. Agents of the Inquisition
were told, “Keep silence as far as the king and
the Inquisition are concerned!” Even prisoners
were forbidden from revealing what they had
seen in Inquisition prisons once released.
47
The Spanish Inquisition
48
Heretic hunters
if a person failed to confess there was a final was named as a heretic and apostate. After the
weapon in the arsenal of the Inquisition: torture. presentation of witnesses and counter-witnesses,
It’s thought that around a quarter of those the inquisitors voted to put Gonzalez to the
who were accused of a major heresy, or of being ‘water torture’. After warning her that “if during
a secret Jew or Muslim, were tortured. Those the torture some evil, damage, wound, or death
who then confessed their crimes would be occurred to her, it would be her fault and not
questioned a day later to ensure they had not theirs”, she was stripped and put on the rack.
spoken out through pain alone. A hood was placed over her head and water
With all evidence gathered, a vote would be poured down her nose and throat. After several
taken by the inquisitors to decide on the guilt of rounds of this she named others as secret Jews
an individual and then on what the appropriate but would not confess her own crimes.
punishment would be. The official judgement Having been held longer in prison, Gonzalez
would only be revealed later to the accused in refused to eat. This was taken as an attempt
front of a crowd of spectators gathered to watch to kill herself – another sin. The Inquisition
justice being done in the town square. Looking was unanimous in its judgement: Gonzalez
at a single case in the Inquisition files can reveal was guilty. She was “a relapsed heretic and an
much about how ‘justice’ was administered by apostate”. She was excommunicated, stripped
this terrifying process. of all her possessions and handed over for
When the conversa Marina Gonzalez punishment. On 30 June 1494, Gonzalez was
confessed during a period of grace announced burned at the stake.
in Toledo in 1484, she was forced to admit all
the ways she still held to Jewish practices. These FIERY ACTS OF FAITH
ranged from observing the Sabbath all the way The auto de fé (the Portuguese auto-da-fé means
down to eating unleavened bread. As well as ‘act of faith’) was one of the most spectacular
naming her own sins she named the men she events that many Spanish people would see in
claimed had led her into sinful ways. Gonzalez their entire lives. Often held in the main square
was reconciled to the Church and let go. of a town the auto de fé was the final step in the
Unfortunately, the Inquisition never forgot process of the Inquisition. Although the guilty
what it had heard and a confession could be had already been sentenced, the first they might
used against a person years later. In 1494, hear of their fate would be there, before the eyes
Gonzalez was hauled in front of the Inquisition of a vast crowd.
once again. The prosecutor claimed she had The event was always held with great pomp.
returned to her sins “like a dog to its vomit”. She The auto de fé was not only designed to punish
the wicked but to warn those who observed
it of the consequences of heresy. They were
held on public holidays to ensure maximum
attendance, and heralds blew horns and paraded
through the streets with the banner of the
Inquisition to gather the crowd. There was
also the suggestion that to miss it would be
to risk excommunication. There would be an
unforgettable show for any with the desire (and
stomach) to watch.
Events began early with a mass held in
the local church. Next came the procession
of the sinners. One witness of an auto de fé
recalled, “The men were all together in a group,
bareheaded and unshod, and since it was
extremely cold they were told to wear soles
under their feet which were otherwise bare; in
their hands were unlit candles [a symbol of their
extinguished faith]. The women were together
in a group, their heads uncovered and their faces
bare, unshod like the men and with candles...
With the bitter cold and the dishonour and
disgrace they suffered from the great number
of spectators (since a great many people from
outlying districts had come to see them), they
went along howling loudly and weeping and
tearing out their hair, no doubt more for the
In this illustration, dishonour they were suffering than for any
monks with quill and offence they had committed against God.”
paper await the torture
victim’s confession The sinners were led into the square wearing
sanbenitos – sackcloth garments worn by
49
The Spanish Inquisition
TORTURE FOR
THE TRUTH Strappado
The prisoner had their hands
tied behind their back and a rope
Torture was one of the means by which the was then attached to them.
Inquisition forced heretics to confess their sins They were then pulled upwards
by a pulley called the garrucha.
The prisoner was then dropped
suddenly. When the rope
Confession was the aim of the the accused could be tortured.
snapped taut the force dislocated
Spanish Inquisition. To return a Because the Inquisition was not
the arms from their sockets.
heretic or apostate to the Catholic supposed to draw blood or mutilate Should the prisoner’s arms
fold the Inquisition had to get the their prisoners their methods of remain in place then weights
wrongdoer to confess, otherwise torture were necessarily inventive. could be added to the feet and
they would forever remain outside With just three methods they the process repeated.
the Church. They also had to uncover managed to draw confessions from
the truth. Their handbook declared those who failed to provide them
that in cases that were “half proven” with proof of innocence.
Water torture
This method of torture, also known
as the toca, saw the accused tied
down and jar after jar of water forced
down their nose and throat. This was
The rack considered a ‘gentle’ torture and so
One of the most common forms was often used on women.
Thanks to Inquisitorial
of torture was to strap a prisoner
records we know
to the rack. While other forms
of torture on the rack pulled the exact words of
prisoners until their joints some of its victims.
snapped, the Spanish Inquisition One woman who
used constriction in their torture. was being tortured is
The ropes tying the accused down documented as saying,
could be twisted and tightened
“Gentlemen, for God’s
so they dug into the flesh of the
prisoner. This could be done on the sake, have mercy on
arms, legs and skull of the victim. me. Oh Lord! Take
these things off my
arms, sir, let go of me,
they are killing me!”
50
Heretic hunters
prisoners to mark them out. Those of the For some the punishment would be
repentant were slashed with red; those who a sum of money. Others might get a
refused to confess their crimes were given public flogging. Some faced perpetual
sanbenitos decorated with the flames of hell. imprisonment while others were forced
In the square the prisoners were presented to move into a monastery for a period
before the inquisitors, who sat on a raised stage. of years. Perhaps the most fearsome
Each prisoner was then in turn addressed and sentence, other than death, was to be
every particular of their crimes was read aloud sent to work the oars on a galley. Terms
for the whole town to hear. Each was then of eight years at the oar might well prove to
given the penance that the Inquisition judged be a life sentence.
to be fair. Even if you escaped with your life Even once the penance was paid there
the penance may have had lifelong effects. One could be more punishments for those found
penance declared, “For the next six Fridays the guilty. To be found guilty a second time, after
penitents should promenade through city streets being reconciled to the faith, led to increased
wearing neither shoes nor hats, scourging penalties. The sanbenito that you had worn
bared shoulders with cords of hemp. And it was to the auto de fé would be hung in the local TOP Victims of
church, emblazoned with your name so that you the Inquisition
prescribed, moreover, that they should fast on were often
these Fridays, and that for the rest of the days would never forget your transgressions. After imprisoned for
of their lives they should hold no public office… Martin de Enzinas was executed in 1496 for long periods
nor wear silk, nor fine scarlet cloth or any secretly practising Islam it took his family until
LEFT The grisly
coloured fabric, nor gold or silver, nor pearls or 1550 for the sanbenito to be taken down and Inquisition
coral or any other jewels.” escape the shame. inspired Edgar
Allan Poe’s The Pit
The worst fates were meted out to those
and the Pendulum
guilty of major heresy who refused to repent
of their crimes – these people were known as
“It is thought relajados. Their crimes were too serious for
the Inquisition to punish so the prisoner was
that around 4,000 ‘relaxed’ to the secular arm of the state. Those
who were to be put to death were told of their
people were executed punishment the night before the auto de fé so
that they might have one final chance to repent.
for their heresy” Repentance at this point might mean you
51
The Spanish Inquisition
were mercifully strangled before the fire was lords limited the role of the Inquisition in RIGHT
The burning of
lit. Those who refused to repent were carried their domain and some religious groups also apostates and
to a place of execution on the outskirts of the opposed it. Friar Hernando de Talavera wrote heretics was
town where they were tied to the stake and that “neither the Jew nor the Moor should be officially done by
the secular arm
incinerated while still alive. punished for keeping their faith… nor should of the state
You could not escape by having fled the they be forced to adhere to the Catholic faith”.
country or dying before your punishment. Even the pope wrote once that the Inquisition BELOW LEFT
An 18th-century
Those who were absent from the auto de fé were needed reform, declaring, “Many true and engraving
burned in effigy, because the Inquisition knew faithful Christians, because of the testimony of depicting people
being burned in
what the true purpose of the auto de fé was: one enemies, rivals, slaves and other low people, and Lisbon, Portugal
Inquisition text stated that “the end of the trial still less appropriate, without tests of any kind,
and execution is not the salvation of the soul have been locked up in secular prisons, tortured BELOW MIDDLE
Those sentenced
of the accused, but it is to achieve the public and condemned like relapsed heretics, deprived to burn at the
good by terrorising the people”. of their goods and properties, and given over to stake were dressed
the secular arm to be executed, at great danger in sanbenitos
decorated with
THE END OF to their souls, giving a pernicious example and devils, dragons
H E B L AC K
T
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Dec isition of be explored
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Practices of fa m ou s B oo k of
Foxe’s
Spain. John
Heretic hunters
53
D AY I N T H E L I F E “Inquisitors relied on
their spies as their
OF AN OFFICER eyes and ears, so
OF THE SPANISH maintaining a reliable
network was essential”
INQUISITION
Spain, 16th century
E
stablished in 1478 with the aim of ensuring the
‘orthodoxy’ of the Catholic faith – achieved by ordering
Muslims and Jews to convert or leave – the Spanish
Inquisition became infamous as a state-sanctioned
tool of repression and torture, a perception that
exists to this day. Although it was headed up by larger-than-
life individuals, like Tomás de Torquemada, as with many
repressive regimes throughout history, its enforcers
were for the most part normal people who believed
in what they were doing. Here we take a look
at how they did it.
COLLECTING REPORTS
Much of the Inquisition’s knowledge came from a
network of informants. Spain was predominantly
rural at the time and the inquisitors relied on
their spies as their eyes and ears, so maintaining
a reliable network was essential. Once they
arrived in an area they would call for reports on
those suspected of heresy, with anyone providing
information generally being rewarded.
HOW DO WE
LEGAL WORK KNOW THIS?
The Rare Books & Special Collections section of the
Inquisitors were certified, university-trained Hesburgh Libraries of Notre-Dame website provided
lawyers, and as such they were required to keep on a particularly useful grounding in the subject
top of their game in this regard. Being an official in matter, giving information on the motivations and
responsibilities of officers, as well as an overview of
the Spanish Inquisition had its advantages, be they
their hierarchy. Similarly, The Spanish Inquisition:
financial or social, as well as in terms of power 1478-1614 by Lu Ann Homza details a series of
and influence. However, it also left them open to informative accounts of the tribunal process, as well as
resentment and conflict from their neighbours the various types of interrogation and torture methods
that were used during the time period.
and subjects, and as such they always had to be on
their guard.
54
An officer of the Spanish Inquisition
DENUNCIATION
After swearing a denunciation of a particular
individual or group who had caused offence, a
so-called ‘term of grace’ was routinely issued,
consisting of 30 to 40 days, during which time
the suspects were allowed to prepare their own
defence while the inquisitor prepared his case. The
accused was provided with a lawyer and was not
allowed to be officially questioned unless in the
company of two disinterred priests.
BRINGING A
SUSPECT IN FOR
QUESTIONING
The suspect was given the benefit of their own
lawyer, although they weren’t allowed to know
the identity of their accuser(s). Those accused
by Spanish Inquisition officers were effectively
considered guilty until they were found to be
innocent, which in the process greatly skewed the
odds of a fair trial.
CONDUCT TRIBUNAL
Inquisitors would travel the country conducting
tribunals, which comprised two inquisitors, a
secretary and other members. It usually began with
an edict of grace after a Catholic Mass, following
which the accused would be encouraged to confess
their transgressions. Officers were trained in
interrogation techniques, specifically in how to
question the accused in a confusing or misleading
manner, thus getting them to admit guilt.
INTERROGATION
& TORTURE
If the accused was unwilling to confess, various
methods of torture were used, either by the
inquisitors themselves or while they were
in attendance. These included starvation, as
well as instruments like the rack and methods
like strappado. Mutilation through the use of
thumbscrews, pincers and the like was officially
banned, although in 1256, Pope Alexander IV
had decreed that officers could clear each other
of using them, effectively creating a loophole
inquisitors would later exploit.
REPORTING TO THE
GRAND INQUISITOR
The hierarchy of the Spanish Inquisition was quite
rigidly structured. Officers from courts around the
country would report to one of the five members
of the High Council. The High Council’s members
reported to the grand inquisitor, who in turn was
chosen by – and answerable to – the king of Spain.
