INTERNATIONAL POLICY

Diplomacy

SİREEN KHEMESH

21 SEP 2017
 INTERNATIONAL POLICY
Diplomacy

ABSTRACT

DIPLOMACY DEFINITION, FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS, ACTORS AND

FUNCTIONS
We can define diplomacy as one of the important areas of international politics,
as negotiations and relations between states are carried out through
representatives. However, in addition to expressing international relations
functioning through diplomatic representatives, it is also used as a scientific
discipline that examines these relations. In the history of international politics
diplomacy has emerged in the form of relations between the sovereign states
through intermediaries, but nowadays, the representation of a state in
international organizations falls within the scope of diploma (Berridge and
James, 2003: 70). Diplomacy is both a way to ensure that a state is represented
in the world and an important tool for the realization of national interests. In this
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sense diplomacy is aimed at achieving the aims of a state in the international

order, while diplomats are responsible for monitoring the balance to avoid
conflicts with other states in achieving these goals (Griffits and O'Callaghan,
2002: 80).

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Through diplomacy, states communicate with each other, negotiate, influence
each other and try to reduce their differences (Griffits and O'Callaghan, 2002:
79). Diplomacy, which was derived from the word "diploma" in Greek meaning
"to double" (Tuncer, 2007: 9), has often been used to describe the concept of
foreign policy. However, diplomacy is only one of the means of carrying out
foreign policy. The word of diplomacy also has connotations about the concepts
of intelligence and elegance. It is often described as a diplomatic solution to
bringing a problem to solution with reason and grace. Thus, the Ernst Satow
diploma defines the way in which intelligence and behavioral tactics are applied
to orient relations among states. The delegation of diplomatic relations is also an
important issue. As a matter of fact, we know that in the eastern Mediterranean
communities where diplomacy started, Akadice was first used as the first
diplomatic language by Aramaic (ibid, 2007: 69). Over time, Greek, Latin,
French, and English were accepted as diplomatic languages. People began to
organize as political societies and needed diplomatic relations. The messengers
carrying news between the two political communities can be regarded as the first
diplomats. It is an accepted concept since the early ages that these messengers
have some privileges to safely carry messages to be transmitted and that the
content of the sent message is bad even if it is bad. The phrase "don’t hurt the
embassador " in many similar dictionaries expresses the necessity of having a
number of privileges for those who carry messages in our culture. Indeed, the
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destruction of these messengers will lead to war in the face of diplomatic

relations, which can be solved by peaceful means. Thanks to diplomacy, a
science that serves peace, both wars have been prevented, and warring parties
have been able to make peace treaties, for this reason, the Kadesh Treaty (1280
BC), the first peace treaty in history, has a special precaution in terms of the
evolution of its diplomacy. Another important development in terms of
diplomatic development is the emergence of the Olympic tradition in Ancient
Greek society. B.C. in the ninth century the Greek city states signed an armistice
(Ekecheria, 2007: 71), which guarantees that the people who will watch the

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 games and the sportsmen play safely during the Olympics can safely reach the
city of Olympia. This is the first multi-country international treaty. In order to
announce that this multilevel treaty had entered into force, the messengers
would go to all the Greek city states and declare a firefight.

* Kadesh Treaty: Egyptian Pharaoh II. Ramses and the Hittite King III. The peace treaty signed
between Hattushili.

*Truce: The ceasefire agreement, which endangers wars and conflicts.

With the development of the Roman law, the first legal arrangements have been
made in matters such as the legal status of the emissaries, where and how to
stay, and the privileges and immunities that these ambassadors would have. .
The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) empire also followed the methods developed in
Rome. However, diplomacy in the Byzantine Empire was used as a means of
transmitting news, as well as being used as a method of dropping competing
states, propagating the state, distributing bribes, delaying war and consuming
enemy resources. The concept of the Byzantine game was a phrase used to
describe this unethical dimension of diplomacy. Diplomatic immunity and
immunity have also been emphasized in Islamic civilization, which is
contemporary of Byzantium. In medieval Europe, diplomacy has also developed
in church law. The Papacy organized relations with the feudal European giants,
which were not yet sovereign and sovereigned in the name of the Pope, through
legates and nunties, which means ambassadors.
* Legate and Nuntius: The Roman civilization was called the legate, and the news-bearing
messengers were called nuntius.

