PED 103 AND 104 means teaching is a deliberate

process; it does not just happen.

The TEACHING Profession: An Overview
FACTORS AFFECTING COGNITIVE
Ever since, teaching has been regarded as a
DEVELOPMENT FOR CHILDREN (Dutta 2012)
noble profession. It is one which can be
rewarding and fulfilling no matter what the BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
odds are, especially for people who regard it
These are substances that affect
as a calling, more than commitment. Many
biological systems and that are necessary
years back, teaching was reserved to the
to produce a result or cause an activity in
idealists-people who have faith in the young
the body. The term is used when the
and envisioned a kind of society and future
chemical nature of the substance is
that will benefit all because education is
unknown. There are many biological
grounded on quality.
elements, for example, the red blood cells
TEACHING as a profession produces in the human system. The following
something significant and moving when the enumerate these factors.
right ideas and beliefs are implemented
 Senses – sense organs receive
effectively in the classroom.
stimuli from the environment. Their
TEACHING profession demands a total proper development helps in
commitment to total transformation of the receiving correct stimuli for the
learner, a continuous development of his formation of stimuli, and as a result,
potentials for a totally satisfying life as a wrong concepts are formed;
person and as a member of the community. hence, the cognitive development
This is the reason why there is so much focus will not be perfect.
on quality.  Intelligence – is the ability to learn
about, learn from, understand and
WHAT IS TEACHING?
effectively interrelate with one’s
Many authors view teaching as organized, environment. Adaptability to a new
purposeful, and deliberate efforts designed environment or flexible to changes
to bring about certain desirable end in an in existing environment.
individual. A teacher is guided by his  Heredity – this is the process of
thorough understanding of what teaching is, transmitting characteristics from
this affords the strong basis for his one generation to next, such as
interpretation of the process and transmitting blue eyes or skin color
consequently, in his performance as a to one’s descendants. Cognitive
teacher. development is also influenced by
the heredity traits one gets from his
 Teaching as an act itself it involves the parents.
common activities in the classroom  Maturation – the process of
and the teaching strategies and learning to cope and respond in an
techniques, but focuses on the intent emotionally appropriate way. A
to make teaching work to the full person at the young age can able
advantage of the learners by effective to handle with emotional stability
interaction of the teacher and the that prepares him from adulthood.
students in the understanding of a Maturation is continuous; it does
particular subject matter. not stop when physical growth
 Teaching is a process or set of actions ends; it continuous through
to induce learning and eventually to adulthood. An adult who loses a
succeed in learning. This definition child, for instance, learns to cope
stresses the need for planning for with a new emotional situation that
teaching, the process of teaching, will influence the way he deals with
and the achievement aspect, which situations that follow.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

 Learning opportunities – the VARIED ROLES of a TEACHER

opportunity for learning affects
 As a manager – the teacher is
cognitive development. The more
responsible for the effective
opportunities the learner gets, the
management of his class from start to
better is the cognition, because he will
finish.
be able to add to his mental
 As a Counselor – every teacher is a
capacities by letting through these
guidance teacher. He acts as a
opportunities.
counselor to the learners especially
 Economic Status – a family’s economic
when they are beset by problems.in
status also helps in the development of
general, the teachers comfort and
cognition. Learners from better
make the learners feel they have a
economic status get more
ready shoulder to cry on.
opportunities and better training.
 As a Motivator – encouraging and
 Play is important in developing
motivating learners to study well and
cognition – play activities are
behave properly in and outside the
opportunity to interact with the
classroom are an enormous task.
environment, receive stimuli and
Motivation sets the mood of learning.
respond to them. Through this, as he
 As a Leader – a leader directs,
learns ne process, he acquires
coaches, supports, and delegates
knowledge, forms new
depending on the needs of the
communication, and draws irregular
situation. And a leader who is also they
sketch with crayons.
looked up too. The teacher should
 Various types of stimuli – as child grows,
always assume to the position of a
he gets various stimuli from the
leader.
environment through his senses, and
 As a model – a teacher is an exemplar.
perceive their meanings. He gets
He serves as a model to his learners.
assistance from parents and other
The teachers should always look his
people around him and is able to get
best all the time.
right meanings of stimuli.
 As a Public Relations Specialist – the
 Family and society – family is
credibility of the school is attributed
important from the point of view of
most of the time to the ways the
providing the child heredity traits.
teachers deal with people outside the
Family also provides good
school.
opportunities to learn through
 As a Parent Surrogate – In school, the
observation and imitation of other
teacher is the parent of the learners.
people, members of the family and
Parents have a feeling of security
friends.
knowing that their children are in good
SEVEN CHARACTERISTICS of INDEPENDENT hands.
LEARNERS  As a Facilitator – the teacher is the
facilitator of learning. The learners must
1. Curiosity
be given the chance to discuss things
2. Self – motivation
under the close supervision and
3. Self – examination
monitoring of the teacher.
4. Accountability
 As an instructor – the main function of
5. Critical thinking
the teacher is instruction.
6. Comprehension
7. Persistence PROFESSIONAL ATTRIBUTES OF A TEACHER

1. Physical characteristics
 Health and wellness
 Appearance
 2. Personality Characteristics Principle 2. Reflective Practice
 Cooperation
 Expound on principle that guide
 Tactfulness
teaching
 Flexibility, and Patience
 Demonstrate teaching as an inquiry
 Organization
process, collecting and analyzing data
 Enthusiasm
about students learning, and
 Creativity initiative and risk
generating plans, designed to support
taking
students learning.
3. Responsibility Characteristics
 Make available teaching from multiple
 Responsibility
perspectives
 Attendance and punctuality
 Do self-assessment with or from
 Maturity
multiple perspective
4. Communication Skill
 Gather information through
 Oral communication
observation of classroom interaction.
 Written communication
5. Professional Relationship Skills Principles 4. Passion for Learning
 Demeanor
 Rapport  Summarize and teach complex
 Awareness of Individual and networks of knowledge
Differences  Reflect on what has been taught
6. Commitment of the teaching and learned
profession  Consider learner’s intellectual,
 Professionalism social, and personal growth
 Wittiness  Support learners with special needs
 Reflectivity  Provide engagement activities
 Being good at explaining things  Allow high and positive
 Enthusiastic expectations for learner
 Has a time management achievement
 Keeping cool under pressure  Provide learners opportunities to
solve community problems
PRINCIPLES FOR TEACHERS
Principle 5. Understanding school in context
PRINCIPLE 1. Conceptual understanding of of society and culture
core knowledge
 Be a change agent
 Define learning goals that reflect  Communicate in ways that profess a
mastery of subject matter sensitivity to a broad range of diversity
 Design and effect the kind of  Set as mediator when learners need
instruction that develop student’s help to resolve problems or change
conceptual framework attitudes
 Provide opportunities for learner’s  Collaborate with the stakeholder
interaction through accurate and in-  Get involve in the lives of students
depth information.
 Provide meaningful learning activities Principle 6. Professionalism
to improve learners’ communication  Live up the ethical principles guiding
and quantitative skills. professional conduct
 Model effective communication and  Demonstrate and document standard
problem solving – based practice in the classroom
 Apply a variety of media and  Remain updated in terms of research
technology on teaching and new developments
 Distinguish high quality educational in the discipline
material; and  Seek membership in professional
 Writes and speak with clarity for organizations and resource networks
effective communication beyond the school
 Include complex and difficult issues in It can take the form of formative test
dialogue with colleagues consisting of a 10-item multiple choice
questions after the day's lesson to
determine the mastery of learning, e.g.,
95% of the class got 100% correct
answers.
TYPE OF LESSON PLAN