© Alamy
55
LOS REYES
CATÓLICOS
They should have been obscure aristocrats. Instead
the unpredictable outcome of their dramatic love
story saw Ferdinand and Isabella unite the kingdoms
of Spain under Christian law
Written by April Madden
I
t was like the ending of a fairy tale. The Meanwhile, her beloved Ferdinand had crossed
young princess of Castile was radiant. hostile territory disguised as a servant, bearing
Isabella was everything a noble maiden a holy dispensation that would allow him to
should be: educated, artistic, devout, marry Isabella despite the obstacles against
and unlike many women of her class at their union. The lovers’ daring elopement had
the time, she was marrying for love. Her story succeeded against incredible odds, and now,
so far would have rivalled the ballads of any here in Castile’s justicial palace, they were
troubadour. After her father’s death, Isabella’s finally married. For thousands of their future
despotic half-brother had inherited his throne victims, though, the wedding of Ferdinand
as Henry IV of Castile. Trapping his half-siblings and Isabella would not be happy ever after, but
Isabella and Alfonso in a desolate fortress in instead the beginning of years of torment.
the city of Arévalo, where they were frequently While Isabella and Ferdinand were madly
short of food, fuel and clothing, Henry then tried in love, their marriage was still an arranged
to marry his younger sister off to a succession one, planned by their parents when the couple
of kings and princes in order to further his were children to cool the fractious relationship
pursuit of power, even though Isabella had been between the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon.
pledged to Ferdinand of Aragon since the two When Henry came to the Castilian throne,
were children. however, the union of his shrewd younger sister
In spite of Henry’s machinations, it was her with the increasingly volatile Aragonese royal
adored Ferdinand that stood beside her now family was a threat not only to his political
in the Sala Rica, the great hall of the Palacio ambitions but to his tenuous grip on power.
de los Viveros. Isabella had prayed, and God Known as the ‘Impotent’, Henry IV was not
had answered her. One by one the matches a well-liked king, and the young Alfonso of
that Henry had negotiated to benefit himself
had come to naught. It was 19 October 1469,
and a couple of nights ago Isabella had politely “The lovers’ daring
asked for and been given Henry’s permission
to journey from his court in Segovia to Avila, to elopement had
pay her respects at the grave of their younger
brother Alfonso, who had died the year before succeeded against
at the age of 14. Instead, she had ridden hard for
Valladolid, the seat of Castilian political power. incredible odds”
56
Los Reyes Católicos
57
The Spanish Inquisition
58
Los Reyes Católicos
THE
PORTUGUESE
INQUISITION
Portugal's Inquisition targeted
Jewish refugees fleeing from
Spain, as well as Africans,
Muslims, Hindus and more
RIGHT Royal
couple Isabella
of Castile and
Ferdinand of
Aragon became
the rulers of a
unified Spain
when they
inherited the
thrones of
their respective
kingdoms in The Portuguese Inquisition in 16th-century
the 1470s Goa, India, holds an auto de fé, burning
convicted heretics and non-believers in an
elaborate quasi-religious rite
59
The Spanish Inquisition
ABOVE Cardinal
Rodrigo Borgia,
who became Pope
Alexander VI,
was a powerful
influence on the
royal couple and
was instrumental
in their founding
of the Spanish
Inquisition
INSET The
young Ferdinand
was hailed as
a prodigy: a
brilliant knight,
master tactician,
politician and
diplomat, he was
also considered
dazzlingly
handsome
territorial expansion but mainly by the larger Catholicism. But the Spanish faith still retained soaring edifices and dark shadows of Gothic
Christian kingdoms like Castile, Aragon and the its unique flavour and fervour. While most of architecture, which is designed to create a
ill-fated Córdoba pushing back at the borders the Church concentrates on the image of the feeling of terrified awe. Gothic cathedrals were
of al-Andalus. Dubbed the Reconquista, this adult, crucified Christ the Redeemer, Spanish intended to evoke a similar emotional state to
‘reconquest’ of al-Andalusian territories had Catholicism’s Arian roots made its oldest being lost in the mighty forests of northern
been going on since the first Muslim invasion of iconography lean towards the image of the Europe, with people dwarfed by their inhuman
Iberia in the 8th century and was encouraged by Christ Child. Arians believed that Jesus was not scale and left trembling with fear and wonder.
the Church, who presented the later Crusades in a pre-existing, eternal aspect of God but only Nowhere in Spain is this more obvious than in
a similar light. Not only did Christian territorial came into being at the Nativity, which for them Toledo Cathedral.
expansion provide more worshippers and more was literally the birth of a new god. Dedicated to the Assumption of Mary (the
resources, but the idea of Holy War suited the This early focus on Jesus’ physical birth in idea that on her deathbed Mary was lifted
region’s unique approach to the Catholic faith turn predisposed later Spanish Catholicism bodily into Heaven and enthroned as its queen),
and its ambitious church leaders. to Marianism, an emphasis on the veneration its gloriously colourful and gilded interior is
The Iberian Peninsula had begun to of Christ’s mother, Mary. In medieval Spanish illuminated here and there by hidden windows
Christianise after the fall of Rome, as Visigothic iconography, parallels are drawn between the that light upon glimmering statues of the Holy
tribes swept through much of the lands of Christ Child and the human soul; both are cared Mother, as if random sunbeams just happen
the former empire. The Visigoths had initially for and led by the motherly love of Mary. Instead to be directing the faithful through a darkness
followed an outlawed branch of Christianity of one’s sins needing redemption by Christ, one full of half-seen presences towards the peace
called Arianism. They made their Iberian can place their hand in Mary’s to be guided by a and safety of Marian grace. This motherly,
capital at Toledo, and it was there, in 587 CE, strict but loving mother to do the right thing. mystical, manipulative version of Catholicism,
that their king, Reccared I, renounced the Meanwhile, Spanish Catholicism’s culturally highly focused on innocence, righteousness
heresy of Arianism and embraced mainstream Germanic roots gave it a propensity for the and the expansion of the faith, was the Church
60
Los Reyes Católicos
conquest and conversion at home and abroad The Emirate of Granada was
“It was Rodrigo were the moral thing to do, but the beliefs, the last bastion of al-Andalus.
Ferdinand and Isabella’s forces
precepts and priests of the Church that they had
Borgia that had been raised in told them that this was the case.
captured it in 1491 and in
1492 it officially surrendered,
putting an end to Muslim
And nobody was more persuasive than Cardinal
procured the papal Rodrigo Borgia, later Pope Alexander VI.
rule in Spain
61
The Spanish Inquisition
ABOVE The
We think of the Borgias as Italian, and statue of the
indeed with a number of papacies in the Virgin Mary and
family line the dynasty soon moved east and Christ Child
illuminated
became Italianised, but they were originally against the
from Xàtiva, a town in Valencia, which in backdrop of the
the 15th century came under the dominion ornately Gothic
Toledo Cathedral
of Aragon. Rodrigo was raised in the same is an iconic image
branch of righteous, Reconquista-inflected of medieval and
Renaissance
Catholicism as Isabella and Ferdinand, Spanish
and like them he believed in the divinely Catholicism
motivated justice of his actions. Pope
LEFT Ferdinand
Sixtus IV had left the decision to order the and Isabella issued
dispensation for the marriage of Ferdinand the Alhambra
and Isabella to Rodrigo’s discretion; he chose Decree in 1492,
ordering the
to do so to further his aim of brokering peace expulsion of
between Aragon and Castile. Jewish people
from their
Rodrigo’s vision for Iberian unity reached kingdom
its apex in the 1470s. Isabella took her late
brother’s throne of Castile in 1474, although BOTTOM
RIGHT A page
she was embattled in a war for succession from a breviary
with Henry’s daughter Joanna, now married that belonged
to King Afonso V of Portugal, until 1476, when to the devoutly
Catholic Isabella.
the Portuguese forces were defeated at the It contains
Battle of Toro. prayers and
devotions to be
In 1479, John II of Aragon died, and made throughout
Ferdinand inherited his father’s throne. the day
Having accorded each other the rights and
privileges of co-ruler and regent, by 1480
Ferdinand and Isabella were no longer merely
62
Los Reyes Católicos
the Holy Office of the Inquisition in Spain, but and deed. The Inquisition became their way of
it wasn’t until 1492 – the same year that they making that a reality.
63
Prisoners of the Spanish Inquisition
would often be hung by their arms
until their shoulder joints gave way
64
TOMÁS THE
TORTURER
Even by the standards of the Spanish Inquisition,
Tomás de Torquemada was a fanatic. This is the
story of how an ambitious Dominican monk rose to
become the most feared of all the Grand Inquisitors
A
s chronicler of the early years of ambition that would one day propel him to the
the Spanish Inquisition, Sebastián heights of powers. In his youth he entered into the
de Olmedo once described Tomás San Pablo Dominican monastery and committed
de Torquemada as “the light of to his faith and studies of theology. This
Spain, the saviour of his country, serious, pious young man did not go unnoticed:
the honour of his order”. From our standpoint of Torquemada was promoted to become Prior of the
more enlightened times, that glowing assessment monastery of Santa Cruz at Segovia, a position he
is highly contestable, yet there is no refuting de would hold for 22 years. But he would gain still
Olmedo’s further thoughts on Spain’s first and more influence as the confessor and confidant of
most ferocious Grand Inquisitor. Torquemada, he Princess Isabella, advising the future Queen of
writes, was “the hammer of heretics”. Castile from her childhood and even helping to
More than any other 15th-century figure, engineer her unifying marriage of 1469 to King
Torquemada personified the Inquisition’s worst Ferdinand of Aragon.
excesses of sadism and cruelty, a bleak ringmaster From this position of trust and influence, in
mercilessly conducting this darkest era of which he could whisper into the royal court’s
medieval history. As Rafael Sabatini writes in his most important ears, Torquemada was perfectly
book, Torquemada and the Spanish Inquisition, placed to benefit from – and even dictate – the
“The history of Tomás de Torquemada is not so kingdom’s shifting socio-political tides. While
much the history of a man as of an abstract genius Dominican inquisitors had patrolled the kingdom
presiding over a gigantic and cruel engine of its in search of heretics for the last few centuries, in
own perfecting. Through the records that survive 1477 the sovereigns successfully petitioned Pope
we may observe its cold, smooth action, and trace Sixtus IV for the creation of Spain’s Holy Office for
in this the awful intelligence of its architect.” the Propagation of the Faith. The resulting papal
Born on 14 October 1420 (most accounts bull issued on 1 November 1478 – Exigit sinceras
believe his birthplace to have been the Spanish devotionis affectus (translation: Sincere devotion
municipality of Valladolid in the Kingdom Of is required) – was effectively the sanctioning of the
Castile) Torquemada soon displayed the steel and kingdom’s own dedicated Inquisition.
65
Torquemada depicted in
1478 with King Ferdinand
II and Queen Isabella I. The
sovereigns’ decisions were
heavily influenced by their
Grand Inquisitor
But who to lead it? Given Torquemada’s favoured continued to practise their original faith in secret
status with the sovereigns, his unbending and corrupt society by stealth.
commitment to Church orthodoxy and his white- “The attitude was poisoned further by the fact
hot animosity towards all those who strayed or that many conversos were very prominent,” the
falsely professed their faith, the Dominican was historian Cullen Murphy explained in an interview
the obvious choice. By 1483, Torquemada was with NPR. “They had positions in government.
duly installed as Grand Inquisitor of Spain and They had positions in finance. They had positions
he swiftly set to work casting the Inquisition in in the military and even in the Church. So the idea
his own image. A year later, at a general assembly that behind-the-scenes Judaising conversos were
in Seville, Torquemada unveiled the 28 crimes doing their deeds and undermining the state had a
to guide the investigations of his underlings powerful resonance.”
(these included heresy, apostasy and blasphemy, It was a paranoia amplified by Torquemada
plus offences spanning from sorcery to sodomy) himself, despite his own chequered ancestry (his
alongside the prescribed tortures that could be uncle, Juan de Torquemada, was a converso). “A
used to extract a confession. Jew, born into a family of converts,” writes Dan
Even before the Spanish Inquisition began, Graves on Christianity.com, “he turned most of his
Torquemada had been eyeing his quarry. During fury against his own people.”
this period, in the face of growing persecution, On 31 March 1492 – no doubt with a push
vast swathes of the country’s Jewish and Muslim from Torquemada – the sovereigns issued the
populations had renounced their faith and Alhambra Decree, which ordered the expulsion
converted to Catholicism in the hope of finding of all practising Jews from Spain. Some 40,000
peace. Yet these so-called ‘conversos’ – the Jews people of Jewish faith were forced out with little
now insultingly referred to as ‘marranos’, the more than the clothes on their backs, but as many
Muslims as ‘moriscos’ – remained deeply troubling as 50,000 marranos remained, regarded with
to Ferdinand and Isabella, who believed that many fierce suspicion by the religious establishment
66
Tomás the torturer
FAR LEFT
One Inquisition
torture method
saw a chain pulled
ever-tighter across
a prisoner’s chest
until it began to
break bones
LEFT A depiction
of Jews pleading
for their lives with
Torquemada – to
no avail. Some
estimates state
that as many as
2,000 people died
during his reign
BOTTOM LEFT
Queen Isabella
I of Castile was
advised from
childhood by
Torquemada, and
her confessor
would become a
powerful influence
in her kingdom
elaborate device stretching their bodies by indefinitely. Fiercely single-minded, flanked by fashion of the countless auto de fé executions he
agonising increments until their limbs were pulled bodyguards and refusing to bow even to the had himself sanctioned. A tribute to the forefather
from their sockets. The prosaic application of highest authority (he even continued his brutal of the Spanish Inquisition, or a long-awaited act of
chains to a heretic’s chest, or burning coals to their practices in the face of a papal bull issued by Pope revenge from the descendant of a victim? We will
bodies, could be just as effective. Sixtus IV pardoning the conversos), Torquemada probably never know.