We observe that in the 14th and 15th centuries the concept of ad hoc envoy,
which conveys messages especially in the Italian city states, has turned into the
concept of a resident ambassador. The city states of Venice, Milan and Mantua
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have begun to establish resident messengers among themselves and in the

Papacy (iSkit, 2007: 87). Later, the resident embassy system began to spread
throughout Europe. The 1815 Vienna Congress, the emergence of the European
Harmonization System, is of great importance for the emergence of basic
diplomatic rules and traditions, many of which still continue today. The Vienna
Congress is particularly important because of the regulations it has brought
about diplomatic protocol, which is a major problem in the organization of many
conferences in Europe until that day. The UN Conference on Diplomatic
Relations and Immunities, held in Vienna in 1961, improved the basic

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regulations introduced in 1815, thereby ensuring the emergence of diplomatic
procedures now in place.
However, World War I is a real milestone in terms of transition to open
diplomacy. Russia, pulled out of war due to the revolution in the country during
the war, revealed all the secret treaties between states and dropped allies. US
President Woodrow Wilson also demanded that in the 14th Article, which is a
prerequisite for the continuation of the war on the part of the US allies, he
demanded the opening of new international reorganization agreements to be
established after the war, and this request was included in the mission of the
League of Nations, It has come. For this reason, pre-World War I diplomacy is
defined as classical, post-war diplomacy as open diplomacy.

* Ad hoc embassy: Ad hoc means temporary, one event or one event. Ad hoc embassies also mean
non-resident, temporary embassies.

* Resident embassy: A permanent, non-provisional embassy.

Basic Concepts of Diplomacy

During the development of the diploma, many concepts specific to this
knowledge have emerged. These concepts will be introduced to a few that are
thought to be very important in this section, as well as many to fill the
vocabulary. Diplomat: A diplomat is a professional person who conducts
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diplomatic activities on behalf of a state, as a member of a diplomatic service,

within the boundaries to which he is authorized. If the diplomatic service foreign
ministry spoken is a civil servant, a foreign state or an international
organization, the diplomatic agent is called (Berridge and James, 2003: 70).
Diplomatic Mission: The name given to a diplomatic institution which has the
authority to represent a state in another state. The mission chief is the person
who is in charge of the diplomatic mission. Each diplomatic mission has a
mission chief. At the UN Conference on Diplomatic Relations and Immunities
in Vienna in 1961, it was recognized as a three-class mission chief:

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 1. Ambassadors who have been accredited by heads of state, Papal nuncio
and their equivalent mission chiefs.
2. Ambassadors accredited by heads of state, Ambassadors -undersecretaries
and papal internuncio.
3. Charges which have been accredited by foreign ministers (iSkit, 2007,
263).

According to Turkish law, ambassador, permanent representative,

the deputy permanent representative, second assistant secretary, second clerk,
third clerk, attaché and attaché assistants and military attachés, military attache
assistants and assistant permanent representatives belonging to other public
institutions and organizations, consultant, attorney general, attorney general,
attorney general, attorney general, assistant attorney, attaché and attache
assistants (Official Gazette, 12.2.1986).
Apart from these, communication experts who provide technical support to the
diplomatic mission have diplomatic status from time to time, while staff such as
chef, driver, gardener who carry out daily business do not have diplomatic
status. The residence where the chief of the mission resides is called the
residence, the embassy where the diplomatic affairs are seen, or the consulates
building.
* Chargé d'affaires: work. The diplomat who served him in the absence of the Ambassador work.