 Detailed lesson plan – it provides 5. Assignment

mastery of what to teach, and gives It includes questions, exercises, and/or
the teacher the confidence when a set of practice specified by the
teaching. In this plan, both teachers teacher. In order to succeed in
and students’ activities are presented. discussing the assignment for the
 Semi – detailed lesson plan – is less following day, a teacher give
intricate than the detailed lesson plan. focused/specific questions for students
It is having a general game plan of to answer.
what you wanted to cover for that Understanding by Design (UbD)
subject on that particular day.
 Understanding by design (UbD)  It is a framework for improving student
achievement through standards-
PARTS OF LESSON PLAN driven curriculum development,
1. Objectives instructional design, assessment and
The first thing a teacher does is professional development (Wiggins &
create an objective, a statement of McTighe, 2006)
purpose for the whole lesson. An  The emphasis of UbD is on "backward
objective statement itself should design", the practice of looking at the
answer what students will be able to outcomes in order to design
do by the end of the lesson. curriculum units, performance
The objective drives the whole lesson, assessments, and classroom instruction
it is the reason why the lesson exists. It
Taxonomy of Objectives
can determine what activities the
students can engage in. How to write Lesson Objectives
2. Subject matter
Bloom's Taxonomy
Subject matter or specific topic
includes sources of information, e.g., The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives,
textbooks and library references. known as Bloom's Taxonomy (Bloom,
The subject matter includes the Engelhart, Furst, & Krathwohl, 1956) is one of
following: the most recognized learning theories in the
 Topic – particular lesson field of education. Educators often use
 Reference/s – usually from the Bloom's Taxonomy to create learning
book and internet websites outcomes that target not only subject matter
 Materials – refer to objects or but also the depth of learning they want
tools that serve as instructional students to achieve, and to then create
aids for particular subject. assessments that accurately report on
3. Procedure students' progress towards these outcomes
The procedure is the body of (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001).
your lesson plan, the ways in which
you’ll share information with students Bloom's Taxonomy Revised
and the methods you’ll use to help In 2001, David Krathwohl (one of Bloom's
them assume a measure of mastery of original collaborators) and co-editor Lorin
that material. Anderson published a revision to the 1956
4. Evaluation hierarchy with contributions from cognitive
psychologists, curriculum theorists,
instructional researchers, and testing and  Sample learning outcome: Understand
assessment specialists. This new revised and explain the main ideas of a play
version introduced a key change to the or piece of literature.
cognitive domain of Bloom's Taxonomy: it  Sample assessment/activity: Write a
shifted the language used from nouns to short (1 page) paper summarizing the
verbs (see Figure 2) and thereby focused the plot and most important events in the
attention away from acquisition and toward play.
active performance of the types of learning  Rationale: Writing a summary
involved in each stage of the hierarchy. encourages learners to think about
"Synthesis" was also dropped and "create" what the most important parts of a
was moved to the highest level of the piece of literature are, and to decide
domain. which aspects of the plot to discard in
favor of a concise summary. It allows
educators to evaluate whether or not
they have understood the main idea
of the play.

PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN

The psychomotor domain encompasses the

ability of learners to physically accomplish
tasks and perform movement and skills. There
are several different versions including
different hierarchies - the examples here fall
into Harrow's (1972) theory of the
psychomotor domain. This hierarchy ranges
from reflexes and basic movement to non-
discursive communication and meaningfully
expressive activity.

PSYCHOMOTOR HIERARCHY

Reflex

 Sample learning outcome: Instinctively

respond to a physical stimulus.
 Sample assessment/activity: A game
of dodgeball.
COGNITIVE HIERARCHY  Rationale: Learners must react (dodge)
the balls that are being thrown at
Remember them, allowing them to develop their
 Sample learning outcome: Remember reflexive skills.
the names and relationships of a cast Basic fundamental movements
of characters in a play.
 Sample assessment/activity: A  Sample learning outcome: Perform a
multiple-choice test designed to test simple action (including running and
the memory of learners. throwing).
 Rationale: A multiple choice test will  Sample assessment/activity: A game
allow educators to see whether of dodgeball.
students have effectively memorized  Rationale: Learners must run and throw
the given material. to actively engage the opposing team,
allowing them to develop these skills.
Understand
Skilled movements
  Sample learning outcome: Adapt presentation (used in writing the
one's behavior and movement to summary).
better achieve goals.
Responding
 Sample assessment/activity: A soccer
or other strategic game (football,  Sample learning outcome: Speak
hockey). effectively in front of an audience and
 Rationale: This activity allows teams to actively respond to others.
change their strategy and individuals  Sample assessment/activity: Present
to change their physical behaviour on a subject in front of the class, and
depending on the response of the answer questions from peers about
other team. their presentation.
 Rationale: Through this, learners will
Non-discursive communication
become more comfortable with
 Sample learning outcome: Express public speaking as well as more
oneself through purposeful comfortable with contributing to a
movement and activity. discussion in the form of answering
 Sample assessment/activity: A questions.
soccer or other strategic game
Valuing
(football, hockey)
 Rationale: These games all involve  Sample learning outcome:
teamwork, strategy, and Demonstrate and explain own values
integrative and purposeful regarding various topics.
movement. Successful teams must  Sample assessment/activity: Write an
integrate all of their senses, opinion piece on any issue, explaining
communicate through movement, one's own stance and reasons
and use a variety of adaptive supporting that stance.
strategies.  Rationale Through this, learners will
explore not only their own values but
AFFECTIVE DOMAIN
why they support their values, giving
The affective domain focuses on the them a chance to understand more
attitudes, values, interests, and appreciation fully their own value system.
of learners. The hierarchy associated with it
Organization
begins with receiving and listening to
information, and extends to characterization,  Sample learning outcome: Compare
or internalizing values and consistently acting value systems and understand
upon them. It focuses on allowing learners to evidence behind values.
understand what their own values are and  Sample assessment/activity: Organize
how they have developed. and compare different cultural value
systems, evaluating the differences
AFFECTIVE HIERARCHY
between them and why these
Receiving differences may have arisen.
 Rationale: In doing this activity,
 Sample learning outcome: Listen to
learners will consider how value
other students with respect.
systems put into place and organized,
 Sample assessment/activity: Be an
as well as the evidence that supports
audience member to another
different value systems across the
student's presentation, and then write
world.
a summary.
 Rationale: Through this assignment, Characterization
learners will learn how to listen
 Sample learning outcome: Work well in
effectively to others as well as
a team of peers.
remember key details about their
  Sample assessment/activity: A group national standards explicit in the Basic
project, including group work on any Education-Curriculum; it also means
assignment. teaching the content in order to realize
 Rationale: By working in a group, the goals and objectives of the course as
learners must balance their own values
laid down in the basic education
with the values of the team, as well as
curriculum.
prioritize tasks and practice teamwork.

Significance - What we teach should

respond to the needs and interests of the
learners, hence meaningful and
significant.

Balance - Content includes not only facts

but also concepts and values. The use of
the three-level approach ensures a
balance of cognitive, psychomotor, and
affective lesson content. (For a more-
detailed discussion of the three-level
approach, refer to Principles and
Strategies of Teaching (2003) written by B.
Corpuz and G. Salandanan.)A balanced
content is something that is not too easy
to bore the above average student,
neither not too difficult to turn off the
average. It is something that challenges
the student. To observe the principle of
balance, no topic must be extensively
discussed at the expense of other topics.

Self-sufficiency - Content fully covers the

essentials. Learning content is not "mile-
wide-and-inch-deep". The essentials are
sufficiently covered and are treated in
depth. This is a case of "less is more".

Interest - Teacher considers the interest of

the learners, their developmental stages
and cultural and ethnic background. -
Utility Will this content be of use to the
learners? It is not meant only to be
memorized for test and grade purposes.
1. One guiding principle related to What is learned has a function even after
subject matter content is to observe the examinations are over.
following qualities in the selection and
organization of content: Feasibility- The content is feasible, in the
sense that the essential content can be
Validity-This means teaching the content covered in the amount of time available
that we ought to teach according to for instruction. A guaranteed and a
viable curriculum is the first in the school- beneficial for you to encourage your
related factors that has the greatest students to discover principles for
impact on student achievement. themselves, it will not jeopardize your
(Marzano, 2003) - It is observed that there students if you present the ideas of others
is so much content to cover within the who worked hard over the years to
school year, so much so that teachers explain phenomena.
tend to rush towards the end of the
school year, do superficial teaching and • Emphasizing conceptual understanding
contribute to non-mastery of content. This - Many a time, our teaching is devoted
is probably one reason why the least only to memorization of isolated facts for
mastered competen-cies in national purposes of examinations and grade.
examinations given to pupils and students When we teach facts only, the tendency
are those competencies which are found is we are able to cover more for your
at the end of the Philippine students to commit to memory and for
Elementary/Secondary Learning you to cover in a test but our teaching
Competencies (PELC/PSLC). ends up skin-deep or superficial, thus
meaningless. If we emphasize
2. At the base of the structure of cognitive conceptual understanding, the emphasis
subject matter con-tent is facts. We can't goes beyond facts. We integrate and
do away with facts but be sure to go correlate facts, concepts and values in a
beyond facts by constructing an meaningful manner. The many facts
increasingly richer and more become inte-grated into a less number of
sophisticated knowledge base and by concepts, yet more meaningful and
working out a process of conceptual consequently easier to recall. When we
understanding. stress on conceptual teaching, we are
occupied with less, but we are able to
Here are a few ways cited by cognitive teach more substantially. It is a case of
psychologists (Ormrod, 2000) by which "less is more"! This is precisely the emphasis
you can help your students: of the Basic Education Curriculum.