67
A detail from Francisco
Rizi’s painting, showing one
of the condemned wearing
the tall hat detailing his
crimes and the sanbenito,
with the monks still trying
to convince him to repent
AN AUTO DE FÉ
The reality behind the lurid legend of the auto de fé
Written by Edoardo Albert
F
irst, let us settle the terminology. Is it the image of people burned alive before an
auto-da-fé or auto de fé? Both phrases assemblage of religious and civic dignitaries. “An Inquisition
mean ‘act of faith’ but auto-da-fé is While not the entire truth, the popular image is
Portuguese and auto de fé is Spanish. not a lie. People did die, consigned to the flames, was declared when
Auto-da-fé is used more in English, at the end of an auto de fé.
even when people are talking about the Spanish An Inquisition was declared when intelligence intelligence reached
Inquisition, despite the Portuguese Inquisition reached the local inquisitor of possible heresy.
being less notorious and less deadly. As we are Having arrived in the city or town where heresy the local inquisitor of
looking at the Spanish Inquisition we will use was suspected, the inquisitor showed his
auto de fé. credentials to the local authorities, religious and possible heresy”
The auto de fé was the culmination of an secular, and then declared a feast day when all
Inquisition. Its name still evokes terror and the local people, with their children and servants,
68
An auto de fé
had to attend Mass. Having preached a sermon, The auto de fé was declared on a feast day so
the inquisitor then held up a crucifix before the that everyone could attend. It began with a grand
congregation and required everyone present to procession of local dignitaries and – macabrely
raise their right hand, make the sign of the cross – the merchants who provided the fuel for the
and then swear to support the Inquisition. pyres to the square where the auto de fé was to
The people having sworn their support, take place. The inquisitorial standard was placed
the inquisitor read out the edict of grace. The on the scaffold and then everyone withdrew for a
Inquisition was concerned with extirpating night of prayer and preparation.
heresy and saving souls, not burning people. The following day began with the procession
By its own lights, the burning was simply the of the prisoners to the square. Those who had
consequence of heretics persisting in heresy escaped punishment by absconding or dying in
despite being given every chance to repent. prison were carried to punishment in the form Executions were not part of the main ceremony of the auto
Thus, at the start of an Inquisition, people of pasteboard effigies. Then came the procession de fé but rather normally occurred somewhere nearby,
where the pyres had been prepared
were given a period of grace, usually 30 or 40 of the condemned, men and women wearing
days, to confess their sins to the Inquisition and tall hats with their crimes written on them, and to the flames; those who remained stubbornly
be reconciled to the Church. If people confessed sanbenitos, the linen surplices that denoted unrepentant were burnt alive, a truly agonising
within the permitted time, they generally someone found guilty by the Inquisition. The end. If it sounds terrible, it was. It was designed
suffered little in the way of punishments. prisoners were paraded before the dignitaries and to be (although the burning was not a key part of
The main way that the Inquisition acquired then made to stand while the inquisitor made his the public spectacle).
information was from informers. However, the entrance, taking his place on a rostrum or balcony Previous estimates of the number of people
accused was not told the name of his or her overlooking the proceedings. burned by the Spanish Inquisition, numbers
accuser(s). Neither were the precise details of the With everyone present, they then celebrated ranging in the tens or hundreds of thousands,
accusation given to the defendant on the grounds Mass. After the Mass, the sentences were read have been shown by careful analysis of the
that it might help them identify their accuser out. Those who were condemned but not records to have been wild exaggerations. It now
– and have them assassinated. Anonymous executed were put on display so that all present seems clear that somewhere between three
accusations thus became an easy way of settling could see them. Those who were to be executed and ten thousand people were executed by the
personal grudges. were then taken from the square to the place of Inquisition through its centuries of operation.
Faced with this, many people, particularly if execution where the pyres were waiting for them. This is much fewer than what legend suggests,
they came from Jewish or Muslim backgrounds, Those who abjured their beliefs were granted the but it is still little comfort to those who were
decided it was safer to accuse themselves of a mercy of being strangled before being consigned condemned and consigned to the flames.
relatively minor crime than risk being subject
to anonymous accusations. It was this fear of Eugenio Lucas Velázquez’s
anonymous denunciations that fuelled the 19th-century painting
atmosphere of paranoia that surrounded the shows the pasteboard hat
and sanbenito that were
Inquisition. What was worse, an accuser could placed on the accused to
claim part of the accused’s property should he or mark them out during the
she be found guilty and condemned. It was an auto de fé
informers’ charter.
Sometimes, out of fear, people would accuse
friends and relatives to pre-empt any accusations
that might have been levelled against them. In
Granada, María Alvarez ‘revealed all that has
been discovered about her mother and sisters
and relatives’. Once arrested, the accused’s goods
were sequestrated until the case was concluded,
sometimes reducing dependants to poverty.
Torture was an accepted method of
interrogation, although in this the Inquisition was
merely following general practice in Europe and,
indeed, its use of torture was, relatively speaking,
more humane than that of the secular authorities.
Once the Inquisition had rendered judgement
on a sufficient number of people, it might declare
an auto de fé. This was the public expression
of the results of an inquisitorial visitation: the
solemn sentencing of those whom the Inquisition
had found guilty.
The auto de fé began as a public act of penance,
when the guilty confessed their sins and were
either reconciled to the Church or, if unrepentant
or repeat sinners, were condemned. But by the
mid-16th century it had become a public spectacle
Images: Alamy
69
The Spanish Inquisition
Francisco Jiménez de
Cisneros, painted by
Juan de Borgoña
70
FRANCISCO
DE CISNEROS
How a good man can leave the world
worse than the way he found it
Written by Edoardo Albert
F
ew men better illustrate the paradoxes
at the heart of the Inquisition than
Cisneros gave it all up and entered a Franciscan
friary, adopting the name Fray Francisco. As a friar, “With Isabella’s
Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros.
Confessor to the queen, Grand Inquisitor,
he gave up all his personal wealth and voluntarily
adopted a notably ascetic life, sleeping on the support, he was able
statesman, university founder and
benefactor to the poor, Cisneros was incorruptible,
ground, fasting, and living for periods as a hermit.
Everything changed in 1492 when Cisneros was to force change on the
fearless and entirely disinterested in acquiring
personal wealth. But his religious zeal, which saw
recommended to Queen Isabella I as her personal
confessor. Taking this role, Cisneros found himself recalcitrant orders"
him push through reforms of Spain’s all-too-venal counselling the queen not just on her personal
clergy despite vigorous opposition, also led him spiritual life but the larger religious questions of the Byzantine Empire, had fallen to the Ottoman
to force conversion upon thousands of Muslims the realm. So impressed was Isabella that in 1495 Turks at the other end of the Mediterranean).
in the newly reconquered lands of Spain’s south, she tried to appoint him Archbishop of Toledo, the The new Archbishop of Granada, Hernando de
creating a problem that would endure for a century richest and most powerful episcopal post in Spain. Talavera, proceeded with the conversion of the
after his death. Cisneros ran away and resisted the appointment new Muslim subjects of Ferdinand and Isabella
Cisneros was born Gonzalo Jiménez de for six months, until finally a letter from the pope by peaceful persuasion, learning Arabic himself
Cisneros in 1436 to an impoverished hidalgo ordered him to accept the post. and encouraging his clergy to do so as well. But
(lower nobility). Having entered holy orders, As Archbishop of Toledo, Cisneros set about when this approach produced few converts, Queen
Cisneros went to Rome to study, where he became reforming the Church in Spain. He started with Isabella’s new confessor, Francisco de Cisneros,
impressed by the new humanist learning and his own order, the Franciscans. As he knew all who had taken over the post from Talavera,
gained the attention of Pope Paul II, who sent too well, the Franciscans in Spain had drifted a demanded a more aggressive approach.
him back to Spain with a letter stating that the long, long way from St Francis’ vision of an order The forced mass conversions that resulted
next bishopric in Toledo that fell vacant should wedded to poverty and chastity. Cisneros required produced a population of alienated people, the
be given to him. However, the archbishop ignored them to be faithful to their oaths of celibacy, to moriscos, who were nominally Catholic but who
the pope’s letter and, when Cisneros insisted, actually live in the parishes they were supposed were not accepted as such by other Spaniards
the archbishop had Cisneros thrown into prison. to serve, to go to confession and to preach on and many of whom wished to return to their
Cisneros spent six years languishing behind bars. Sunday. Although many Franciscans resisted, old cultural and religious practices. The problem
At any time he could have been released if he had some fleeing to North Africa with their concubines proved insoluble and, in the end, the moriscos
given up his claim to a bishopric but, in an early and becoming Muslim, Cisneros expanded his were expelled from Spain in 1609. Cisneros bears
display of the stubborn sense of right and wrong reforms to the other mendicant orders. With much of the responsibility for the suffering and
that would distinguish Cisneros throughout his Isabella’s support, he was able to force change on impoverishment this caused.
career, he refused to recant. the recalcitrant orders. Cisneros was appointed Grand Inquisitor in 1507,
In the end, the archbishop gave up and Cisneros However, the stern will that enabled Cisneros a post he held for ten years. He also sponsored one
was made Vicar General of Sigüenza. A brilliant to reform the Church in Spain also rendered of the great scholarly enterprises of the age, the
clerical career lay in front of him. Then, in 1484, him completely inflexible with respect to the Complutensian Polyglot Bible, in which the Greek,
Muslims living there. In 711 the first wave of Latin and Hebrew versions of the Old Testament
Cisneros overseeing the conversions of the Islamic conquests swept through Spain, and by were printed in parallel columns with the Aramaic
Muslims of Granada in a rather fanciful 718 the Visigothic Kingdom had been overthrown, at the bottom, and parallel versions of the Greek
19th-century painting by Edwin Long
with almost all of the Iberian Peninsula held and Latin texts of the New Testament.
by the invaders. It took Charles Martel’s victory Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros died on 8
at the Battle of Poitiers in 732 to stop Muslim November 1517 having ensured the peaceful
armies continuing their march into Europe. Thus accession to the throne of Charles V. He died a
began the long and slow war of reconquest (the faithful servant of Spain, a man of incorruptible
Reconquista) that witnessed the slow advance of personal morality who sought to help the poor
Christian realms southward until finally only the and foster learning. Yet he was stained by the
Emirate of Granada remained. The Emirate fell to fruits of his zeal, which were measured in lives lost
the King Ferdinand II and Queen Isabella I in 1492 and wasted – a tragic legacy of a good man who
(39 years after Constantinople, the last bastion of imposed his goodness on others.
71
REFOR MATION
AND RETRIBUTION
74 The birth of the 106 The Thirty Years’ War “Suspecting a
Reformation In 1618 vast swathes of Europe
The gravest threat to the power of plunged into a savage conflict that lord of relapsing,
the Church would not originate on would claim millions of lives
the battlefield but in the minds of a particularly
pioneering thinkers who dared to 114 The beginning of fervent bishop
challenge the status quo the end?
80 The German
Inside the complex treaty that ended had his target
three decades of killing and fatally
Peasants’ War undermined the once powerful Holy tried and burned
Roman Empire
Inspired by the ideals of the
Reformation to seek the rights at the stake”
and freedoms denied to them,
thousands of peasants revolted
against the established powers that
ruled them. They would pay for
82
their courage in blood
82 The Counter-
Reformation
Far from willing to sit idly by as the
ripples of the Reformation spread,
the Church deployed various
means by which to try and stifle the
teachings of Protestantism
90 A global conspiracy
The Spanish and Portuguese
empires wasted little time in trying
to ‘cleanse’ the souls of their new
subjects as their realms expanded
74
106 96
Martin Luther at the Diet of Worms,
where he showed dedication to his
beliefs in the face of opposition
THE BIRTH OF
THE REFOR MATION
The greatest climacteric in Christian history
began 500 years ago with Martin Luther’s initial
protest. It would challenge the ideologies of
Catholicism and shake the Church to its core
W
e are apt to think of the late Christendom. There was excess and corruption, and tore the continent apart. It is always worth
medieval Church as a mire just as there always had been, but in many remembering, however, that this was not Luther’s
of abuses, crowded with ways the devotional life of Europe remained in original intention. At the outset, in 1517, he was a
disgruntled parishioners and tolerably good health. Many thought that change little-known professor at a lacklustre provincial
scandalous priests. From was necessary, but few anticipated a revolution, university who simply wanted to provoke
this perspective, the 16th-century Reformation and virtually nobody saw the Reformation that academic debate. By the time of his death, in
can seem inevitable, a necessary cleansing of the was to come. 1546, he would be lionised by one of his closest
stables. While it is true that dynamic figures such This makes the developments of the 16th friends as “the charioteer of Israel who has led
as the Bohemian Jan Hus and the Englishman century, inaugurated by Martin Luther’s protest, the Church in these last times”. A lot can certainly
John Wycliffe made urgent calls for reform all the more remarkable. In the past, dissent had happen in a little under 30 years.
during the 14th and 15th centuries, we should not been localised and ultimately snuffed out. This Born in Eisleben, Saxony, in 1483, Luther
assume that everything was rotten in the state of time around, it rapidly gathered momentum proved a gifted student and, after university
74
The birth of the Reformation
studies, seemed destined for a legal career. Tied to such musings was Luther’s scepticism, in fact an entirely routine practice and, if Luther
Terrible weather intervened. In 1505, Luther was or outright dismay, regarding some of the followed suit in October 1517, it would not have
caught in a severe thunderstorm and, fearing for central beliefs and practices of the established caused a great stir.
his life, made a pledge to St Anne that, should he Church. Indulgences came in for particularly The truly significant move was sending
survive, he would take up a monastic vocation. sharp criticism. These documents, granted in copies of the theses, along with provocative
It seems likely this was simply the catalyst for a return for good deeds or even financial payment, letters, to two leading Churchmen: the bishop
decision that Luther was already edging towards, were held to provide remission for sins and of Brandenburg and, crucially, the archbishop of
but, sure enough, he headed for the strict reduce the period of punishment in purgatory. Mainz. Luther’s fundamental criticisms were not
Augustinian monastery at Erfurt. Luther found this notion, and particularly its especially novel, but the underlying theology held
He would be ordained, pursue commercialisation, deeply offensive, latent potential for disruption. Key issues about
theological studies, both at Erfurt not least when a wide-ranging ecclesiastical authority and topics as sensitive as
and Wittenberg, and embark indulgence-peddling campaign grace and salvation were at stake. Though Luther
During his
upon a teaching career. These, was launched in Germany, presumably did not anticipate the consequences,
though, were troubled years for career Luther chiefly aimed at raising funds his actions demanded a response, and over the
Luther. He found it impossible produced 544 books, for the rebuilding of Rome’s St coming two years he was summoned to Rome
to conceive how he, or any pamphlets and articles. Peter’s Basilica. (an invitation that he declined) and quizzed by
person, could merit the This was the spark for uneasy theologians.
precious gift of salvation. He
In 1523 alone he Luther’s famous Ninety-five Matters came to a head in Leipzig in 1519.
began to find answers through brought 55 works to Theses, penned in 1517. Though Johann Eck, a skilled debater, challenged Luther’s
his reading of Paul’s Epistle the presses routinely, and not unreasonably, ideas, made comparisons between Luther and
to the Romans. No matter how regarded as the starting gun of Jan Hus, and through his rhetoric pushed Luther
wretched and corrupt human beings the Reformation, the theses were towards outbursts he would probably have
might be, God still offered them the hope only intended to provoke scholarly preferred to avoid. “Are you the only one who
of eternal bliss. The single prerequisite was belief. discussion about the rectitude of indulgences. knows anything?” Eck asked at one point. “Except
“Faith alone,” Luther later wrote, “without works, Historians continue to argue over whether the for you, is all the Church in error?” Luther’s reply
justifies, frees and saves.” Luther did not reach his theses were nailed to the door of the castle was perilously blunt: “I want to believe freely and
conclusions in a single eureka moment, but this church in Wittenberg, and there is every chance be a slave to the authority of no one, whether
concept of being saved, not as a result of our puny that this seemingly epochal event was a later, council, university or pope. I will confidently
actions, but through faith and the extraordinary, mythologising concoction. The crucial point, confess what appears to me to be true, whether it
unmerited generosity of God, would emerge as however, is that advertising academic debating has been asserted by a Catholic or a heretic.” The
one of the cornerstones of Protestantism. points by displaying them on church doors was touchpaper had been lit.