Kordiplomatic: It is an actual community that has come to fruition to ensure that

all diplomatic representatives who work in one country act jointly in matters that
concern their entities. It is frequently convened for the protection of diplomatic
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rights and privileges. Particularly, if the receiving state violates the diplomatic
privileges of the diplomats working in the country for any reason, the mission
chiefs "Doyen" in that state will be gathered under the leadership of the chief
mission, which is the longest serving in that state, and the chordiplomatic
decides to act jointly against the violation.
Accreditation: means to equip the documentary with the authority and title of a
mission chief (Berridge and James, 2003: 2). Before going to the state where the
mission chief will serve, the name of this person is informed to the state to go to.
The positive side from that state is called the agrement. Once the agreement is

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received, the mission chief will present the accreditation certificate to the state
president who will serve. The chief of the mission, which is accepted to
represent the state, has become accredited.
Diplomatic Privileges: Diplomatic immunities and diplomatic immunities are
the privileges that diplomatic representatives have in the countries they serve.
Diplomatic immunity; the immunity of the diplomatic representative, the
immunity of diplomatic buildings, the immunity of communication and the
impunity of travel. Diplomatic immunity refers to the judicial immunity of the
diplomatic representative and immunity to tax and customs.

Actors of Diplomacy
Diplomacy is carried out through general and special competent bodies. The
general competent bodies for conducting a state diplomacy are the president, the
president of the government and the foreign ministers. Special authorized bodies
are diplomatic representatives mentioned above.
Head of State/President: The head of state is the most authoritative body for the
diplomatic activities of states. According to the regime, the presidents, heads of
state with the name of the king or president, have the authority to negotiate,
represent and sign treaties on behalf of the state without needing any documents
of authorization. Of course, in democratic regimes, the president only uses
diplomatic powers within the boundaries and scopes of the constitutional
framework. Heads of state have equal status with heads of all other states as a
result of the principle of equality of states existing under the UN condition.
Prime Minister: In parliamentary and semi-presidential systems, prime ministers
are authorized to carry out diplomatic activities such as heads of state. The limits
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of the Constitution also apply to the framework prime ministers.

Minister of Foreign Affairs: The need for the archives of diplomatic
correspondence, the prevention of disappearance and the appointment of
resident embassies, the development of international politics, the emergence of a
ministry to deal with these matters. for the first time in Berlin, a foreign ministry
was established in 1819 and continued to be established in other European states
during the nineteenth century. States carry out their diplomatic activities by the
foreign ministries.

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 Apart from these three actors, other ministers and authorized diplomats
authorized to sign agreements provide the functioning of diplomas. As already
mentioned above, the diplomats who work on a diplomatic mission are the
special authorities of the diploma.

Functions of Diploma
Diplomacy has long been associated with skillfully licking the state's high
interests. Especially Machiavelli says that a good diplomat should be a good liar.
Indeed Bierce, a former diplomat diplomacy "patriotic art we lie to our state"
(Rourke, 1995, 302), unless otherwise defined. Indeed, until the end of World
War I, diplomacy continued to be an activity in which every aspect of the state's
interests, even if unethical, was resorted to. However, the treaty made clear the
principles of development, diplomacy had put privacy on the ethical aspects of
diplomacy, albeit a little bit and started to become more significant. Moreover,
in the twentieth century to become more complex in the case of the development
of methods and means of mass communication intelligence technology it has
brought it appeared increasingly less important diplomatic lies. Below are
explanations of what functions the diploma uses in its production:
Observation and Reporting: A diplomatic mission is responsible for monitoring
all major developments in the country in which the officer is located. While
observing this activity, he closely follows the press in the country and reports
important developments to the state. At the same time, he regularly reports and
sends to the state the information he receives from politicians, businessmen,
journalists, academics, arts and scientists in his state of affairs. Often, a number
of experts from the intelligence services are also employed at the embassy staff
to provide them with diplomatic privileges, thus providing legal protection for
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the execution of their spying activities. Especially during the Cold War period,
serious diplomatic crises have been experienced among the states because of the
capture of these agents. In this period, especially the US and the USSR
exchanged agents intercepted at certain intervals.