• Providing opportunities for Here are some specific strategies that

experimentation - Our so- called can help you develop conceptual
experiments in the science classes are understanding in your students: (Ormrod,
more of this sort- follow-ing a cook book 2000)
recipe where students are made to follow
step-by-step procedure to end up Organize units around a few core ideas
confirming a law that has already been and themes
experimented on and discovered by
great scientists ahead of us instead of the Explore each topic in depth-for example,
students coming up with their own by considering many examples,
procedure and end discovering examining cause-effect relationships, and
something new. After teaching your discovering how specific details relate to
students how to cook a recipe following more general principles Explain how new
the procedures laid down in a cookbook, ideas relate to students' own experiences
allow them to experiment with mix of and to things they have previously
ingredients. learned.

• Presenting the ideas of others - While it is Show students through the things we say,
the assignments we give, and the criteria In short, subject matter content is an
we use to evaluate learning-that integration of facts, concepts, principles,
conceptual understanding of subject hypotheses, theories, and laws, thinking
matter is far more important than skills, manipulative skills, values and
knowledge of isolated facts. attitudes.

Ask students to teach to others what they Our subject matter content includes
have learned-a task that encourages cognitive, skill and affective components.
them to focus on main ideas and pull The cognitive component is concerned
them together in a way that makes sense. with facts, concepts, principles,
hypotheses, theories, and laws. The skill
Promoting dialogue - When we component refers to thinking skills as well
encourage our students to talk about as manipulative skills while the affective
what they learn, they are given the component is the realm of values and
opportunity to reflect, elaborate on, attitudes.
clarify further and master what they have
learned. Hypotheses educated guesses about
relationships (principles). Example -- For
Using authentic activities - Incorporate lower division undergraduate students,
your lessons into "real world" activities. study habits is a better predictor of
Instead of simply asking students to work success in a college course than is a
on some items on subtraction, simulate a measure of intelligence or reading
"sari-sari" store and apply subtraction skills. comprehension.

3. Subject matter content is an integration Theories Set of facts, concepts and

of cognitive, skill,. and affective elements. principles that describe possible
underlying unobservable mechanisms
While our subject matter content comes that regulate, human learning,
in three domains, these three domains development, and behavior. They explain
should not be treated as though there why these principles are true. Examples:
was a clear dividing line among them. Piaget's theory on cognitive development,
When our point of emphasis is the Kohlberg's theory on moral development
cognitive aspect, it does not mean that Leamers seem to acquire general belief
we exclude skills. In the first place, our systems -personal theories about how the
teaching of facts, concepts, principles, world operates. By the time they go to
theories and laws necessitate the skill of school, children have their own personal
seeing the relationships among these in theories about things and happenings in
order to see meaning. Likewise, when.our the world. These personal beliefs may not
subject matter is focused on the thinking necessarily be accurate beliefs. When I
and manipulative skills, our lesson content was young, I thought that every time I
also has cognitive content. More so with swallowed a santol seed, the seed would
the teaching of values, for values have germinato in my stomach and its
definitely a cognitive basis. If the values branches and leaves would grow out of
taught are imbibed by the students, these my ears, nose and mouth. Much is
are expressed in their daily behavior (skill). demanded of you in order that these
The cognitive lesson may be used as a misconceptions get corrected. Other
vehicle in the teaching of skills and values. than correcting these misconceptions,
you ought to promo effective
construction of knowledge. techniques (Ormrod, 2000)

Laws firmly established, thoroughly tested •Break large problems into well-defined
principle or theory. Examples - Thomdike's ones
law of effect, law on the conservation of
2. •Distinguish information needed
matter and energy, the law supply and
•Identify techniques to find needed
demand.
information
Skills
Problems can be solved by using an
algorithm or a heuris-tic strategy. Solving
Thinking Skills-These refer to the skills
a problem by the use of an algorithm
beyond recall and comprehension. They
means following specific, step-by-step
are skills concerned. with the application.
instructions. An example is when you
of what was learned, (in problem-solving
assemble the dismantled parts of a new
or in real life) synthesis, evaluation and
toy by following the "how to assemble
critical and creative thinking.
instructions. Fortunately or unfortunately,
not all problems are solved by the use of
A. Divergent thinking - This includes fluent
algorithms. When there is no algorithm for
thinking, flexible thinking, original thinking
solving a problem, we use heuristics,
and elaborative thinking Fluent thinking is
general prob- lem-solving strategy, for a
characterized by the generation of lots of
solution. These are informal, intuitive,
ideas Thought flow is rapid. It is thinking of
speculative strategies that sometimes
the most possible ideas. Flexible thinking is
lead to an effective solution and
characterized by a vanety of thoughts in
sometimes do not.
the kinds of ideas generated. Different
ideas from those usually presented flow
How can we help our students acquire
from flexible thinkers. Original thinking is
effective problem-solving strategies?
thinking that differs from what's gone
before. Thought production is away from
Ormrod (2000) cites a number situations in
the obvious and is different from the norm.
which they can be used.
Elaborative thinking embellishes on
previous ideas or plans (Torres, 1994) It
•Provide worked-out examples of
uses prior knowledge to expand and add
algorithms being applied. Help students
upon things and ideas.
understand why particular algorithms are
relevant and effective in certain situations.
B. Convergent thinking-It is narrowing
-When a student's application of
down from many possible thoughts to
algorithm yields an incorrect answer, look
end up on a single best thought or an
closely at the specific steps the student
answer to a problem
has taken until the trouble spot is located.
C. Problem solving-Problem solving is
Teaching Approach
made easier when the problem is well-
It is a set of principles, beliefs, or ideas
defined "The proper definition of a
about the nature of learning which is
problem is already half the solution" It is
translated into the classroom.
doubly difficult when the prob lem is ill
defined. When it is ill-defined, then the first
Teaching Method
thing to teach our students is to better
The systematic way of doing something. It
define the problem. Here are some
implies an orderly logical arrangement of
steps. It is more procedural.
SUBJECT MATTER-CENTERED APPROACH
Teaching Technique Subject matter gains primacy over that of
Teaching techniques are such steps we the learner.
follow when we teach. It is the teacher's
style or tricks to accomplish an immediate TEACHER DOMINATED APPROACH
objective. In this approach, only the teacher's voice
is heard. He/she is the sole dispenser of
Teaching Strategy information.
Are methods of approaching a problem
or task, modes of operation for achieving INTERACTIVE APPROACH
a particular end, or planned design for In this approach, an interactive classroom
controlling and manipulating certain will have more student talk and less
information. teacher talk. Students are given the
opportunity to interact with teacher and
TEACHING APPROACHES with other students.

EXAMPLES OF TEACHING APPROACHES CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH

The students are expected to construct
TEACHER-
LEARNER-CENTERED knowledge and meaning out for what
CENTERED
they are taught by connecting them to
SUBJECT MATTER BEHAVIORIST prior experience.
CENTER
BANKING APPROACH
The teacher deposits knowledge into the
TEACHER
INTERACTIVE "empty" minds of students for students to
DOMINATED
commit to memory.

"BANKING INTEGRATED APPROACH

CONSTRUCTIVIST It makes the teacher connects what
APPROACH
he/she teaches to other lessons of the
DISCIPLINAL INTEGRATED same subject (intradisciplinary) or
INDIVIDUALISTIC COLLABORATIVE connects his/her lessons with other
subjects thus making his/her approach
INDIRECT GUIDED DIRECT interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary.