75
Reformation and retribution
Luther,
nicknamed the
'Nightingale of
Wittenberg,' was
The papacy’s response was initially sluggish face the Holy Roman Emperor, known for his fine Luther held to the principle of sola
but was ultimately ferocious. By 1520 Luther was Charles V, at the Diet of Worms. singing voice scriptura: that scripture alone was
saying some withering things about the court of Luther had hoped for a meaningful the guide to faith and the blueprint
Rome: it had become “the most lawless den of debate but instead he was simply for every aspect of devotion and ritual.
thieves, the most shameless of all brothels, the instructed to renounce the contents of his Such a precious commodity was to be
very kingdom of sin, death and hell”. In June of books. With no small courage he declared that available to all the faithful. Luther’s translation of
1520, the pope issued a bull, Exsurge Domine, if he did so “all I shall achieve is to add strength the complete Bible appeared in 1534 and, over the
which called on Luther to recant. “Foxes have to tyranny and open not the windows but the next 40 years, 100,000 copies were produced.
arisen” in the vineyard of the Lord, the document doors to this monstrous godlessness”. Declared The power of print reached far beyond Holy
warned, and “the wild boar from the forest seeks a heretic and an outlaw, Luther’s life and liberty Writ, of course. Luther began to compose
to destroy it”. In Germany, “lying teachers are were in peril, so, on the way back to Wittenberg, a influential and best-selling tracts in the late
arising… their tongues are fire, a restless evil, fake kidnapping was arranged with Luther being 1510s and he was responsible for a fifth of all
full of deadly poison. They have bitter zeal, transferred to the safe harbour of the formidable Protestant literary output during the 1520s. If
contention in their hearts, and boast and lie Wartburg Fortress. any single factor explains the startling success
against the truth.” Here, Luther completed his translation into of his movement, and all Protestant movements
Luther publicly burned the document in German of the New Testament. The idea of that followed, it is this alliance with the fledgling
December, and, in short measure, a bull of vernacular Scripture was not novel (the medieval technology of the printing press. No previous
excommunication arrived. It denounced the era had seen its share of Biblical translations) dissenting Christians had enjoyed such a tool
Wittenberg professor as an “accursed heretic” and but it gained new momentum during the 16th with which to spread their message.
the “slave of a depraved mind”. Strong stuff, but century and would go on to become another of It is crucial to stress that, even after the
Luther’s trials were far from over. He now had to the defining characteristics of the Reformation. showdowns with emperor and papacy, Luther
76
The birth of the Reformation
LEFT The
Peasant’s War
of 1524–25 was
inspired, in
part, by Luther’s
theology. The
conflict came
to a bloody end
at the Battle of
Frankenhausen
BELOW Luther’s
1543 tract On the
Jews and their
Lies, marked the
height of his anti-
Semitic sentiment
LUTHER AND
JUDAISM
In his 1523 tract That Jesus Christ was Born a Jew, always tarnished his
Luther argued for the toleration of Germany's reputation: On the
Jewish population, going so far as to suggest that Jews and their Lies.
Jews should be able to pursue careers in any given In its pages,
profession they desired. Luther urged the razing of Jewish synagogues and
This did not signal affection or admiration of buildings, the destruction of Jewish books, and
Judaism, however. The goal was to treat Jewish the prohibition of rabbinical teaching. Jews, he
people with a modicum of dignity so that they barked, had proven stubborn through their refusal
might be more likely to convert to Christianity. to accept Christ: they were as hard as “a stick, as
Luther's profound theological distaste for Judaism stone, as iron, as the devil”. They remained the
was always unflinching. Tellingly, the suggestions of "bitter, virulent, and vicious enemies of Christians"
the 1523 tract were never enacted in any Lutheran and the wisest policy would be to expel them and
territories and, through the 1530s, Luther's “be rid of the unbearable, devilish burden.” Luther
attitudes hardened. By 1543 he was composing would still be making such pronouncements in his
one of his most vicious texts, and one that has very last sermon of February 1546.
was a long way from establishing a robust and rebellion between 1524 and 1525. At first, in
clearly defined new Christian denomination. his Admonition to Peace, Luther accepted that
At this early stage, hope of reconciliation was the rebels had some legitimate complaints
not lost and reform from within still seemed while regretting their tendency to justify
feasible. Events were quickly spiralling out disobedience through appeal to the Gospels.
of control, however, and Luther’s own By the time he wrote Against the
success made an irreversible schism Robbing and Murdering Hordes of
increasingly likely. Across the Luther once Peasants, Luther’s innate social
German-speaking parts of the conservatism was given full
empire, Luther’s ideas were
found a dog in his voice. The powers-that-be ought
winning influential support. In room and, thinking to “smite, slay and stab” the
Nuremberg, in 1521, reformed it to be Satan, threw insurgents, “remembering that
preaching was permitted and nothing can be more poisonous,
it out of the
other towns and cities, like Ulm hurtful or devilish than a rebel…
and Strasbourg, followed suit. window it is just as when one must kill a
Lofty princes such as Albrecht of mad dog.” Luther talked in terms
Brandenburg-Ansbach and Philipp of of two kingdoms – the secular and the
Hesse also joined the ranks. religious – but this did not excuse the rejection
Less welcome, from Luther’s point of view, of legitimate political authority. He believed
was the recruitment of his message by the in the liberty of Christians, but he could not
German peasants and farmers who rose in tolerate his ideas being hijacked by rebels. From
77
Reformation and retribution
now on, the Lutheran Reformation was to be of for any hope of Protestant unity. To the as some over-philosophised magical change.
the magisterial variety: overseen by territorial south, in Zurich, Ulrich Zwingli had been Zwingli, by contrast, insisted that the Eucharist
and municipal rulers. forging a more radical vision since was a symbolic memorial of Christ’s
This need to sustain order permeated Luther’s 1522, marked by more radical sacrifice, no more no less, and that
activities during the 1520s and 1530s. He had theologising and iconoclastic Luther liked any notion of the Real Presence
returned to Wittenberg from the Wartburg in excess. In 1529 Luther met his beer, declaring was abhorrent. This seemingly
1522 precisely in order to check the radicalism of with Zwingli at the colloquy that the more you abstruse point of theology,
overly enthusiastic followers who, in his absence, of Marburg. It was a disaster. one among many differences,
had begun to behave as if they had “devoured The chief sticking point was
drink, the more you made any meaningful
the Holy Spirit, feathers and all.” Luther would the Eucharist. Luther had no sleep, and the more reconciliation between the two
always insist on being the custodian of his own time for the Catholic notion you sleep, the less men impossible and signalled
message. In the same spirit, he often took the of transubstantiation, in which you sin a division between Lutheranism
lead in defining the ecclesiastical structures and the substance of bread and wine and the so-called Reformed
devotional priorities of his emerging Church, and transformed into the substance of Churches, with Calvinism soon to
generations of Lutherans would be guided by the Christ’s body and blood, preferring the follow in Zwingli’s footsteps.
pithy, accessible catechisms he produced in 1529. idea of consubstantiation: the substance of the This sense of fragmentation would come
Luther’s was not the only version of Reform, bread and wine coexisting with the body and to define Protestantism. Differences over
however, and this posed daunting problems blood of Christ without what Luther regarded doctrines of salvation, ecclesiastical structures,
1521
The Diet of Worms
Following Luther's excommunication in January 1521, he
is summoned to the Diet of Worms, the empire's highest
legislative body. Here he faces the Holy Roman Emperor
Charles V (pictured). Rather than the theological debate
anticipated by Luther, he is simply shown his books and
told to renounce them. After a day's consideration, Luther
refuses to comply.
Having been denounced as a heretic and an outlaw,
Luther's life is in danger and his protector, Frederick the
Wise of Saxony, stages a mock kidnapping on the route
back to Wittenberg. Luther is taken to the safety of the
Wartburg Fortress where he remains for 11 months.
1517
The Ninety-five Theses
Historians differ over whether Luther nailed his famous
theses to the door of the church at Wittenberg Castle
(pictured), but the posting of points for academic
debate was common practice and would not have
ruffled feathers. Printed editions of the theses had
begun to appear in Nuremberg, Leipzig and Basel
by December. A tract, in German, summarising his
arguments appeared in 1518 (the Sermon on Indulgence
and Grace) and had gone through 12 editions by the
end of the year. Luther was summoned to Augsburg in
August 1518 to be quizzed by the papal legate, Thomas
Cajetan, where his recantation was demanded but very
much not forthcoming.
Timeline
1483 1501 1505 1507 1519 1520
l Birth of Martin Luther l Luther enrols at l Luther enters the l Luther ordained as priest l Disputation at Leipzig l The first major works
Born in Eisleben, Saxony, 10 University of Erfurt monastery Also in this year, Luther The Ingolstadt theologian Three epochal tracts appear:
November, Martin was the Luther would study the Caught in a storm, Luther makes his first visit to Johann Eck engages with The Address to the Christian
son of Hans Luder, a copper liberal arts at this centre makes a pledge to St Anne the recently founded Luther and presses him to Nobility of the German
miner, and Margarethe. The of humanist thought and that he will become a monk Wittenberg University. He make bolder statements Nation, The Freedom of
couple would have eight other become Master of Arts if he survives. He goes to gains a lower theology than Luther likely intended, the Christian Man (both in
children. Martin later altered in 1505. He embarked on the monastery of the order degree in 1507 and his who is compared to 14th- German), and the Latinate
the spelling of his surname. higher legal studies. of Augustinian Eremites. doctorate in 1512. century heretic Jan Hus. Babylonian Captivity.
78
The birth of the Reformation
the number and nature of sacraments, and political map meant that Catholic and Lutheran After Luther’s
countless other fault lines emerged. It was towns and principalities sat side by side bold stand at the
impossible to contain what Luther had and would shortly fall into conflict. Diet of Worms
in 1521, he was
unleashed within a single vision A compromise of sorts arrived in whisked off to
of what Protestantism ought Though a 1555 with the Peace of Augsburg. the safety of the
Wartburg Fortress
to be. Luther’s version claims sophisticated From now on, the local ruler was
primacy in terms of chronology, theologian, Luther at liberty to choose between
however, and while a product Catholicism and Lutheranism
of its time and place, it did displayed the common and impose it upon his
reach back to some of the touch in his writings, subjects. It was a messy
aspirations of the medieval with homely solution but one that would
firebrands. The difference was have been unthinkable just half
images
that it spread and endured. a century earlier, when almost
By the time of Luther’s death in everyone believed in the fiction of
1546, the religious landscape of Germany a united Christendom. Wittingly or not,
was in chaos. The patchwork nature of the Martin Luther had extinguished that dream.
1529 LEFT
An image from
Speyer and Marburg Luther’s German
translation of the
At the Colloquy of Marburg, the Lutheran New Testament.
prince Philipp of Hesse hopes to reconcile the For Luther,
leaders of the Swiss and German Reformations. scripture was the
Disagreements over the Eucharist make it true guide to faith
impossible for Luther to reach accord with
the leader of reform in Zurich, Ulrich Zwingli
(pictured). At the Diet of Speyer, five Lutheran
princes launch a formal protestation because
earlier freedom for rulers to determine how to
respond to the Reformation within their own
territories is rescinded. The use of the word
Protestant, referring to this event, comes into
use from this point.
l Return to Wittenberg l German Peasants’ War l Luther marries l Augsburg Confession l Formation of l Luther’s death
A rise in religious extremism, Though rooted in socio- Luther weds Katharina von The codification of Schmalkaldic League After preaching his final
notably the arrival of economic discontent, Bora, a former nun who Lutheran doctrines This defensive alliance of sermon on 14 February,
the Zwickau prophets in preachers loyal to the rebels arrived in Wittenberg in 1523. and worship, drafted Lutheran princes and towns Luther dies in his
December 1521, forces Luther appeal to Luther's concept The couple have six children. played a major role in the hometown of Eisleben on
Images: Alamy
by Melanchthon, is
to return to Wittenberg. of Christian liberty. The The death of a daughter, presented to Charles V at expansion of Lutheranism. the 18th of the month. He
He works to dampen the peasants' demands carry Magdalena, in 1542 sends the Diet of Augsburg and It came into conflict with is 46 years old and is buried
radicalism of reformers. echoes of Luther's ideas. Luther into despair. published the next year. Charles V. in Wittenberg.