Negotiation: An important role of a diplomat is also negotiated. Activities such

as negotiations to protect the interests of the state in the process of signing an
international treaty, negotiation of the terms of the ceasefire and peace treaties,
and repositioning of relations that sometimes become strained between the two

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states are largely realized by diplomats. In this negotiation function, the
diplomat's personal abilities are very important. It is an important element of
national power in achieving the interests of a good negotiating state (Papp,
2001: 310). Negotiation starts by sending various signals to the other party. In
order to negotiate a subject, it is first given the message that the other party is
determined to negotiate with the closed signal method. These signals can be sent
with various statements or some goodwill. For example, in order to start
diplomatic relations between the United States and China, the table tennis
tournament held in Japan in 1971, China and the US table tennis national teams
played matches and the two sides sent the message that they were ready to
negotiate with each other with this closed signal. For this reason, this event is
referred to as "ping pong diploma" in the history of diplomacy. They then
invited each other to the negotiation table with the open signal method, and in
1972 the US President Nixon visited and negotiated. Negotiations ultimately
resulted in the establishment of diplomatic relations in 1979.
Representation: Representative duties are related to the fact that a diplomat
oversees the legal entity of the state to which it is affiliated. The respect for the
diplomatic state, the priorities to be granted, the acceptance or rejection of
appointment requests by the diplomat, the movements towards the personality of
the state represented by the diplomat, not the person. The diplomat is considered
to represent the state and the nature of the relationship between the diplomat and
the state to which it is sent determines the nature of the relationship between the
two states. When states are more attentive to the diplomats of the states they care
about, it is known that when the relations between the two states get tense, they
show negative movements towards their diplomats - without exceeding the
limits of politeness. The sloppy and disrespectful actions towards the diplomats
are assumed to have been made against the states they represent. Another
dimension of the representation function is that states are required to participate
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through the diplomats of many of the international conferences, and that the
diplomat is tasked with protecting the interests of the state represented in that
meeting and expressing his views.
Intervention: Not a prime function; especially when the diplomats of major
states intervene in the internal policies of the relatively weaker states they are
assigned to. During the Cold War, US diplomats intervened in the Western bloc,
while USSR diplomats intervened in policies that were against the US or USSR
when they were assigned to a small state in the Eastern bloc. Today, it is a

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 known fact that US diplomats have indirectly intervened in domestic politics in
a number of states where the influence of this state is intense. Of course, other
states are interfering with other countries' internal politics by their diplomats in
different dimensions, to the extent of their power. Because they regard
diplomacy as an instrument of foreign policy making, states intervene in other
states' policies by using non-traditional diplomatic means such as intelligence,
media and threats. This diplomacy is called compulsive diplomacy.
Propaganda: The diplomat is responsible for making propaganda of his own
state. In the state in which it is assigned, the fact that its own state has a good
image is achieved by the success of diplomats to a large extent. To this end, the
diplomat propagates both the human relations he has developed and the power
of his state, his prestige, and the fundamental values he espouses at meetings
and invitations he has attended. From time to time diplomats are given the task
of making propaganda of values that states do not actually possess, but seem to
have defended them. For example, the USSR leader Khrushchev delegated his
diplomats to propagate the thesis that the USSR defends disarmament in order to
have a peaceful image of the USSR (Rourke, 1995: 307).

EVOLUTION OF DIPLOMACY
We can divide the history of diplomacy into two phases: classical diplomacy
before World War I and post-war open diplomacy. This distinction, of course,
will be an accurate distinction in terms of the nature of the diplomatic
relationship, but it is obvious that the period we call classical diplomacy is a
quantitative inequality because of the scope of thousands of years and the open
diploma of almost a century. For this reason, it will be a proper method to study
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the classical period by dividing itself into periods.

Classical Diplomacy
Classical diplomacy in this section Diplomacy applied in ancient Greek and
Roman periods, diplomacy in Italian city states and diplomacy applied in the
period of 1815 Vienna Congress to the end of World War I for more than a
hundred years. In this long period, which involves many different applications,

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diplomacy is called a classical act because it is an undertaking carried out
behind closed doors.