TEACHER-CENTERED APPROACH DISCIPLINAL APPROACH

It limits the teacher to discussing his/her
The teacher is perceived to be the only lessons within the boundary of his/her
reliable source of information in contrast subject.
to the learner-centered approach.
COLLABORATIVE APPROACH
LEARNER-CENTERED APPROACH It will welcome group work, teamwork,
In which it is premised on the belief that partnerships, and group discussion.
the learner is also an important resource
because he/she too knows something INDIVIDUALISTIC APPROACH
and is therefore capable of sharing It wants the individual students to work by
something. themselves.
DIRECT TEACHING APPROACH In summary, approaches vary in the
The teacher directly tells or shows or degree of teacher and learner
demonstrates what is to be taught. engagement, focus, number of learners
involved in the teaching-learning process
INDIRECT GUIDED APPROACH as shown in the diagram below:
The teacher guides the learner to
discover things for himself/herself. The Engagement
teacher facilitates the learning process Teacher ----------------------------- Learner
by allowing the learner to be engaged in
the learning process with his/her Focus
guidance. Subject Matter ------------------- Learner

RESEARCH-BASED APPROACH Number

As the name implies, teaching and Individual --------------------------- Group
learning are anchored on research
findings.
TEACHING METHODS
WHOLE CHILD APPROACH
There are different types of teaching
The learning process itself takes into
methods which can be categorized into
account not only the academic needs of
FOUR broad types. These are teacher-
the learners, but also their emotional,
centred methods, learner-centred
creative, psychological, spiritual, and
methods, content-focused methods and
developmental needs.
interactive/participative methods. -
Makokha
RESEARCH BASED APPROACH
Arthe name implies, teaching and
(a) INSTRUCTOR/TEACHER CENTERED
learning are anchored on research
METHODS
findings
Here the teacher casts himself/herself in
WHOLE CHILD APPROACH
the role of being a master of the subject
The learning process itself takes into
matter. The teacher is looked upon by
account not only the academic needs of
the learners as an expert or an authority.
the learners, but also their emotional,
Learners on the other hand are presumed
creative,, prychological, spiritual, and
to be passive and copious recipients of
developmental needs
knowledge from the teacher. Examples of
such methods are expository or lecture
METACOGNITIVE APPROACH
methods - which require little or no
The teaching process brings the learner to
involvement of leamers in the teaching
the process of thinking about thinking.
process. It is also for this lack of
The learner reflects on what he learned
involvement of the learners in what they
and on his/her ways of learning.
are taught, that such methods are called
"closed- ended".
PROBLEM-BASED APPROACH
As the name implies, the teaching-
(b) LEARNER-CENTRED METHODS
learning process is focused on problems.
In learner-centred methods, the
Time is spent on analyzing and solving
teacher/instructor is both a teacher and
problems.
a learner at the same time. In the words
of Lawrence Stenhouse, the teacher information by the instructor. It is the
plays a dual role as a learner as well "so method of relaying factual information
that in his classroom extends rather than which includes principles, concepts,
constricts his intellectual horizons". The ideas and all THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE
teacher also learns new things everyday about a given topic. In a lecture the
which he/she didn't know in the process instructor tells, explains, describes or
of teaching. The teacher, "becomes a relates whatever information the trainees
resource rather than an authority". are required to learn through listening
Examples of learner- centred methods and understanding. It is therefore
are discussion method, discovery or teacher-centred. The instructor is very
inquiry based approach and the Hill's active, doing all the talking. Trainees on
model of learning through discussion the other hand are very inactive, doing
(LTD). all the listening. Despite the popularity of
lectures, the lack of active involvement of
(c) CONTENT-FOCUSED METHODS trainees limits its usefulness as a method
In this category of methods, both the of instruction.
teacher and the learners have to fit into
the content that is taught. Generally, this The lecture method of instruction is
means the information and skills to be recommended for trainees with very little
taught are regarded as sacrosanct or knowledge or limited background
very important. A lot of emphasis is laid knowledge on the topic. It is also useful
on the clarity and careful analyses of for presenting an organised body of new
content. Both the teacher and the information to the learner. To be effective
learners cannot alter or become critical in promoting learning, the lecture must
of anything to do with the content. An involve some discussions and, question
example of a method which subordinates and answer period to allow trainees to be
the interests of the teacher and learners involved actively.
to the content is the programmed
learning approach. USES

(d) INTERACTIVE/PARTICIPATIVE METHODS 1. To orient students.

This fourth category borrows a bit from
the three other methods without 2. To introduce a subject.
necessarily Laying emphasis unduly on
either the learner, content or teacher. 3. To give directions on procedures.
These methods are driven by the
situational analysis of what is the most 4. To present basic material.
appropriate thing for us to learn/do now
given the situation of learners and the 5. To introduce a demonstration,
teacher. They require a participatory discussion, or performance.
understanding of varied domains and
factors. 6. To illustrate application of rules,
principles, or concepts.
SPECIFIC TEACHING METHODS
7. To review, clarify, emphasise or
1. LECTURE METHOD summarise.

A lecture is an oral presentation of ADVANTAGES

 development, making trainees apply
1. Saves time. what they have learnt or to monitor
trainees learning by way of feedback.
2. Permits flexibility.
3. THE DEMONSTRATION LESSON
3. Requires less rigid space requirement.
"The most effective way to teach an
4. Permits adaptability. occupational skill is to demonstrate it...
one of the two most essential teaching
5. Permits versatility. skills is the ability to demonstrate; the
other is the ability to explain. Both are
6. Permits better centre over contact and vital to the success of either an operation
sequence lesson or an information lesson". Weaver
and Cencil in APPLIED TEACHING
DISADVANTAGES TECHNIQUES.

1. Involves one way communication. DEFINITION

2. Poses problems in skill teaching. Demonstration means any planned

performance of an occupation skill,
3. Encourages student passiveness. scientific principle or experiment.

4. Poses difficulty in gauging student USES

reaction.
1. To teach manipulative
5. Require highly skilled instructors
operations or procedures.

2. THE DISCUSSION METHOD 2. To teach troubleshooting

Discussion involves two-way 3. To illustrate principles.

communication between participants. In
the classroom situation an instructor and 4. To teach operation or functioning of
trainees all participate in discussion. equipment.
During discussion, the instructor spends
some time listening while the trainees 5. To teach teamwork
spend sometimes talking. The discussion is,
therefore, a more active learning 6. To set standards of
experience for the trainees than the
lecture. workmanship.

A discussion is the means by which 7. To teach safety procedures.

people share experiences, ideas and
attitudes. As it helps to foster trainees ADVANTAGES
involvement in what they are learning, it
may contribute to desired attitudinal 1. Minimise damage and waste
changes. Discussion may be used in the
classroom for the purpose of lesson 2. Saves time
 discussion.
3. Can be presented to large groups.
3. Change pace of discussion.
DISADVANTAGES
4. Encourage participants to reflect what
1. Require careful preparation and was learnt.
rehearsal.
DISADVANTAGES
2. Requires special classroom
arrangements. 1. Unfamiliarity in use.

4. BUZZ GROUPS 2. Time required.

Another method of instruction is the buzz 3. Need for group leaders.

group. During a longer session, the
plenary group can break into sub-groups 5.BRAINSTORMING
to discuss one or two specific questions or
issues. The room soon fills with noise as The purpose of a brainstorming session is
each sub-group 'buzzes' in discussion. If to discover new ideas and responses very
appropriate, after the discussion one quickly. It is particularly a good way of
member of each group can report its getting bright ideas. It differs from the
findings back to the plenary. Buzz groups buzz. groups discussion in that the focus is
can be in pairs, trios, or more depending on generating as many ideas as possible
on the activity. People turn to their without judging them. In this technique,
neighbours for a quick buzz, or form larger all ideas are given equal credence.
groups of three or more. This allows almost
every one to express an opinion. While Participants are encouraged to let ideas
they are buzzing, participants are able to flow freely, building on and improving
exchange ideas and draw on their wide from previous ideas. No idea, however
collective experience. It may provide a crazy, should be rejected. These ideas
good opportunity for trainees to reflect are listed exactly as they are expressed
on the content of a lecture. A good buzz on a board or flipchart, or written on bits
session will generate many ideas, of paper. The combination of swiftly
comments and opinion, the most generated ideas usually leads to a very
important of which will be reported back. animated and energising session. Even
the more reserved participants should
USES feel bold enough to contribute. The
purpose of listing responses is to collect
1. To develop and express imaginative existing experiences and thoughts.
ideas, opinions.
It is useful to collect answers to questions
2. Stimulate thinking. when you expect much repetition in the
responses.
ADVANTAGES
After a brainstorm session, the ideas can
1. Help trainers to draw breath. be discussed further and evaluated, for
example listing the best options in a
2. Gauge the mood by listening to some systematic way. Ideas cul be grouped
and analysed so that they belong to the USES
group rather then individuals. Unlike a
buzz sension, a brainstorm session can 1. To provide remedial instruction
work well with a large group and usually
takes less time. It is best to limit the time 2. To provide make-up struction for Late
for plenary brainstorms, as you might lose arrivals, absentees, or talents.
the attention of some participants.
3. To previously learned skills which are
6. ROLE PLAYS not performed frequently enough

In role plays, participants use their own 4. To provide retraming on equipment

experiences to play a real life situation. and procedures which have become
When done well, role plays increase the obuolete
participants self- confidence, give them
the opportunity to understand or even 5 To upade production
feel empathy for other people's
viewpoints or roles, and usually end with 6. To accelerate capable students
practical answers, solutions or guidelines.
7. To provide enough common
Role plays are useful for exploring and background mong students
improving interviewing techniques and
examining the complexities and potential To provide the review and practice of
conflicts of group meetings. They help knowledge and skills.
participants to consolidate different
lessons in one setting and are good ADVANTAGES
energisers.
1. Reduce failure rate.
However, role plays can be time-
consuming and their success depends on 2. Improves end-of-course proficiency.
the willingness of participants to take
active part. Some trainees may feel a role 3. Saves time.
play is too exposing, threatening or
embarrassing. This reluctance may be 4. Provides for self instruction.
overcome at the outset by careful
explanation of the objectives and th DISADVANTAGES
outcome. Some role plays can generate
strong emotions amongst the participants. 1. Require local or commercial
It is therefore essential that a role play is preparation.
followed by a thorough debriefing. This
provides the opportunity for the trainer 2. Requires lengthy
and participants to raise and assess new
issues. programmer training.