79
1 5 2 4 –2 5
Timeline
JUNE 1524 6–20 MARCH 1525 4 APRIL 1525 13 MAY 1525
The Countess of Lupfen Representatives from The peasants attempt The peasants attack
demands a harvest of the separate groups to attack the city of Weinsberg Castle,
snail shells from the of peasants meet Ulm in the Battle of achieving victory
count’s tenants on and discuss a set of Leipheim. Catching and taking the count
a holiday. Instead, common demands. sight of the Swabian prisoner. They execute
the peasants raise a They agree on League, they him along with 70 other
banner and create a list what is known as the attempt to retreat but nobles, but this causes a
of grievances. Twelve Articles. 1,000 are killed. divide among the peasants.
80
The German Peasants’ War
Thomas Müntzer
1490 – 27 May 1525
Inspired by Luther’s ideas,
Müntzer became a leading radical
reformer and supporter of the
revolt, even personally leading
29 APRIL 1525 SEPTEMBER 1525 troops in battle.
Georg Truchsess
The Battle of The remains of the
Frankenhausen sees the rebellion are put
von Waldburg
peasants defeated in down and many 25 January 1488 – 29 May 1531
battle against the armies peasants return Known as “scourge of the peasants”,
of Phillip I of Hesse and to their farms.
the commander of the Swabian League
George, Duke of Saxony. The peasant
Müntzer is captured and movement has had a reputation for being harsh and
killed shortly after. ultimately failed. pitiless towards his enemies.
81
Reformation and Retribution
82
THE COUNTER-
REFOR MATION
The forces of Catholicism were neither willing nor
able to ignore the growing spread of Protestantism
Written by Ben Gazur
N
ewton’s third law of motion states
that “for every action there is an
equal and opposite reaction”. This
holds true in mechanical systems
but can be just as true for social
forces. The pressure of the Protestant Reformation
was met by a reaction from the Catholic Church.
The Counter-Reformation involved the forces of
states and the Church pushing back against the
theological revolution being unleashed in Europe.
83
Reformation and retribution
84
The Counter-Reformation
LEFT
Pope Paul III
approved the
formation of the
Jesuit order, who
were employed
in fighting the
Reformation
through education
– and other means
INSET Charles
V, Holy Roman
Emperor,
attempted
to conquer
Protestant states
in his domain
but was forced to
acknowledge some
religious toleration
BELOW
The Index of
Prohibited Books
sought to keep
works that went
against Catholic
doctrine out of
the hands of
the faithful
85
Reformation and Retribution
86
THE ROMAN
INQUISITION
The Inquisitorial arm of the pope has a largely
undeserved reputation for repressing the
advance of science
Written by Edoardo Albert
I
n 1542, Europe was splitting apart into that both sides, Catholic and Protestant, spent the
the rival political and religious camps better part of 100 years attempting to extirpate
produced by the Reformation. The old the rival religion.
religion, which had encompassed the Within the context of this calamitous conflict
whole continent, had fractured, but the Roman Inquisition was actually a relatively
quite where the borders would lie remained an mild influence. Pope Paul III founded the Roman
open question. Both sides, the Catholic and the Inquisition in 1542 as an office of the Catholic
Protestant, were convinced of the truth of their Church, dedicated to ensuring that states in
causes and believed that they would prevail and union with the Church carried out papal bulls as
Europe would again confess one religion, with well as rooting out heresy and acting as part of
the heretics or the papists purged. the wider Catholic Counter-Reformation.
It is important to remember that neither side In practice, the Roman Inquisition operated
of this conflict believed in an individual right to mainly within the states of the Italian
freedom of conscience or religion. This was not Peninsula (Italy would not become a single
because they were stupid or moral imbeciles, unified country for another 300 years) acting
but rather flowed from the world view that both to remove Protestant influence and maintain
sides shared: they were dealing with the fates of Catholic orthodoxy. Pope Sixtus V developed
men’s immortal souls. Against that, neither side the organisation of the Inquisition further in
brooked the right of people to persist in what 1588 when he published Immensa aeterni Dei,
they saw as heresy. Both sides also believed
fervently in the ideal of social unity, of a state,
under its monarch, confessing a single faith in
LEFT
one god. The idea that we have now come to
Galileo Galilei (1564–
1642) was impatient accept, that rival political and social strands of
with fools and sure society should form ‘parties’ and take it in turns
of his own opinions,
even if he was to run countries following elections to see which
wrong. But he was was currently more popular, would have seemed
also the founder of absurd to our forebears, not to mention a recipe
modern astronomy
and one of the for endless civil wars.
most important It was only the dreadful toll of the Wars of
thinkers in history,
Religion in France, as well as the Thirty Years’
so his arrogance was
largely justified War in central Europe and Germany, that
convinced both parties that trying to bring
RIGHT Despite
being under house Europe back to confessional unity by force
arrest, Galileo was was futile. Exhausted by conflict, the rival
not prevented from factions signed the Peace of Westphalia in 1648,
seeing visitors. Of
these, perhaps the effectively ending the European wars of religion.
most unexpected The Roman Inquisition was one of the agencies
was the young
that exacerbated the tensions of the 16th and 17th
English poet John
Milton, future author centuries, but it is important to remember that it
of Paradise Lost was only a small part of the overall conflict and
87
Reformation and retribution
88
The Roman Inquisition
LEFT
Galileo’s trial before
the Inquisition
became a key part
of the 19th-century
idea of the war
between science
and faith
BOTTOM A
key figure in
the Counter-
Reformation,
Cardinal Robert
Bellarmine played
a crucial role in the
condemnation of
Giordano Bruno and
the exoneration of
Galileo in his first
Inquisitorial trial
for his work among the Jesuits in Rome he went yet it moves”) after his formal recantation appears
ahead and published his Dialogue Concerning to be a later invention, first appearing a century
the Two Chief World Systems in 1632. Galileo after Galileo’s death.
had been encouraged to write the book by the The Inquisition sentenced Galileo to house
pope himself, Urban VIII, who had been a strong arrest rather than imprisonment, and he spent
supporter of Galileo’s work despite being attacked the remaining ten years of his life at his villa,
for his patronage by parts of the Church. Pope although he was allowed to travel to Florence for
Urban VIII asked Galileo to set out in the book medical advice. The Galileo Affair was used by
the arguments for and against the two competing polemicists in the 19th century to advance the
systems and ensured that Galileo had formal idea that religion and science were fundamentally
permission from the Roman Inquisition to at odds. However, modern historians have
publish the book. showed that the case had nothing to do with
So, at the express request of the pope, Galileo repressing scientific knowledge and everything
wrote the Dialogue. He put the arguments for to do with clashing personalities acting against
heliocentrism into the mouth of a philosopher a backdrop of political conflict. If Galileo was
named Salviati, and the arguments against he a martyr to anything, it was to his inability to
gave to a character he named Simplicio, a pun refrain from insulting his own supporters.
on the Italian word ‘semplice’, meaning ‘simple- The Roman Inquisition remained, issuing an
minded’. Far from being even-handed, Galileo index of forbidden books (on which it had placed
completely loaded the argument in favour of Galileo’s Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief
his desired conclusion. What was worse, from World Systems) but its position within Italian life
the point of view of the pope, was the fact that was ended by the reunification of Italy in 1861,
Galileo seemed to be identifying him with the when the Papal States were conquered by the
character of Simplicio. new country. Within the Roman Catholic Church
At a stroke, Galileo had managed to lose his the Inquisition was renamed the Holy Office, The Congregation of the Doctrine of the Faith
single most powerful and influential supporter becoming the official watchdog of orthodoxy. was renamed the Dicastery for the Doctrine of
Images: Getty Images; Alamy
– and he did so entirely unnecessarily. He was It became involved in the controversy over the the Faith in 2022, but it remains what it was: the
hauled up before the Inquisition, his views were liberation theology of the 1960s and ’70s, ruling arbiter of what is and is not possible within the
condemned and he was required to formally that while the Church fundamentally chose the purview of Catholic teaching. As an institution,
renounce them on pain of punishment. The story poor, it could not support liberation theology’s however, it is a long way from the days of Galileo
that Galileo muttered, “Eppur si muove,” (“And adoption of Marxist class analysis. Galilei and Giordano Bruno.
89
Reformation and Retribution
A GLOBAL
CONSPIRACY
With the New World now within its reach, the
Inquisition wasted little time in unearthing heretics
throughout Spain and Portugal’s new territories
Written by Bee Ginger
B
y the time Spanish and Portuguese bubbling away at home, spreading the reach and
soldiers were landing on the wrath of the inquisitions into newly conquered
beaches of the New World in the late territories was a tragic but natural next step on
15th century, populations in their the road to forcibly converting minorities to the
respective homelands had already Catholic cause. From the villages of Mexico to
suffered extensively at the hands of inquisitions the jungles of Brazil and the shores of Goa, the
determined to crush even the slightest hint tentacles of the Inquisition stretched far and
of religious dissent. With such religious zeal wide, with varying degrees of devastation.
90
A global conspiracy
MEXICO
The Mexican Inquisition was orchestrated by Catholic Church, which in turn saw the Spanish
the Holy Office of the Inquisition, established afford their new subjects a degree of leniency.
in New Spain in 1571. Initially spearheaded by In response, many natives acquiesced and
an archbishop named Pedro Moya de Contreras, converted. Their sheer numbers also prevented
who founded the ominously named Tribunal the Spanish from utilising harsher methods.
of the Faith in Mexico City, the Inquisition was Even so, not everybody was as easily brought
an extension of the draconian methods already into the fold. For them, certain punishments
long deployed in Spain to root out heretics and were reserved. A particularly fervent bishop by
extract confessions. the name of Juan de Zumárraga, suspecting a
Backed by the papacy, the Spanish monarchy baptised former Nahua lord of relapsing into his
was determined to cleanse its new territories old religious ways, had his target tried and then
and instil the ways of Catholicism in the natives. burned at the stake.
However, unlike other such religious campaigns,
the Inquisition in Mexico was not particularly
violent, with approximately 50 people (mainly
“Their sheer numbers
those who practised Judaism) executed between
1571 and 1820, an average of less than five a year.
also prevented the
This was due to a myriad of reasons, one
being the many similarities between native
Spanish from utilising An unfortunate soul by the name of
Simon Lopez is singled out by the
religious beliefs and practices and those of the harsher methods” Mexican Inquisition, 1642
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Reformation and retribution
PERU
Executed from a Holy Office based in Lima,
the Peruvian Inquisition relied on a variety of
methods to expose Muslims, Lutherans and Jews,
ranging from a series of tests used to unearth the
truth about a person’s religious views to clamping
down on the circulation of books.
Paranoid by thoughts of Protestant ideas being
disseminated throughout its precious overseas
territories, the Spanish crown charged inquisitors
with routinely examining ships and luggage
at Peruvian ports in a bid to locate and seize
any inflammatory tomes being smuggled into
the New World. Further measures were taken
in 1605 in the form of an order that compelled
booksellers to furnish inquisitors with full
inventories. People were also forced to denounce
anyone they suspected of possessing books
deemed heretical, including the Quran or any
title that furthered the views of Martin Luther.
Refusal to condemn a known rule-breaker could
result in excommunication.
Yet, despite the Holy Office’s zealous efforts
(which extended to expunging offensive words
and passages from certain books), banned books
continued to circulate, their prevalence aided by These models, housed in the Museo de la
the lack of money and manpower afforded to the Inquisición in Peru, depict an inquisitor
interrogating an unfortunate prisoner
Inquisition in Peru.
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A global conspiracy
“Neither position
afforded her much
protection when she
was suddenly accused of
practising Paganism”
GOA
In the wake of Vasco da Gama were often snatched away
discovering a route to India from their parents and banned
via the Cape of Good Hope, from inheriting their father’s
Portugal was desperate to property. For those even just
colonise the western coast suspected of continuing to
of this vast and exotic land. adhere to their original faith,
In order to aid this quest, barbaric punishments awaited.
Pope Nicholas V granted the Victims could be flogged,
Portuguese crown the authority placed in a rack, have their
to impose Christianity upon eyeballs crushed, or be burned
the local populace. Upon at the stake. On occasions
seizing Goa, the Portuguese when more extreme methods
swiftly started to shut down were deemed expedient,
places of worship used by entire settlements were put
the local Hindu, Muslim and to the torch and sometimes
Jewish populace. In time, a parent was forced to watch
350 temples were razed to as their child was burned.
the ground. Only forswearing their faith
Forbidding any resident of and converting to Catholicism
Goa from practising any faith could spare the child being
except Catholicism, the settlers totally incinerated.
confiscated religious texts Few historians would argue
and books written in various that the Inquisition in Goa
languages previously spoken was not the most ruthless and
in Goa. Hindus were prevented bloodsoaked campaign waged A curious crowd masses in
Portuguese-occupied Goa to watch
from accessing high office or by the Portuguese crown in the the burning of 20 doomed souls
testifying in court, and children supposed battle against heresy.