Diplomacy from the Italian City States to the Vienna Congress

The Italian city states are enriched by maritime trade, just like the Greek city
states. As we have seen in ancient Greece, these states have carried out their
relations through envoys and have created an international system that does not
need war. Similarly, these states, which carry out their relations with the papacy
through diplomacy, have kept permanent trade ambassadors called balyos in
important states such as the Byzantine and Ottoman empires. Especially after the
fifteenth century, we can observe that the diplomatic relations between the
Italian city states have become much more systematic. Nicolo Machiavelli, the
famous Champion philosopher and statesman, is the most important thinker on
the diplomacy issue of the Renaissance Period Italy.
Machiavelli counted the features that a diplomat should possess in his work
titled Prince. According to Machiavelli, human nature is a bad asset. You must
not trust the man who always pursues the lead. So it is pointless to expect a set
of moral attributes in a diplomat. The best diplomat is the most skillful lie
diplomat. the state must be able to say all sorts of things without hesitation and it
must be as cunning as a fox about protecting the interests of the state. Diplomats
may resort to all kinds of lies, deceit and decency in order to protect the interests
of the prince during the negotiation of an treaty. The task of a diplomat is that it
is so vigilant in this negotiation process that even a small word can prevent it
from prejudicing the interests of its state. Perhaps a war will be possible with a
war, perhaps not possible at all, after the treaty has been taken and signed. For
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this reason, the diplomat should be able to apply all kinds of lullabies and tricks
to put the provisions of the treaty in the interest of his state; it must always be
ready and vigilant in order to prevent the contrary provisions. Francesco
Guiccardini, a contemporary of Machiavelli, pays special attention to the
principle of pacta sund servanda in addition to the interests of the state, and has
argued that it would shake the prestige of the state if the agreements were not
easily violated.
* Pacta sund servanda: Ahada lafa. The principle that crawling must adhere to the provisions of the agreement.

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 However, the Italian city states have contributed a lot to the development of the
diploma in the positive sense. The most important of these is that the city states
of Venice, Milan and Mantua start to have communist messengers among
themselves and in the Papacy state (iSky, 2007: 87). The Mukim embassy
application then spread to all Italian city states, then to Europe and to the whole
world. Thus, diplomacy has emerged from an ad hoc relationship and gained a
corporate identity. Also in this period diplomatic language conventions which
are used today in the writing of treaty texts and protocols have begun to emerge.
Since these states have established a small international system between equal
states, they have been paying attention to the principle of equality in the
diplomatic texts they have taken, and they have not used aggressive statements
by the other side. This equality-minded and gracious style has been accepted
throughout the world over time. Another important feature of this period is the
beginning of organizing diplomatic meetings and conferences in which the
problems of the city states are discussed (Rourke, 1995: 309). As a matter of
fact, the conference and congress method will be systemized in the nineteenth
century and the congresses and conferences will have a very important function
for the solution of the problems without war in the order called European
Harmony. Of course, Hugo Grotius, who served at least as much as Machiavelli.
Grotius has defined the principles of a just war, developed the concept of the
international community and became the most important founding thinker of
international law. Between 1624-1642 the French King XIII. Cardinal Richelieu,
who has also served as the prime minister of Louis, is the founding father of
nation-state thinking with the concept of "raison d'etat" he developed. The
concept of raison d'etat, which can be translated into Turkish as the reason for
the existence of the state, means that everything, including religion, must serve
the state's prima facie. Thus, the state was transformed into a secular institution
which did not receive the authority of the pontiff but ruled out the source of its
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power. The prime minister, who was originally a clergyman, played a leading
role in the process leading to the Westehalian Treaty, defending the interests of
France, not the Holy Roman German Empire in the 30 Years War, which turned
Europe into a blood lake through diplomatic prejudice. The provision of peace
in Westehalia has led to the idea that peace can be maintained through
congresses and conferences during the nineteenth century. Richelieu's diploma
contribution is not limited to this. Believing in the necessity of continuous
negotiation, Richelieu emphasized the importance of the appropriate time in
diplomacy. Everything needs to be done at the right time so that diplomatic