7. THE PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION 3. Increases expenses.

METHOD
4. Requires considerable lead time.
A method of self-instruction
B. THE STUDY ASSIGNMENT METHOD 3. Produce non-standard

A method in which the instructor assigns 10. THE SEMINAR METHOD

reading to books, periodicals, project or
research paper or excises for du petion A tutorial arrangement involving the
instructor and groups, rather than
ADVANTAGES instructor and individual.

To set the stage USES

1. To provide general guidance for a

1. Incase coverage of material
group working on an advanced study or
research project.
2. Reduce classroom te
2. To exchange information on
3. Permits individual
techniques and approaches being
explored by members of a study or
attention
research group.
DISADVANTAGES
3. To develop new and imaginative
solutions to problems under study by the
1. Require careful planning and follow up.
group
2. Poses evaluation problem 3. Produce
ADVANTAGES
non-standard
1. Provides motivation and report.
B. THE STUDY ASSIGNMENT METHOD
2. Stimulates active participation.
A method in which the instructor assigns
reading to books, periodicals, project or
3. Permits adaptive instruction.
research paper or excises
DISADVANTAGES
ADVANTAGES
1. Requires highly competent instructor.
Toset the stage for a leme
2. Poses evaluation problems.
1. Incase coverage of material
3. Is more costly than most other methods.
2. Reduce classroom te

3. Permits individual attention

TEACHING TECHNIQUES
DISADVANTAGES
1. FLIPPED CLASSROOM (INVERTING YOUR
CLASS):
1. Require careful planning and follow up.
The Flipped Classroom Model basically
2. Poses evaluation problem
involves encouraging students to prepare
for the lesson before class. Thus, the class
becomes a dynamic environment in area which interests them and learn
which students elaborate on what they about it for themselves.
have already studied. Students prepare a
topic at home so that the class the next A perfect example of a teaching
day can be devoted to answering any technique based on self-learning is
questions they have about the topic. This outlined by Sugata Mitra at the TED
allows students to go beyond their normal conference. In a series of experiments in
boundaries and explore their natural New Delhi, South Africa and Italy, the
curiosity. educational researcher Sugata Mitra
gave children self- supervised access to
2. DESIGN THINKING (CASE METHOD): the web. The results obtained could
revolutionize how we think about
This technique is based on resolving real- teaching. The children, who until then did
life cases through group analysis, not even know what the internet was,
brainstorming, innovation and creative were capable of training themselves in
ideas. Although "Design Thinking" is a multiple subjects with unexpected ease.
structured method, in practice it can be
quite messy as some cases may have no A common technique for exploring self-
possible solution. learning is the use of Mind Maps.
Teachers can create a central node on a
However, the Case Method prepares Mind Map and allow students the
students for the real world and arouses freedom to expand and develop ideas.
their curiosity, analytical skills and For example, if the focus is the Human
creativity. This technique is often used in Body, some students may create Mind
popular MBA or Masters classes to Maps on the organs, Bones or Diseases
analyze real cases experienced by that affect the human body. Later the
companies in the past. students would be evaluated according
to the Mind Maps they have created and
Ewan McIntosh, an advocate of Design could collaborate with each other to
Thinking, created The Design Thinking improve each others Mind Map and
School as part of his "No Tosh consulting come to a more comprehensive
group. No Tosh hamesses the creative understanding of the Human Body.
practices of some of the best media and
tech companies in the world to coach 4. GAMIFICATION:
teaching methods to implement the
concept. Design Thinking for Educators Teaching techniques Learning through
also provides teachers with an online the use of games is one of the teaching
toolkit with instructions to explore Design methods that has already been explored
Thinking in any classroom. especially in elementary and preschool
education. By using games, students
3. SELF-LEARNING: learn without even realizing. Therefore,
learning through play or 'Gamification' is
Curiosity is the main driver of learning. As a learning technique that can be very
a basic principle of leaming, it makes little effective at any age. It is also a very
sense to force students to memorize large useful technique to keep students
reams of text that they will either motivated.
begrudgingly recall or instantly forget. The
key is to let students focus on exploring an The teacher should design projects that
are appropriate for their students, taking students to sign up to GoConqr too so
into account their age and knowledge, that you can create a Group and invite
while making them attractive enough to each of your students to become a
provide extra motivation. One idea may member. This means you can share study
be to encourage students to create resources directly with each student
quizzes online on a certain topic. Students online and even apply the Flipped
can challenge their peers to test Classroom Model to your teaching
themselves and see who gets a higher methods.
score. In this way, students can enjoy the
competition with peers while also having TEACHING STRATEGIES
fun and learning.
1. MODELING
5. SOCIAL MEDIA:
After telling students what to do, it's
A variant of the previous section is to important to show them exactly how to
utilize social media in the classroom. do it. Regardless of how clear your
Students today are always connected to directions are, it's a good idea to model
their social network and so will need little how you expect them to complete an
motivation to get them engaged with assignment, so they understand exactly
social media in the classroom. The ways what they're supposed to do. This will be
you can use teaching methods are quite especially helpful for your students who
varied as there are hundreds of social are visual learners.
networks and possibilities.
For example, if you assign a science lab,
A good example is the initiative carried physically demonstrate each step of the
out by the Brazilian Academy of lab before the students do it on their own.
Languages "Red Ballon", which
encouraged students to review the The same goes for actually solving a
tweets of their favorite artists and correct math problem step-by-step on the board
grammatical errors that they committed before asking students to do similar
in an effort to improve their English problems on their own.
language skills!
Or, let's say you're in English teacher who
6. FREE ONLINE LEARNING TOOLS: wants your students to engage in actively
annotating their assigned reading nightly.
There is an array of free online learning It would be easy to give them a key and
tools available which teachers can use to example like this:
encourage engagement, participation
and a sense of fun into the classroom. But it's also really helpful to do a
Teachers can create an interactive and demonstration of annotating a passage
dynamic classroom environment using, in class so that students have an idea
for example, online quizzes to test how to annotate meaningfully on their
student's knowledge. own