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Reformation and retribution
A WORLDWIDE MISSION
The kingdoms of Spain and Portugal were determined to convert the
New World to Catholicism, by any means necessary
E
ncouraged by the funding and
ambitions of Queen Isabella I and
King Ferdinand II, in 1492 an explorer
from Genoa named Christopher Columbus
traversed the vast expanse of the Atlantic
Ocean in search of new lands. He would
in time reach the shores of the Caribbean,
Central and South America, strange, exotic
places that would rapidly be colonised
by the rapacious forces of the Spanish
and Portuguese crowns. But it wasn't just
soldiers who crossed the ocean to help
subjugate the natives dwelling in these
lands. Priests, bishops and, of course,
inquisitors, sailed for the Americas, where
they worked tirelessly to convert local
populations to Catholicism. Often this
process proved to be relatively peaceful,
but this wasn't always the case. Never to be
described as squeamish, the forces of the
Inquisition had no qualms about deploying a
variety of malicious methods in their efforts
to make it abundantly clear to friend and foe
alike that only one faith would be tolerated
by the Iberian crowns.
94
A global conspiracy
95
Reformation and Retribution
BLOODY MARY
ON TRIAL
Scourge of England’s Protestants, does
Mary deserve her infamous title?
Written by Nicola Tallis
W
hen a princess was born
to Henry VIII and his wife
Katherine of Aragon on 18
February 1516, the royal
couple were overjoyed.
Named Mary, she was to be the couple’s only
surviving child, and as such her parents doted on
her. Nevertheless, she was not the male heir that
her father desperately needed to succeed him – a
circumstance that would prove to be pivotal not
only in her life but in the life of all English citizens.
However, for the first years of her life, Mary’s
childhood was a happy one. She was brought
up surrounded by all the luxurious trappings of
royalty and was given a splendid Renaissance
education befitting her status. She was an able
pupil and particularly excelled in languages.
In 1527, Mary’s happy family life was shattered
when her father loudly declared his intention to
separate from her mother. He had fallen in love
with one of the queen’s ladies, Anne Boleyn,
and Henry was certain she could give him what
Katherine could not: a son. This was to be the
start of the unhappiest period of Mary’s life, and
the effects on her would be permanent. As Henry
began proceedings to have his marriage annulled
in order to marry Anne, both he and his new love
treated Mary with increasing unkindness.
Despite being separated from her mother,
Katherine’s strength gave Mary courage and,
in the face of persistent bullying from the king,
both mother and daughter refused to bow to
his demands. They refused to acknowledge that
Katherine and Henry’s marriage had been invalid,
making Mary illegitimate. This angered Henry
greatly and caused a rift between father and
daughter that was to continue for many years.
On top of this, the effect that the psychological
stress had on Mary was staggering: she suffered
from bouts of ill health and her emotions were
96
Bloody Mary on trial
97
Reformation and retribution
in constant turmoil. Her father was unmoved by as the queen of England. This caused Anne
the fragile state of his daughter, and as the years great frustration, and she ordered her aunt
passed and the annulment proceedings dragged to “box her ears as a cursed bastard” if Mary
on, life showed no signs of improving for Mary. continued to refer to herself as princess, but it
“Few other women in the world of her rank ever did not come to that.
lived more wretchedly,” a Venetian ambassador Worse was to come for Mary, when, on
would later remark. 7 January 1536, her mother died. She was
In January 1533, Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, distraught and fell ill shortly afterwards. Anne
who was pregnant, were secretly married. Shortly Boleyn was elated, but her triumph was short-
after, having endured seven years of frustration lived. On the day of Katherine’s funeral, Anne
during which time the pope refused to annul miscarried a child that had the appearance
his first marriage, Henry’s authority as supreme of being male. Like Katherine before her,
head of the Church of England was formalised Anne had failed to produce a living son, and the
in parliament. In May, the king’s archbishop of king’s patience was exhausted. In May, Anne was
Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, officially declared executed on trumped-up charges of adultery and
his marriage to Katherine to have been null incest, and, like her sister before her, Elizabeth was
and void: Mary was now formally disinherited. declared illegitimate.
Neither Mary nor her mother accepted this At the end of the month, the king married for
pronouncement, but there was little that either of a third time, taking as his wife one of Anne’s
them could do. ladies, Jane Seymour. Unlike Anne, Queen Jane
98
Bloody Mary on trial
MONARCHS WITH A
TASTE FOR MURDER
ESTIMATED KILLS
80–90 ESTIMATED KILLS ESTIMATED KILLS
300–380 2,000–30,000
disinherited by her father. There is no doubt that Mary under Edward’s rule. He was as fervently
How Philip and Mary HER RIGHTS other religion than Catholicism, but her defiance
would ultimately cause a permanent rift in her
made it to the altar Henry VIII died on 28 January 1547 and was relationship with her half-brother.
succeeded by his nine-year-old son, Edward VI. When the 15-year-old Edward died childless in
Mary’s mother, Katherine of Aragon, had always Despite his earlier treatment of his daughter, in the July 1553 following a period of ill health, it was
hoped that her daughter would make a Spanish latter years of Henry’s reign life had become more discovered that rather than honouring the terms
match. It was a wish that Mary also cherished, settled for Mary. She had a privileged lifestyle, set out in his father’s will, he had named his
but she had never met her future bridegroom,
Philip, and in a similar manner to other foreign
royal marriages, there was a protocol to be
adhered to. “Mary had compromised her faith once
EXCHANGE PORTRAITS
In the case of foreign
during the reign of her father, and was
marriages, when it was not
always possible to see your
determined not to do so again”
future spouse in person, it
was common for portraits to
be sent to your intended. In and her accounts reveal that she appreciated fine Protestant cousin, Lady Jane Grey, as his heir to the
some instances this did not food, was fond of clothes and jewels, and loved throne. Once again an attempt had been made to
work out well, the most famous music. She also liked to ride and hunt and gambled deprive Mary of her rights.
example being that of Mary’s at cards. She had enjoyed good relationships On 10 July, Lady Jane Grey was publicly
father and Anne of Cleves – he
fell in love with her portrait but was repulsed by
with most of her stepmothers, particularly her proclaimed queen. Mary, meanwhile, had learned
her in person. Mary had no such worries and was father’s last wife, Katherine Parr. Furthermore, of her half-brother’s death and the attempts to
besotted with Philip’s portrait by Titian. though both she and Elizabeth remained legally oust her from her place in the succession, but
illegitimate, her father had restored them both rather than bowing down she was determined
to their place in the succession should their half- to fight. She fled into East Anglia where she was
CONCLUDE brother, Edward, die childless. Despite the fact they a major landowner and incredibly popular; this
NEGOTIATIONS had both been raised as Protestants she was fond proved to be a wise move. Making her way to her
In January 1554,
representatives of Philip’s of her younger siblings and often lavished them stronghold of Framlingham Castle, Mary was able
father, the Emperor Charles V, with gifts. to rally her supporters, who flocked to her banner
arrived in London in order to But life would become increasingly difficult for in the coming days. Though Lady Jane Grey’s
finalise the negotiations for
Philip and Mary’s marriage.
At this time it was agreed that
Philip would not be given any
authority above the queen and would merely
assist her in her duties as her consort.
THE WEDDING
On 25 July 1554, Philip
and Mary were married
in a splendid ceremony at
Winchester Cathedral. It
was conducted in Latin,
and after the wedding
the couple spent ten days Seen here renewing a gifted
honeymooning in the city, residing in luxury at hospital to the City of London,
Wolvesey Palace. Edward VI was committed to
continuing his father’s work
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Bloody Mary on trial
QUEEN MARY
On 1 October, Mary’s achievements seemed to be
complete when she succeeded in becoming the
first queen regnant of England to be crowned. A
queen regnant reigning supreme in England was
unprecedented, and thus Mary had no example
from which to follow. This certainly later worked
in her half-sister Elizabeth’s favour, as she was able
to learn from Mary’s mistakes. Mary, however, had
Mary’s entry into London, accompanied by over
800 followers, proved very popular with the crowds good reason to believe that a woman could rule
successfully. Her maternal grandmother, Isabella
of Castile, had been an effective monarch in her
own right, and Mary’s mother had always believed
that her daughter could do the same.
Four days after the coronation, Mary’s
parliament met and passed the First Statute of
Repeal. This erased all of the religious policies that
had been put in place by Edward VI, for Mary was
determined that England ought to be returned
to the Catholic Church under the jurisdiction of
the pope. At the same time she was given the
opportunity to correct a wrong that had remained
with her for many years: the marriage of her
parents, which had been denounced by Thomas
Cranmer, was declared to be valid, finally securing
her own legitimacy.
An extract from Edward VI’s diary about his In a further step to secure her position, in April
father’s attempt to change Mary’s religious views 1554, parliament passed the Act for Regal Power.
With her husband Philip’s could not be said of the English Machyn recorded that it was, “…
encouragement, Mary finally garrison stationed at Calais, and the heaviest tidings to London and
agreed to lend English support on New Year’s Day 1558, 27,000 to England that ever was heard of”.
to Spain’s war against France in French troops attacked the town. Moreover, plans to try to regain
March 1556. It was an unpopular On 7 January it surrendered and was possession came to nothing. For
move and stretched the country’s declared a reclaimed land. centuries blame for the loss of
already strained resources to the Calais was the last English Calais has been aimed squarely at
limit. Under the leadership of the possession in France and had been Mary. This is too simplistic a view,
Earl of Pembroke, the English army in its hands since 1347 when Edward however, and at the time it was
fought well and achieved a decisive III captured the town. The loss was not seen in this way. It is therefore
victory against the French at Saint both disastrous and humiliating unfair to attribute it wholly to
Quentin in 1557. However, the same for England, and the diarist Henry Mary’s actions.
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Reformation and retribution
This consolidated the queen’s power “as fully and Though various candidates were suggested, the The idea of a Spanish marriage was unpopular in
absolutely” as it had been for any of Mary’s male most popular being Mary’s English cousin, Edward England, but the queen was blind to the concerns
predecessors: despite her sex, her authority was to Courtenay, in Mary’s mind the decision had of her subjects. Not only was Philip a Catholic, he
be on a level with theirs. already been made. She declared her intention to was also a foreigner; the English were suspicious
Though Mary was queen in her own right, wed her second cousin, Philip of Spain. He was the of foreigners, and it was greatly feared that
it never occurred to her that she would rule son of the emperor and was 11 years Mary’s junior. Philip would try to embroil England in Spain’s
alone. From her infancy she had been primed He was an attractive prospect to Mary because of wars. Unknown to Mary, there were those in the
for marriage, and it had always been anticipated his Spanish heritage and his familial links with her country who were determined to protest against
that she would marry abroad. She had been mother, but she was naïve if she thought that her the marriage, and a plot was afoot that would test
briefly betrothed to her cousin, the Holy Roman decision would be accepted without protest: her the loyalty of her subjects and threatened to undo
Emperor Charles V, when she was only six years personal wishes overruled her political judgement. everything she had fought for.
old, but the negotiations had come to nothing. Under the leadership of Sir Thomas Wyatt, a
Almost immediately after her accession, therefore, REBELLION, DEATH Kentish gentleman, a rebellion was planned that
thoughts of matrimony began to occupy not only
Mary’s mind but those of her councillors too.
AND IMPRISONMENT sought not only to prevent Mary’s marriage to
Philip but also to deprive Mary of her throne.
Instead, she would be replaced with her Protestant
half-sister, Elizabeth, who almost certainly had
“Under enormous pressure from her some prior knowledge of the plot. More crucially,
one of the key conspirators was Henry Grey, Duke
advisers she had no choice but to of Suffolk, the father of Lady Jane Grey who had
been incarcerated in the Tower since Mary’s
order Jane’s execution” accession. Upon learning of the rebellion, Mary
took matters into her own hands. Standing in
front of her subjects at London’s Guildhall, she
beseeched her people to stand firm against the
traitor Wyatt and his followers and to remain true
to their anointed sovereign. Her powerful words
had the desired effect, and Mary’s people remained
loyal to their queen. The rebellion was a washout
and Wyatt and his followers were captured. Mary
had been victorious once again.
The failure of the Wyatt Rebellion had
disastrous consequences for Lady Jane Grey, and
her father’s involvement sealed her fate. Mary’s
hand was now forced, and under enormous
pressure from her advisers she had no choice but
to order Jane’s execution. Mary agonised over
the decision and tried to find a way around it, but
there was none. On 12 February 1554, 17-year-old
Jane was executed.
It was not just Jane who was to suffer as a result
of Wyatt’s treason. Before long, Mary’s officers had
arrived at Elizabeth’s door in order to summon
her to London for questioning over her role in the
Lady Jane Grey spends rebellion. Pleading ill health, upon her arrival in
her last moments praying
before the fall of the the capital Elizabeth had the curtains of her litter
executioner’s axe drawn back so that the citizens could witness the
102
Bloody Mary on trial
Philip II was a
SISTER ACT
powerful monarch
who controlled
territory on each
continent then
known to Europeans Mary I and Elizabeth I: just how similar
were the two Tudor queens?
VS
MARY I ELIZABETH I
LENGTH OF REIGN
5 YEARS 45 YEARS
INTELLIGENCE
Both Mary and her half-sister were Elizabeth was highly praised for
given an excellent education. Though her intellect, and her tutors were
her abilities as a scholar were never unanimously impressed with her. She
exclaimed as highly as Elizabeth’s, Mary took great pleasure in showcasing her
was an intelligent woman. A contemporary skills by translating work into various
observed that, “…she is skilled in five languages and presenting it as gifts,
languages,” speaking four fluently. notably to her father and Katherine Parr.
POPULARITY
LOVED IN HER LIFETIME STILL LOVED TODAY
At the time of Mary’s accession, she Although Mary had initially been popular,
was so popular that many remarked on this was nothing in comparison to
the commotion in London when her Elizabeth. In addition, Elizabeth had the
proclamation was read out. However, by her common touch that her sister lacked and
death her popularity had long since faded. was able to retain the love of her people.