If you haven't used GoConqr's free online 2. ADDRESSING MISTAKES

learning tools yet, sign up now to create
Mind Maps, Flashcards, Quizzes, Course If you've ever accidentally spelled a word
and even Flowcharts. Encourage your wrong on the board, you know that
students love to identify mistakes. When work. If a fair share of your students seem
you're teaching a new skill, try providing to be struggling with a concept, it's often
an example that includes mistakes. Let more beneficial to create a lesson
students practice the skill by identifying targeting that topic and discussing the
and fixing the mistakes for you. patterns you've seen in class work
generally.
For example, many students cringe at
learning grammar through traditional drills Remember, of course, to provide plenty
and lessons, but many can identify errors of positive feedback as well as feedback
organically, even if they don't know indicating where a student has room to
exactly how to fix them. Try passing out grow or what a student should do
an assignment and deliberating including differently. Encouragement helps keep
grammar errors, talk through the students' morale, inspiration, and drive
assignment in class, and see what high.
students are able to catch. Then, have a
discussion about why the mistakes might And finally, it can be beneficial to turn
be wrong and see what students can the tables sometimes. Let the students
come up with, then provide a mini lesson provide you feedback to tell you how
on the grammar errors at hand. you're doing as well. You can do this in
the form of a discussion, issue class
Addressing mistakes is much more surveys (that can be answered
meaningful to students when there's a anonymously or not), or ask students to
broader context. It's also really great to email you with feedback.
create a classroom atmosphere where
making mistakes is part of the learning 4. COOPERATIVE LEARNING
process and students, making less
students less intimidated by topics they Students learn effectively when they're
may struggle with. working together. Plan activities that
require students to work together and
3. PROVIDING FEEDBACK learn from one another. In the process,
they'll also learn critical thinking skills,
Students don't always know if they're communication skills, problem solving skills,
doing a good job without you telling and more.
them so. Regularly provide written or
verbal feedback for individual or group 5. EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING
assignments and make this part of your
classroom culture. Students learn by doing, so create
experiences for them to see the concepts
Remember that students often don't in action. Let them practice the concepts
know why something is wrong, so in a safe environment. Then, they should
whenever possible and time permitting, reflect on the experience and discuss
take a few moments to explain why what they learned from it. Classroom
you've marked something "incorrect on activities that you could do for
tests and assignments. experiential learning include fun games,
experiments, or simulations.
It's also a great idea to conduct regular
"group feedback" sessions based on
patterns you're seeing in your students'
 1. Student-Led Classroom: Students can lead to longer, more confident
take on the role of the teacher, responses from students.
which can provide a unique 4. Avoid Judging Students’ Responses:
perspective on the subject matter Judgmental comments, even
and foster peer learning. positive ones, can negatively
2. Class Discussion: This encourages affect students’ verbal
active participation and allows performance and task persistence.
students to learn from each other. It It’s important to ask open questions
also gives teachers insight into that allow for a variety of responses
students’ understanding of the and to reply in a way that doesn’t
material. close off alternative ideas.
3. Inquiry-Guided Instruction: Students 5. Follow Up Students’ Responses in
learn by asking questions and Ways That Encourage Deeper
solving problems, promoting active Thinking: This involves building on
involvement in the learning process. students’ responses to promote
4. Lesson Objective Transparency: further exploration and
Clearly stating lesson goals helps understanding of the topic.
students understand what they
should be learning and reduces Planning for Effective Questioning
anxiety during assessments.
5. Graphic Organizers: Tools like flow
charts, Venn diagrams, or webs Steps Description
can help students organize
information and grasp new
concepts. Arrange students so they
can see and hear one
Five Principles for effective questioning another as well as the
teacher. You may need
1. Plan to Use Questions That to rearrange chairs in a
Encourage Thinking and Reasoning: Arrange the U shape or the students
Effective questions are planned Room and could move and ‘perch’
beforehand, building on and Resources closer together. Or
extending students’ thinking. A maybe you will move to
good questioner remains flexible the back of the room so
and allows time to follow-up that the question is the
responses. focus of attention and
2. Ask Questions in Ways That Include not the teacher.
Everyone: Everyone should be
included in thinking about the
questions asked. This can be Silence will be hard for
achieved through a ‘no hands up’ you to bear in the
rule, encouraging a range of Introduce classroom but the
responses, avoiding ‘ping pong’ the students may find it
patterns of interaction, and Questioning confusing or even
arranging the room to encourage Session threatening. Explain why
participation. there will be times of
3. Give Students Time to Think (‘Wait quiet.
Time’): The interval between a
teacher asking a question and
Establish the If you are using “No
supplying the answer or follow-up is
Ground hands up” then you will
crucial. Increasing this ‘wait time’
to between three and five seconds
Steps Description Steps Description

Rules need to explain this to expecting responses.

the students. Some
teachers have had to
ask their students to sit Determine how and
on their hands so that when you will intervene
they remember not to in the discussion. This
put their hands up. The could involve stepping
students will be allowed Plan for in when students are off-
to put their hands up to Intervention topic, providing
ask a question, so if a guidance when they’re
hand shoots up stuck, or asking follow-
remember to ask them up questions to deepen
what question they understanding.
would like to ask. The
students may also be
used to giving short TECHNIQUES IN HANDLING RESPONSES
answers so you could
introduce a minimum 1. Appreciate Student’s Answers:
length rule e.g., your Teachers should appreciate the
answer must be five answers given by students. Even if
words in length as a the ideas are wrong, students
minimum. should not be discouraged but
encouraged to share their thoughts.
2. Address Wrong Answers: Teachers
Plan how you will should address wrong answers by
continue after asking pointing out errors or slip-ups and
the first question. You providing the correct answers and
might plan to take only concepts. Praise may be avoided
one answer or ask them for wrong answers but not for the
what they think about correct ones.
Plan the First the answer, take two or 3. Give Encouraging Remarks:
Question three answers without Teachers should be ready to give
comment then ask the encouraging remarks to students,
next person to say what fostering a positive and supportive
is similar or different learning environment.
about those answers, or 4. Clarify Student’s Points: Every point
allow 3-5 seconds expressed by the student must be
before continuing. clarified through elaborate
interaction. This can be done by
asking students to expand on their
Decide how you will points.
give students time to 5. Avoid Chorus Answers: Teachers
Plan for think after asking a should not allow students to answer
Thinking question. This could in chorus as it can lead to discipline
Time involve counting silently, problems and hinder identifying
using a timer, or simply students who do not actually
pausing before participate in class discussions.
 6. Encourage Clear and Loud Speech: about schooling and learning
Students should be encouraged to manifest practice.
speak clearly and loudly for every  They are also learning and
member of the class to hear. This is modifying attitudes, motives,
especially helpful if the students will and values in relationship to the
be asked for their reactions. experiences in the classroom.
7. Encourage Grammar and  Hidden curriculum is a side
Communication Correction: effect of an education.
Teachers should encourage 3. Actual curriculum
students to correct grammar and  This to both written and
communication. unwritten syllabuses from
8. Avoid Marking During Recitation: which students encounter
Teachers are discouraged from learning experiences.- tanner
marking the students in their record and tanner 1975
book during recitation. This allows 4. Subject curriculum
teachers to fully engage in the  Traditional curriculum
discussion and student responses  Curriculum is organized according
to how essential knowledge has
without distraction.
been developed in the various
subject areas.
Thank you for sharing the information.
 LIMITATIONS:
Here’s an outline based on the types of
o Learner interest & needs
curriculum you provided:
have no place.
o More stress is given to
Types of Curriculum
content.
o No place for personal
1. Formal Curriculum
experience.
o Formal instruction of the
o Memorization is mostly
schooling experience.
o Explicit curriculum includes
encouraged.
those things in textbooks. 5. Child curriculum
► Experience curriculum
o The written curriculum is an
establishes the relationship
important component of
authentic literacy- the ability between school and society.
to read, write and think ► Activity curriculum empowers
students through ownership of
effectively.
knowledge.
o The overt curriculum is the
open, or public, dimension LIMITATIONS:
and includes current and 1. Content not specific.
historical interpretations, 2. No common curriculum is possible.
learning experiences, and 3. Transforming the experiences into
learning outcomes. organized knowledge is difficult-no
o Resources include textbooks,
proper guidance is provided.
learning kits, lesson plans,
school plays etc.
6. Core curriculum
 This not an independent type of
2. Informal curriculum curriculum.
 Compulsory course of study
 Implicit curriculum has to do  It relationship between life and
with how particular assumptions learning.
  History, political structure,  It refers to those learning
democracy, cultural, family, activities or experiences
science. students are exposed to by
their teachers but which are
7. Broad field curriculum not stipulated in the formal or
 Fused curriculum is combining official curriculum.
several specific areas into large
fields/areas. 13. PHANTOM CURRICULUM
 Integrated curriculum - several
courses have been merged into  The message prevalent in
one. and through exposure to
 "Environmental pollution"-chemistry, media.
physics, biology, geography.
14. CONCOMITANT CURRICULUM
8. Correlated curriculum
o In this type of curriculum  This type of curriculum
different subject of school Received at church, in the
are taught by correlating content of religious
each other. expression, lessons on values,
Mathematics = science ethics or morals, moulded
9. Task curriculum behaviours, or social
 John Dewey has suggested this experiences preferences.
type of curriculum. based on a family's
 kelpertrik has given project-method
teaching for this curriculum. 15. RHETORICAL CURRICULUM
 Mahatma Gandhi emphasized on
basic education.  Elements from the rhetorical
(i.e) 3H-education -Hand, Head curriculum are comprised
and Heart. from ideas offered by
policymakers, school official,
10. Intended curriculum administrators or
politicians.The rhetorical
 It serves as a documented map of curriculum may also come
theories, beliefs and intentions offering from the publicized
about schooling, teaching and works knowledge. updates in
knowledge evidence in the pedagogical
development of teacher proof
curriculum. 16. OCCUPATIONAL CURRICULUM
 Processes, content, knowledge
combined with the experiences  On the content to be
and realities of the learner to covered within the three
create new knowledge. learning components.

11 . OBJECTIVE CURRICULUM

• B.S BIOOM has suggested this tri

polar process educational
objectives-learning experience-
change behaviour

12. EXTRA-MURAL CURRICULUM

17. TESTED CURRICULUM Taught Curriculum

 What is tested is a limited  The different planned activities

part of what is intended by which are put into action in the
policy makers, taught by classroom compose the taught
teachers and learned by curriculum.
students.  These are varied activities that are
 The test curriculum is that set implemented in order to arrive at
of learning's that is assessed the objectives or purposes of the
in teacher-made classroom written curriculum
tests; in district-developed  It varies according to the learning
curriculum-referenced tests styles of the students and the
and standardized test. teaching styles of the teacher.

18. E-CURRICULUM Supported Curriculum

 LE-Electronic Those lessons learned  In order to have a successful

through searching the internet for teaching, other than the teacher,
information or through using e- there must be materials which
forms of communication. should support of help in the
 CD-ROM, network, internet, intranet, implementation of a written
video, audio, animation, e-mails, FB, curriculum.
YouTube.  Support curriculum include material
resources such a textbooks
Types of Curriculum Operating in Schools computers, audio-visual materials,
laboratory equipment, playgrounds
Recommended Curriculum zoos and other facilities
 Support curriculum should enable
 most of the curricula are each learner to achieve real and
recommended lifelong learning.
 Proposed by scholars and
professional organizations Assessed Curriculum
 The curriculum may come from a
national agency or any  This refers to a tested or
professional organization who has evaluated curriculum.
stake in education  Series of evaluations are being
done by the teachers at the
Written Curriculum duration and end of the
teaching episodes to determine
 Includes documents, course of the extent of teaching or to tell
study or syllabi for implementation. if the students are progressing.
 Most written curricula are made by  Assessment tools like pencil-and-
curriculum experts with paper tests, authentic
participation of teachers. instruments like portfolio are
 An example of this is the Basic being utilized.
Education Curriculum (BEC) and
the written lesson plan of each Learned Curriculum
classroom teacher made up of
objectives and planned activities  This refers to the learning outcomes
of the teacher. achieved by the students.
 Learning outcomes are indicated
by the results of the tests and
 changes in behavior which can be innovating, and initiating is broadly
either cognitive, affective or classified as a curricularist.
psychomotor.  Teacher’s Role: A teacher’s role
may be that of a curricularist.
Hidden Curriculum  First School Experience: The first
school experience sets the tone for
 This is the unintended curriculum engagement.
which is not deliberately planned  Classroom: The classroom is the first
but ay modify behavior or place of curricular understandings
influence learning outcomes of the meaning of schooling that
 Peer influence, school environment, will lead to learning.
physical condition, teacher-learner  Curriculum: The curriculum is the
interaction, mood of the teacher heart of schooling.
and many other factors make up
the hidden curriculum, TEACHER AS A CURRICULARIST

Concomitant Curriculum  Writes the curriculum

 Plans the curriculum
 Things that are taught at home;  Initiates the curriculum
those experiences that are part of  Innovates the curriculum
a family's experiences, or related  Implements the curriculum
experiences sanctioned by the  Evaluates the curriculum
family.
 This type of curriculum may be 3 WAYS OF APPROACHING A
received at church, in the context CURRICULUM
of religious expression, lessons on
values, ethics or morals, molded Content as a content or body of
behaviors, or social experiences knowledge
based on a family's preferences.
 Traditional View: Curriculum is often
Phantom Curriculum seen as a topic outline or subject
matter included in syllabus or books.
 The messages prevalent in and  Example: A primary school
through exposure to media mathematics curriculum includes
topics like addition, multiplication,
Null subtraction, division, distance,
weight etc.
 what is not taught. Not teaching  Content Equivalence: Curriculum is
some particular idea or sets of seen as content, focusing on what
ideas may be due to mandates is taught rather than how it’s taught.
from higher authorities, to a  Fund of Knowledge: This refers to
teacher's lack of knowledge, or to the accumulated discoveries and
deeply ingrained assumptions and inventions from explorations and
biases. research, forming the basis of many
curriculums.
Role of a Teacher as a Curricularist  Educational Setting: Curriculum is
usually anchored on a body of
knowledge or discipline in most
educational settings.
 Curricularist: A person involved in
curriculum knowing, writing, There are four ways of presenting the
planning, implementing, evaluating, content in the curriculum, These are:
 1. TOPICAL APPROACH, where much FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES FOR
content is based on knowledge, and CURRICULUM CONTENTS
experiences are included;
 Balance: Content should be fairly
2. CONCEPT APPROACH, with fewer distributed in depth and breadth.
topics in clusters around major and This ensures that significant
sub-concepts and their interaction, contents are covered to avoid too
with relatedness emphasized; much or too little of the contents
needed within the time allocation.
3. THEMATIC APPROACH, as a  Articulation: As the content
combination of concepts that complexity progresses with the
develop structures, and educational levels, vertically or
horizontally, across the same
4. MODULAR APPROACH, that leads to discipline, smooth connections or
complete units of instruction. bridging should be provided. This
assures no gaps or overlaps in the
CRITERIA IN THE SELECTION OF CONTENT content.
(SCHEFFER, 1970 in Bilbao, et al 2015)  Sequence: The logical
arrangement of the content refers
1. Significance: The content should to sequence or order. This can be
be significant in the following ways: done vertically for deepening the
 It should contribute to content or horizontally for
ideas, concepts, principles, broadening the same content. In
and generalizations that both ways, the pattern is usually
help attain the overall from easy to complex, what is
purpose of the curriculum. known to the unknown, what is
 It becomes significant if it current to something in the future.
serves as a means of
developing cognitive,
affective, or psychomotor
skills of the learner.
 As education is a way of 4. Integration-content in the curriculum
preserving culture, content does not stand alone or in isolation. It has
will be significant when it some ways of relatedness or
addresses the cultural connectedness to other contents.
context of the learners. Contents should be infused in other
disciplines whenever possible. This will
GUIDE in the selection of the content in provide a holistic or unified view of
the Curriculum curriculum instead of segmentation.
5. Continuity-content when viewed as a
 Commonly used in daily life
curriculum should continuously flow as it
 Appropriate to the maturity levels
and abilities of the learners. was before, to where it is now, and where
 Valuable in meeting the needs and will it be in the future. It should be
competencies of the future career. perennial. It endures time. Content may
 Related to other subject fields or not be in the same form or substance as
discipline for seen in the past since changes and
 complementation and integration. developments in curriculum occur.
 Important in the transfer of learning 6. Scope -the breadth and depth of the
to other disciplines. curriculum content are vital in curriculum.
scope consists of all the contents, topics,
learning experiences compromising the
curriculum. In layman's term scope refers 6. Flexibility in the use of the process or
to coverage. The scope shall consider the methods should be considered. An
cognitive level, affective domain and effective process will always result to
psychomotor skills in identifying the learning outcomes.
contents. Other factors will be considered 7. Both teaching and learning are the
but caution is given to overloading of two important processes in the 7
contents. implementation of the curriculum.