LOVE
UNHAPPILY MARRIED THE VIRGIN QUEEN
Mary was deeply in love with her husband, Elizabeth never married, and the closest
Philip of Spain, and always felt great she came to love was with her friend Robert
sorrow when he left England. Although her Dudley. Rumours circulated,but it seems
feelings were not reciprocated, Philip did at likely that, by her death, Elizabeth was still
least treat his wife with courtesy. the ‘Virgin Queen’.
MILITARY ACHIEVEMENTS
LOST CALAIS DEFEATED THE SPANISH ARMADA
Mary succeeded in asserting her right to The most famous victory of Elizabeth’s
the throne following the death of Edward reign was the defeat of the Spanish
VI, raising a large army of supporters. But Armada, sent by Mary’s former husband,
when England declared war on France early Philip, in 1588. After this she was hailed
success was followed by the loss of Calais. as the saviour of the English people.
KILLINGS
300–380 200+
Not only did Mary order the execution of Although Elizabeth did not burn Catholics
Lady Jane Grey and many of those close to in the way Mary had Protestants, she
her, she also sentenced 284 Protestants to did order the disembowelment of more
be burned at the stake, including the man than 200. She also famously ordered the
who had annulled her parents’ marriage, execution of another anointed queen,
Thomas Cranmer. Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1587.
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Reformation and retribution
pitiful state she was in. Dressed in white, she made England for the last time in 1557. Mary was alone.
a startling impression against the blood-red livery
of her guards. It was a clever ploy, one designed PROTESTANT BURNINGS
to move the citizens to sympathy on Elizabeth’s Shortly after Mary’s succession, she began to take
behalf, and it worked. It was precisely the type of steps to restore the old religion to her land, and it
display that Queen Mary had hoped to avoid. was not long before it became clear that those who
Taken to the Palace of Whitehall for questioning, adhered to Protestantism were not safe. Many fled
evidence against Elizabeth was not forthcoming. abroad to avoid persecution, but for some this was
Convinced of her complicity in the rebellion, simply not an option, and they were forced to pay
however, Mary was hopeful that a spell in the the ultimate price for their beliefs.
Tower of London would break her sibling’s resolve In February 1555, the first burnings of Mary’s
and expose her claims of innocence to be lies. reign began: a total of 284 Protestants were
Though Elizabeth protested that she was Mary’s burned, 56 of whom were women. During the
“most faithful subject”, Mary was unmoved, and reign of Elizabeth, the historian William Camden
in March her half-sister was imprisoned. She would write that Mary’s, “…days have been ill
remained there until May, when a lack of evidence spoken of, by reason of the barbarous cruelty of
forced Mary to release her. This was not the end the Bishops, who with a most sad spectacle, in all
of the matter, however, and Elizabeth was sent places polluted England by burning Protestants
to Woodstock under house arrest, where she alive”. It is interesting to note that Camden did not
remained for nearly a year. Mary never trusted attribute the blame for the atrocities directly to
Elizabeth again and was always suspicious of her. Mary proudly displays the La Mary but rather her advisers.
Peregrina pearl, a gift from Philip
The Wyatt Rebellion did not prevent plans for Much of the tarnish on Mary’s reputation,
Mary’s marriage, and in July 1554 Philip landed however, has come from the martyrologist John
in England. That same month, the two were she was pregnant, and proudly announced her Foxe. His Acts and Monuments highlighted the
married in a magnificent ceremony at Winchester happy news. Yet despite showing many signs suffering of the victims and became the most
Cathedral. For Mary, the marriage was the of pregnancy, by June 1555 it became clear that widely read book written in English after the Bible:
fulfilment of all of her hopes, for she loved her there was no baby. It was the first of two phantom it damned Mary’s reputation.
new husband dearly. However, her feelings were pregnancies she would suffer, dashing all of her Burning was the rarest form of Tudor
unrequited and though Philip treated Mary with hopes for a Catholic heir to succeed her. To make punishment, and executions like these were
courtesy, the marriage was based on politics. matters worse, Philip, the husband she loved so designed to shock people into conforming. In
Nevertheless, by the autumn Mary believed that dearly, abandoned her on both occasions, leaving some cases it worked: Thomas Cranmer, former
archbishop of Canterbury, recanted his beliefs six
times. In spite of this, Mary insisted that he must
“The former archbishop of Canterbury burn. She still bore a deep grudge for the role he
had played in the unhappiness of her early life, but
recanted his beliefs six times. In spite his death was one of her greatest mistakes. Had he
been spared, his recantation would have served as
of this, Mary insisted that he must burn” excellent propaganda for the new regime, but dead
he was a martyr. Cranmer was burned on 21 March
1556 at Oxford.
104
EXPLORE THE LIFE AND LEGACY
OF THE INCA EMPIRE
From the origins of its people to the rulers who shaped it and the wars that
destroyed it, unearth the story of South America’s greatest kingdom.
ON SALE
NOW
A
t the beginning of the 17th century Protestantism. Yet within national borders the
Europe was poised for war. The semi-independent regions practised conflicting
Kingdom of Spain was intent Christian religions to that of the state.
on conquering the northern Nowhere was this so hotly contested than in
Netherlands, and France was the Holy Roman Empire. The six German princes
determined to stop it. Both Spain and the Holy who served and elected the emperor (alongside
Roman Empire – which primarily covered the Elector of Bohemia) were evenly divided
modern-day Germany – were being ruled by between Catholicism and Protestantism. In
members of the formidable House of Habsburg. fact, the divisions had grown so deep that the
The Kingdom of France was ruled by a rival princes had split into opposing forces named
dynasty and found itself sandwiched between the Protestant Union and the Catholic League.
Habsburg Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. The reigning Emperor Matthias and his chosen
France watched Spain’s army with a suspicious successor, Archduke Ferdinand II, did not
eye, resolving to stop it from advancing on the appreciate the growing threat of the Protestants
Netherlands and gaining yet more territory near and plotted to oppress their religious freedoms.
France’s own border. So while Europe was watching France, Spain
As well as the territorial struggles between and the Netherlands nervously, expectant of an
kingdoms, religiosity added another layer of impending war, they were caught by surprise
friction to the situation in Europe. Since the when conflict broke out not to the west but
Reformation in 1517, Protestantism and its two in Prague, the violence sparked by an angry
major sub-religions, Lutheranism and Calvinism, mob hurling some imperial advisors out of a
had spread throughout the continent. The surge window in an event that became known as the
of Protestants had fractured relationships both Defenestration of Prague.
between countries and within their own borders. As Matthias’ successor, Ferdinand was set
Italy, Spain, France, Poland, Hungary and others to inherit the Kingdom of Bohemia, which sat
maintained traditional Catholicism as their state roughly on the modern Czech Republic–Slovakia
religion. Meanwhile, England, Denmark, Sweden border. Aware of Ferdinand’s radical Catholic
and the northern Netherlands had converted to policies, the population – which included a
106
The Thirty Years’ War
107
Reformation and retribution
GUSTAVUS
ADOLPHUS
The Swedish king earned
the title of Father of Modern
Warfare for his military
innovations and exploits
108
The Thirty Years’ War
109
Reformation and retribution
attempted a retreat. The Danish forces had more defeat the Danish king was forced to sign the Although not yet prepared to engage in actual
cannons than their adversaries but failed to make lenient Peace of Lübeck, which left him with all combat, France agreed to send funds to support
good use of them, and after the infantry made his titles provided that he remained neutral for the Swedish war effort. This sudden influx of
contact, Tilly’s cavalry managed to outflank the rest of the war. wealth saw Adolphus’ army swell to over 36,000.
Christian’s men on both sides, obliterating them With the Catholic forces riding high, Emperor For their part, the German Protestants were
in a pincer movement. Ferdinand decided that 1629 was an excellent unsure of how to react to Sweden’s intervention.
Christian fled northward with his shattered time to enact the Edict of Restitution. This text They weren’t happy with Emperor Ferdinand’s
army as Wallenstein returned triumphant from was an aggressive move against Protestants new edict, but neither were they pleased about
harrying Mansfeld. He joined forces with Tilly but within the empire, as it forbade them from the presence of a foreign ‘liberator’, who they saw
refused to play the role of his subordinate. The governing over Catholic lands. The Protestant simply as an invader. Then, on 20 May 1631, Tilly
two Catholic armies moved in pursuit, entered German princes were disgusted by this affront inadvertently helped his enemies to put aside
the northern Danish-held duchy of Holstein and to liberty. They called for a diet to discuss the their differences when he ordered the brutal Sack
overran it. Wallenstein was awarded the title of edict, which was held in Regensburg in 1630. of Magdeburg.
Duke of Mecklenburg for his trouble, much to Ferdinand was adamant that the edict remain Over four days his troops rampaged throughout
Tilly and Maximilian’s chagrin. but he paid for it dearly, as the princes demanded the city, ruthlessly cutting soldiers and civilians
Nearly a decade after the Thirty Years’ War had that Wallenstein be stripped of his command down and torching buildings. Appalled by such
begun, the Protestants had yet to win any major and the imperial army be mostly dissolved. Such wanton cruelty, Protestants and moderates
encounters. But the tide was soon to change. was Ferdinand’s iron resolve when it came to across Europe came together in their outrage, a
Wallenstein had his eyes set on the port town restricting religious freedoms that he agreed to move that ultimately encouraged the Protestant
of Stralsund (in northeast Germany), which he these draconian terms. German princes to combine their forces with the
set to besieging in July 1628. Stralsund was well The Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus had Swedish, thereby inflating their joint army to
guarded by a force of 5,000 mercenaries, levies political as well as religious motives to enter the approximately 60,000 men.
and citizens and reinforced by Sweden during the war. He was a Protestant, but more pressingly he Despite his inferior numbers of approximately
siege, marking the kingdom’s entry into the war. feared that the House of Habsburg would help 35,000 soldiers, Tilly eagerly met the Swedish-
The weather also conspired against Wallenstein, the Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth push their German forces near the village of Breitenfeld
the arrival of heavy rains washing away his claim on the Swedish throne, a mortal threat to (north of Leipzig). The Swedes and allied
dreams of seizing the city, his men unable to his own personal wellbeing. He resolved to seize Germans arranged themselves separately, with
launch an effective assault in the deluge. the initiative and swiftly established a foothold the Germans occupying the left flank. Wary of
Sweden’s entry into the maelstrom came at a on the German side of the Balkans, signing the the skilled Swedish soldiers, Tilly sent most of his
fortunate time for the Protestants, as Christian Treaty of Stettin at the end of summer 1630 in men to engage the Germans, essentially ignoring
and his 6,000 troops were about to be beaten order to gain formal control of Pomerania, which the Swedish line. His plan was initially successful,
once again, this time by Wallenstein. Upon his bordered the sea. as the Protestant Germans crumbled under the
imperial advance. However, the professional
Swedish army swiftly wheeled around to face
“Wary of the skilled Swedish soldiers, Tilly’s forces and moved forwards to engage them
with confidence.
Tilly sent most of his men to engage Meanwhile, Adolphus personally led a daring
charge to capture Tilly’s artillery and set it firing
the Germans” on the imperial lines. Sweden’s own artillery was
110
The Thirty Years’ War
THE BATTLE
OF ROCROI
Duke d’Enghien’s crowning glory
111
Reformation and retribution
smoke filled the air, and Adolphus was soon lost newly formed Heilbronn League and instead form
in the melee. Separated from his men, he received a unified army under the Emperor’s control. In
a gunshot wound, as did his horse. Struggling to return for power over the military, Ferdinand
control it, he rode into enemy lines, where he was agreed that the north of the empire would be free
shot again, this time fatally. once again to practice moderate Protestantism.
News of Adolphus' demise rippled through These concessions essentially ended the religious
the Protestant ranks, causing them to lose heart civil war that had initiated the conflict in the Holy
and withdraw by mid-afternoon. But their new Roman Empire.
commander, Prince Duke Bernard of Saxe- One last German prince remained defiant,
Weimar, brought up the reserve and urged the however – Duke Bernard of Saxe-Weimar. The
men onwards. The Swedish were ultimately former commander of the Swedish forces
triumphant, but theirs was to be a Pyrrhic victory; aligned himself with the French, who declared
they had suffered approximately 10,000 losses war on Spain in 1635. From this moment on,
compared to the enemy’s 12,000 and their the primacy of religion, the cause of the divide
industrious and inventive king now lay dead on between the Catholic and Protestant states and
the battlefield. the driving force behind the Thirty Years’ War,
Sweden was bruised by the loss Adolphus, was usurped by international politics. The two
112
The Thirty Years’ War
that he’d left the position more powerful than shunned the practice of immediately recruiting dragged them into the conflict, but it had been
when he’d first occupied it, but his successor captured soldiers into their army. This had the their crops that had been razed, their homes
would soon undo all of his work. advantage of leaving them with a veteran, unified destroyed, their finances depleted by taxes, their
The French-allied forces had recently been force proud to fight under the French banner. families forced into cannibalism inside besieged
enjoying parallel success: the resurgent Swedes The French commander Duke d’Enghien used cities and their men pushed into battle.
had defeated an imperial army at Wittstock in the this now elite weapon to best the Spanish army The battles themselves had inflicted hundreds
northeast of the empire and Duke Bernard had amassed outside the town of Rocroi and in doing of thousands of casualties, but the main ravages
successfully starved the Rhine town of Breisach so obliterated Spanish military might. of war were felt by the families who had no
into submission. Duke Bernard passed away from With the French-Swedish alliance all but means of feeding their children and no shelter
natural causes in 1639, extinguishing the last victorious, peace talks opened at the end of in which to protect them. Exposure, starvation
ember of major German military involvement in 1644 but progressed at a snail’s pace. For their and disease had claimed countless lives and cost
the conflict. And yet the war trundled onward. part, the German princes were particularly war Germany dearly. Prince Maximilian of Bavaria, for
In 1642, the Second Battle of Breitenfeld saw weary. Personal ambition coupled with devout one, was devastated by the sights he saw in his
the Swedish commander Lennart Torstensson, passions had driven them into the conflict all home country. It had once been so prosperous,
who had served under Gustavus Adolphus, win those decades ago, but now they felt that they'd but by the end of the Thirty Years’ War the lands
another victory over an imperial army. This put suffered enough. In fact, it was the peasantry of the Holy Roman Empire were in ruins. The
pressure on Ferdinand III to make a stronger of Germany that had been hit particularly hard reach and power of the Catholic Church would
conciliatory peace with the Swedish, but it would by the Thirty Years’ War. The ruling class had never fully recover.
be a French victory in 1643 that would remove
Ferdinand’s Spanish allies from the board and
render him powerless.