B. CURRICULUM AS A PROCESS C. CURRICULUM AS A PRODUCT

We have seen that the curriculum can be Beside viewing curriculum as content that
approached as a content. On the other is to be transmitted, or process that gives
hand, it can also be approached as a action using the content, it has also been
process. Curriculum as a process is seen viewed as a product. In other words,
as a scheme about the practice of product is what the students desire to
teaching. It is not package of materials or achieve as a learning outcomes. The
a syllabus of content to be covered. The product from the curriculum is a student
classroom is only part of the learning equipped with the knowledge, skills and
environment where the teacher places values to function effectively and
action using the content to achieve an efficiently. The real purpose of education
outcome. Hence the process of teaching is to bring about significant changes in
and learning becomes central concern students pattern of behavior. It is
of teachers to emphasize critical thinking, important that any statement of
and heads-on, hands-on learning and objectives or intended outcomes of the
many others. school should be a statement of changes
to take place in a student. Curriculum
When curriculum is approached as a product is expressed in the form of
PROCESS, guiding principles are outcomes which are referred to as the
presented. achieved learning outcomes There may
1. Curriculum process in the form of be several desired learning outcomes,
teaching methods or strategies are but if the process is not successful, then
means to achieve the end. no learning outcomes will be achieved.
2. There is no single best process or These learned or achieved learning
method. Its effectiveness will depend outcomes are demonstrated by the
on the desired learning outcomes, person who has meaningful experiences
the learners, support materials and in the curriculum. All of These are result of
the teacher. planning content and process in the
3. Curriculum process should stimulate curriculum.
the learner's desire to develop the
cognitive, affective, psychomotor Curriculum from Different Points of View
domains in each individual. 1. Traditional Points of View of
4. In the choice of methods, learning Curriculum - fragmentary, elusive
and teaching styles should be and confusing
considered. 2. Progressive Points of View of
5. Every method or process should Curriculum - modes of thoughts,
result to learning outcomes which pedagogies, political as well as
can be described as cognitive, cultural experiences
affective, and psychomotor.
Curriculum from Different Points of View Summary
1. Traditional Point of View 1. Curriculum is a dynamic process.
- In the early years of 20th century, the 2. Development connotes changes
traditional concepts held of the which are systematic
"curriculum is that it is a body of subjects 3. A change for the better means any
or subject matter prepared by the View alteration, modification or
teachers for the students to learn." It was improvement of existing condition.
synonymous to the "course of study" and Curriculum Development
"syllabus". 4. To produce positive changes,
development should be purposeful
a) Robert M. Hutchins - Basic planned and progressive
Education should emphasize the
3Rs and college education should PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS of
be grounded on liberal education CURRICULUM
b) Arthur Bestor - Curriculum should - Philosophy provides educators,
focus on the fundamental teachers and curriculum makers with
intellectual discipline of grammar, framework for planning,
literature and writing. implementing and evaluating
c) Joseph Schwab - Curriculum should curriculum in schools.
consist only of knowledge which - It helps in answering what school are
comes from discipline which is the for, what subjects are important, how
sole source students should learn and what
materials and methods should be
2. Progressive Points of View used. In decision making, philosophy
- Curriculum is defined as the total provides the starting point and will be
learning experiences of the individual. This used for the succeeding decision
definition is anchored on John Dewey's making.
definition of experience and education. - The philosophy of a curriculum
He believed that reflective thinking is a planner, implementer or evaluator
means that unifies curricular. Thought is reflects his or her life experiences,
not derived from action but tested by common beliefs, social and
application. economic background and
a) Caswell and Campbell - Curriculum education.
includes "all experiences children
have under the guidance of Four Educational Philosophies
teachers". a. Perennialism
b) Marsh and Willis - Curriculum - To educate the rational
includes all the "experiences in the - To cultivate the intellect person
classroom which are planned and - Teachers help students think with
entered by the teacher, and also reason
learned by the students." - Classical subjects, literary analysis
c) Smith, Stanley and Shores - and curriculum is constant
Curriculum is the sequence of - Use of great books and return to
potential experiences set up in liberal arts
schools for purpose of disciplining
children and youth in grow ways of
thinking and acting."
b. Essentialism sequencing of task which is viewed
- To promote the intellectual growth of by other educational psychologist
the individual and educate a as simplistic and mechanical.
competent person
- The teacher is the sole authority in his 2. Cognitive Psychology
or her subject area or field of - To the cognitive theorists, learning
specialization. constitutes a logical method for
- Essential skills of the 3 R's and organizing and interpreting learning.
essential subjects of English, Science, - Learning is rooted in the tradition of
History, Math and Foreign Language. subject matter and is similar to the
- Excellence in education, back to cognitive development theory.
basics and cultural literacy - Teachers use a lot of problem and
thinking skills in teaching and
c. Progressivism learning. These are exemplified by
- To promote democratic and social practices like reflective thinking,
living creative thinking, intuitive thinking,
- Knowledge leads to growth and discovery learning and many more.
development of lifelong learners who
actively learn by doing 3. Humanistic Psychology
- Subjects are interdisciplinary, - Humanist psychologist are
integrative and interactive. concerned with how learners can
Curriculum is focused on students' develop their human potential; the
interests, human problems and affairs process not the products; personal
- School reforms, relevant and needs not the subject matter;
contextualizes curriculum, humanistic psychological meaning and
education environmental situations.

d. Reconstructionism  The psychological foundations will

- To improve and reconstruct the help curriculum makers in nurturing a
society more advanced more comprehensive
- Education for change and complete human learning.
- Teachers act as agents of change
and reform in various educational HISTORICAL SOCIOLOGICAL
projects including research FOUNDATIONS
- Focus on present and future trends Curriculum Theorists
and issues of national and
international interests. Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956) - presented
- Equality of educational opportunities curriculum as a science that emphasizes
in education; access to global on curriculum prepares for adult life.
education
Werret Charters (1875-1952) considered
1. Behaviorist Psychology curriculum also as a science which is
- Learning should be organized in based on students' need and the
order that students can experience teachers plan the activities.
success in the process of mastering
the subject matter. William Kilpatrick (1871-1965) - viewed
- The method is introduced in a step curriculum as purposeful activities which
by step manner with proper are child-centered. The purpose of
curriculum is child development and SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
growth. - Science and technology are essential
Harold Rugg (1886-1960) Curriculum for national development and progress.
should develop the whole child. He The State has to give priority to research
emphasized social studies in the and development, invention, innovation,
curriculum and the teacher plans the and their utilization; and to science and
lesson in advance. technology education, training, and
services. It must support indigenous,
Hollis Caswell (1901-1989) sees curriculum appropriate, and self- reliant scientific
as organized around social functions of and technological capabilities, and their
themes, organized knowledge and application to the country's productive
learner's interests. systems and national life.

Ralph Tyler (1902-1994) - believes that ELEMENTS OF CURRICULUM

curriculum is a science and an extension  Aims and objectives
of school's philosophy.  Content
 Evaluation
Social Foundations of Education  Teaching Strategies
- Schools exist within the social
context. Societal culture affects Definition of Content
and shapes schools and their - Content is defined as "Information
curricula. to be learned in school, another
- In considering the social term for knowledge (a collection of
foundations of curriculum, we must facts, concepts, generalization,
recognize that schools are only one principles, theories)"
of the many institutions that - Content comes in any form . (audio,
educates society. text and video) and it informs,
- The home, the family, community, entertains, enlightens or teaches
likewise, educate the people in the people who consume it.
society. But schools are formal
institutions that address more Subject-centered view of curriculum
complex and interrelated societies - The fund of human knowledge
and the world. represents the repository of accumulated
discoveries and inventions of man down
LANGUAGE the centuries, due to man's exploration of
- The national language of the Philippines the world.
is Filipino and it must be learned further
than other language evolves within the Learner-centered view of curriculum
country. English is provided to facilitate - Relates knowledge to the individual's
instruction and further communication. personal and social world and how he or
Other languages such as Spanish and she defines reality.
Arabic shall be promoted on a voluntary - Jerome Bruner: "Knowledge is a model
and optional basis. Researches must lead we construct to give meaning and
to development and preservation of structure to
Filipino and other languages.
Purposes of Content
>To help organize materials
>To help a sequential relationship of Suitability - learning experiences must be
material suitable to the learners present state of
> To present material basic to a general learning and characteristics:
understanding of a course.
> To furnish a source of valuable Validity - it relates to the authenticity of
information. the content selected. this refers to the
> To present application relevance of the stated learning
experience to the stated goals of the
The content is: curriculum: "Means two things, is the
- United with the goals and content/ related to the objectives, and is
objectives of the basic education the content true or authentic:
curriculum.
- Responds to the needs of the Interest- the content should suit the
learner. personality and intellectual capabilities of
- Includes cognitive skill and the students. Is the content interesting to
affective elements. the learner? Or can the content be
- Facts are basic in the structure of made interesting to learners?
cognitive subject matter. But
content must go beyond facts. Utility- it is concerned with the usefulness
- and of the content. Here the question is
- Working out a process of whether the content selected is useful i.e.
conceptual understanding means will lead to the acquisition of skills and
teaching learning beyond facts. knowledge that are considered useful by
This can be done by the use of the society?
thematic or the integrated
approach. Feasibility - it compels the planners to
analyze and examine the content in the
Criteria for Content Selection light of the time and resources available
to the students, costs involved, socio-
Self-sufficiency - According to Scheffler political climate etc.
(1970) the prime guiding principle for the
content selection is helping the learners
to attain maximum self sufficiency in
learning but in the most economical
manner.
Economy means less teaching effort and
educational resources, less learner's effort
but more results and effective learning
outcomes,

Significance - It is significant if when

content or subject matter will contribute
to basic ideas, concepts, principles, and
generalization to achieve the over all aim
of the curriculum. It will develop learning
abilities, skills, processes and attitude