The French had been slowly improving “The ill-disciplined Swedish troops committed
throughout the war. Opting for quality over
quantity due to their limited funds, the French one reckless charge after another”
113
Allegory of the Peace of Westphalia by
Flemish painter Jacob Jordaens
114
The Beginning of the End?
1644–1648
THE
BEGINNING
OF THE END?
The Peace of Westphalia marked the end of the
Thirty Years’ War, but the treaty forever changed the
political landscape of the Holy Roman Empire
Written by Dominic Eames
B
y the 1640s Europe had been tearing on friendly ground (Münster was a staunchly
itself apart for three tumultuous Catholic city while Osnabrück was home to a
decades in a series of wars of supreme largely Lutheran population).
destruction and bloodshed that had Yet despite these efforts at placation, it was
left millions dead and enveloped a never going to be possible for the talks to be
myriad of countries and states. What had erupted held at a single place and on a specific date that
as a religious conflict between the Catholics and would allow every representative to attend. The
Protestants within the Holy Roman Empire soon organisational pressure to involve no less than
embroiled all of the continent's superpowers: 194 states, including dozens of the imperial
France, Sweden, Spain, Denmark, Poland, Russia, states, each bringing diplomats and thousands
England, Scotland and the independence-seeking of delegation members, demanded that the
Netherlands and Switzerland. negotiations be carried out over many meetings.
Each had their own cause for entering the fray, The piecemeal peace talks therefore lasted for
so the Thirty Years’ War soon concerned not only several years, beginning in 1644.
religion but shifting alliances, bitter rivalries, During that time, several men voiced the
commercial interests and political aspirations. The interests of the Holy Roman Empire, chief among
war was a conflict of such complexity and scope them Maximilian, Count von Trauttmansdorff,
that in her seminal 1938 work, the 20th-century a confidant of the emperor and the most
English historian Dame Veronica Wedgwood influential figure in the negotiations. Along with
described the period as “the outstanding example the experienced diplomat Johann Maximilian
in European history of meaningless conflict”. To von Lamberg and lawyers Johann Krane and
reach any kind of lasting peace would be, to put it Isaac Volmar, he met with the French, Dutch
mildly, no small feat. and Spanish envoys in Münster and those of
That daunting task began in earnest in the Sweden in Osnabrück until his declining health
1640s, once the decision had been made on forced him to step back. The dozens of Protestant
where the peace talks should take place. The Holy imperial states were led by Brandenburg’s Johann
Roman Empire had remained at the centre of Graf von Sayn-Wittgenstein. Presiding over the
the conflict over the years and overwhelmingly talks was a papal nuncio, or ambassador, from
saw the worst of the destruction and death, the Vatican named Fabio Chigi (who went on to
so it understandably refused to see talks held become pope in 1655).
outside of its borders. Two cities in Westphalia, Progress proved slow. It took six months to
in northwestern Germany, were chosen, as this work out the seating arrangements and the order
placated all sides, all of whom wished to meet in which the diplomats would enter the room,
115
Reformation and retribution
LEFT
Celebrations
mark the signing
PEACE
including
fireworks in
Sweden
THE WORLD
was a driving force
in the talks
BELOW Münster
The Peace of Westphalia was one of the two
Westphalian cities
ended a war, but did it also chosen for the
affect international politics peace talks
for centuries?
international relations has been rejected by failed to agree to a single meeting due to arguments Sea and gave it a voice in the Imperial Diet.
some historians who claim that the treaties
over protocol. All the while the fighting continued, Despite France and Sweden only entering the
contain nothing explicit concerning state
as did the suffering due to the famines and Thirty Years’ War in the 1630s, they both made
sovereignty or non-interference. Instead, it was
in the centuries since that such significance plagues ravaging Europe, especially in the empire. substantial gains from the carnage, as did the
was assigned to Westphalia – by opinions much Following years of back-and-forth discussions and Protestant states of Brandenburg and Bavaria,
like Rousseau’s and those contained within laborious meetings, enough deals and compromises which acquired key territories including the Upper
an influential article published in 1948, on the had been reached for the signing of the first treaty Palatinate. The Lower Palatinate, meanwhile, was
300th anniversary, by Leo Gross. These views on 30 January 1648 between Spain and the Dutch. restored to the son of Frederick V, the man whose
appealed at times of nationalistic fervour but Then, on 24 October, two treaties were crowning as King of Bohemia had been one of the
were somewhat superseded as globalisation simultaneously signed in Münster and Osnabrück catalysts for war.
became more important. that would go down in history as the documents The other territorial winners were the United
that marked the end of the Thirty Years’ War, one Netherlands and the Swiss Confederation. The
of the bloodiest, most unforgiving conflicts ever to treaty confirmed them as independent republics
scar Europe. The Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand from Habsburg-controlled Spain and the empire
III, signed them with France, Sweden and their respectively, a status they had held for decades
allies. Following the preamble, the text of the Peace already, albeit unofficially. Not all conflicts that
of Westphalia read, “That there shall be a Christian arose from the war, however, had been ended by
and Universal Peace, and a perpetual, true, and the peace, nor all disputes resolved to everyone’s
sincere amity between his Sacred Imperial Majesty satisfaction. In fact, France remained at war with
and his most Christian Majesty.” Spain for another 11 years.
His most Christian Majesty, the King of France, Yet it was not just the map of Europe getting
the young Louis XIV, had cause to be more pleased a shake-up. The Thirty Years’ War had long ago
than the emperor. Under the terms of the treaty stopped being about religion – after Catholic France
France secured its ownership over the region of had joined on the side of the Protestants against
Alsace and the towns of Metz, Toul and Verdun, their Habsburg rivals in the empire and Spain – but
The philosopher Jean-
Jacques Rousseau believed which gave it a strategically strong frontier on the treaty arguably made more important steps
in the Westphalian system the Rhine River. France's ally Sweden received a when it came to ecclesiastical matters.
of state sovereignty
huge cash sum along with the territory of western Most notably, signatories had to recognise
Pomerania, the port cities of Stettin and Wismar, the Peace of Augsburg, a treaty signed in 1555
and the imperial regions of Bremen and Verden. to grant Lutherans tolerance within the empire.
116
The Beginning of the End?
This inclusion in the 1648 peace Westphalia made changes that were As the influence of the Habsburgs waned, other
affirmed that the individual states anything but empty of meaning nations in Europe rose to power. The French King
could determine their own religion and effect within its borders. Louis XIV (also known as the ‘Sun King’) would
under the principle of ‘cuius regio The empire had lost land and the dominate European politics for the remainder of the
eius religio’ (whose realm, his A medal commemorating the end ability to enforce a single religion, 17th century, while the empire had to face ongoing
of three decades of bloody war
religion) and extended Augsburg’s undermining the efforts of its threats from the Ottomans to the east. It did pull
tolerance towards the Calvinists. Christians living ongoing Inquisition, while the individual states and off a great victory at the Battle of Vienna in 1683,
in a state of a different denomination to their own principalities within it became more powerful. The marking the beginning of the end of Ottoman
had the freedom to worship in public during certain treaty recognised their sovereignty and empowered dominance, and it would not be until the early 19th
hours and in private at their will. them to make their own treaties, allowing them to century before the empire collapsed, but Westphalia
A solution was also devised to resolve disputes reject the hegemonic grip of the emperor in favour had already signalled the beginning of the end.
over land. By setting the year 1624 as a fixed point, of governing themselves. The peace itself, however, has been said to
the treaty granted possession to those who had The fragmentation of the empire into around 300 have laid the foundations of the beginning of
been in control of the land on 1 January 1624, semi-autonomous states became more pronounced. something new: the modern state system based
regardless of whether it changed hands. Even if the Just ten years after the signing of the Peace of on the principle of a state’s sovereignty over its
ruling prince converted, they would forfeit their Westphalia, dozens of German princes formed territory and non-interference by foreign powers. It
lands to ensure it aligned with the new template. the League of the Rhine with France against the also helped establish a new form of international
The empire was bound to religious toleration emperor, and areas like Brandenburg and Bavaria relations where diplomacy, coexistence and
and had to adapt to a world in which Catholics emerged as powers in their own right. The war left collective security became the norm, which to this
and (some) Protestants were free to worship. Pope the empire devastated, with vast swathes of land day can be referred to as the ‘Westphalian system’.
Innocent X became so angry upon hearing the plundered and millions (some estimates say as The signing of the treaties in 1648 did not end
news that he announced the peace to be “null, void, many as 8 million) of people dead (Germany lost all war in Europe, nor did they bring about the
invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, approximately 20 per cent of its population). This immediate end of the Holy Roman Empire. Their
inane, empty of meaning and effect for all time”. was then followed by a peace treaty that dashed importance to international relations have been
The truth would prove to be quite the opposite any hopes of the empire maintaining its grip on all vehemently debated ever since. Yet the Peace of
for the Holy Roman Empire, as the Peace of of its territories. Westphalia is rightly remembered as a crucial
Images: Getty Images; Alamy
117
ENDING THE
INQUISITION
120 How Napoleon ended
the Inquisition
It was always going to take a titan
124
to end centuries of suffering, but
few expected the Emperor of France
to literally march into Spain and
upend the Inquisition
124
120
HOW
NAPOLEON
ENDED THE
INQUISITION
After 330 years of rooting out supposed
heretics, the Spanish Inquisition was
finally abolished by the French emperor
Written by Jessica Leggett
F
or over three centuries, the Spanish
Inquisition was a powerful – and
feared – institution in Spain. So how did
Napoleon Bonaparte, Emperor of the
French, become involved in its demise?
By the start of the 19th century, Napoleon had
risen to power as the dominant force in Europe
thanks to a string of military victories. However,
Britain remained out of his control, and he
attempted to bring her to her knees by launching
an economic war against them, hoping that this
would force the British to surrender. Already allied
with Spain, he demanded that Portugal join his
trade embargo against Britain and declare war.
Yet Portugal, Britain’s long-standing ally for
400 years, refused to bend to Napoleon’s will.
Infuriated, Napoleon used this refusal as a
pretext for war and invaded Portugal in July 1807,
sending his troops through Spain. The Portuguese
royal family fled into exile in Brazil as his army
advanced, and soon enough Napoleonic France
conquered Portugal.
As they made their way to Portugal, Napoleon’s
troops also occupied areas of northern Spain,
a country that had been experiencing political
turmoil. In March, King Charles IV had been
forced to abdicate by his son and successor, King
Ferdinand VII, following the Tumult of Aranjuez,
an uprising against Charles. Ferdinand had earlier
led a failed coup d'état against his father and
tensions between the two men were high.
Taking advantage of their conflict, Napoleon RIGHT
offered to mediate between the two men and The spread of
arranged a conference in May 1808. This, however, Enlightenment
ideas weakened
was a trap, and Napoleon forced Ferdinand and the Spanish
Charles to abdicate their rights to the throne. Inquisition
120
How Napoleon ended the Inquisition
121
Ending the Inquisition
LEFT
Madrid surrenders
to Napoleon after
his successful
invasion in 1808
INSET Napoleon
installed his
brother, Joseph,
as the new king
of Spain
PORTRAIT
RIGHT
King Ferdinand
VII was restored
to the Spanish
throne in 1814
PORTRAIT
FAR RIGHT
The Spanish
Inquisition was
formally abolished
for the final time
by Maria Christina
of the Two Sicilies
122
How Napoleon ended the Inquisition
A TIME FOR
TOLERANCE
The Inquisition spread
around the globe before
losing support as views
began to change
Ferdinand’s widow, Maria Christina of the Two Isabella II, the Spanish Inquisition had finally
Sicilies – who was governing on behalf of her come to an end after 350 years. A mainstay of
young daughter as queen regent – issued a decree Spanish society, the Inquisition was a controversial
that formally abolished the Spanish Inquisition for period in history and today its legacy remains just
good on 15 July 1834. as complicated.
123
CONFESSING
THE TRUTH
DEBUNKING THE
INQUISITION MYTHS
Nobody expects that most of what we know
about the Inquisition is false
Written by Edoardo Albert
T
he image of the Spanish any hint of free thought, burning Protestants
Inquisition stands stark in the and heretics, and all without a scintilla of mercy
modern imagination: red-clad – a uniquely corrupt and evil institution. In fact,
monks presiding over the sadistic these are largely myths. The Inquisition was
torture of innocent people before both more wide ranging, in time and period,
consigning them to the flames. In terms of than its Spanish iteration, and generally less
victims, the numbers spiral upwards: tens of brutal than the secular institutions of its day. In
thousands, hundreds of thousands, millions this feature we will examine some of the main
even. By these lights, the Inquisition was an myths that continue to surround the Inquisition
omnipotent organisation that brooded over and separate evidence from propaganda and fact
Spain and the wider Catholic world, extirpating from fiction.
124
Confessing the truth
125
Ending the Inquisition
126
Confessing the truth
127
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THE INQUISITION
BY NUMBERS
People persecuted by the Spanish Inquisition Articles written
by Tomás de
Torquemada
on crimes,
interrogation
methods and
Jews expelled from Spain by the Alhambra Decree punishments
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