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negotiation can be successful. The most appropriate time frame is very
important in the selection of the people to be interviewed and in discussing the
necessary matters with them. Before the Vienna Congress, we can list Abraham
de Wicquefort and François de Callieres as two other influential names in the
development of the diploma. With the adoption of the ongoing negotiating
process, ad hoc embassies have begun to take over the embassies. From the
sixteenth century European states began to open embassies in important capitals.
The Ottoman Empire, an important European state, has begun to establish its
embassies in a later date compared to other states. The conquest of Istanbul and
the Venetian embassy in the Byzantine Empire continued to function in the
Ottoman Empire, and many European states began to open embassies in
Istanbul. The Ottoman Empire, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, sent
its first diplomatic missions to various European states in the Tulip Age. The
chief names written by the chiefs at the head of these ad hoc missions are
considered to be the most important texts of Ottoman diplomacy. The French
Sefaretnamesi, which was received in the position of Kara Mehmet Pasha's
Vienna Sefaretnamesi (Kınlı, 2006: 118) and Twenty-Eight Mehmet Çelebi's
(1720-1721) occupation by Evliya Çelebi in 1655, is quite detailed and
comprehensive. It is emphasized that the Ottoman Empire lagged behind Europe
in terms of science and technology. These chastities are the reasons for the
modernization movements that began in the nineteenth century in the Ottoman
Empire. The Ottoman Empire passed the dominance of the embassy in the late
eighteenth century. The first resident embassy of the Empire was opened in
England in 1793, and Yusuf Agâh Efendi was at the head of the mission. During
the nineteenth century the Ottoman Empire continued to open embassies in
many important European capitals. INTERNATIONAL POLICY | 21.09.2017

Diplomacy from Vienna Congress to World War I

With the Vienna Congress convened in 1815 upon the defeat of France under
the leadership of Napoleon, the European Harmony was created to prevent
liberal tendencies in Europe. The greatest role in the formation of this harmony
belongs to Metternich, the prime minister of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and
known as the baron of the equilibrium. Immediately after the Congress, the
Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Holy alliance formed between Prussia and
Russia, joined the United Kingdom. Thus, this formation, which is a quadruple
alliance, emerged from a separate treaty arrangement (Tünay, 1995: 87) in terms

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 of international law. With the Congress of Vienna, it started to be solved by the
system of the European problems conferences. Originally, many European
congresses were gathered before the Vienna Congress. However, in these
congresses, there were many protocol issues such as who will enter the congress
hall before, who will sign the treaty texts first, and so on. For example, during
the negotiations of the Karloofi Treaty, in which the Ottoman Empire lost a
great deal of land, the issue of who would enter salvage first could not be
resolved, so the door had to be built as many salona signatories. The most
important feature of the Vienna Congress, in which important principles have
been established in relation to the diplomatic protocol, is the abolition of the
right of conquest. According to the decisions taken at this congress, conquest is
now a way of earning land. For this purpose, the following two principles have
been adopted in resolving the problems among states: the principle of legality
and the principle of good relations between states (Pacteau and Mougel, 1993:
11). The Vienna Congress has associated the state's existence with tradition.
According to the congressional decisions, all the states which persisted their
existence were considered legal (Pacteau and Mougel, 1993: 13). So the
dynasties who were displaced during the Napoleonic Wars must re-establish
themselves with the establishment of the European Harmony. Otherwise, it
would be counted as grabbing power. In fact, this principle had no other
meaning than stopping the spread of liberalism and consolidating the power of
the monarchs. As a matter of fact, many international conferences held during
European Harmonization have been made in order to protect the existing
positions of European monarchs in essence. But the progress of liberalism has
not been stopped and nationalism has brought the end of European Harmony.
However, the fact that these conferences have contributed greatly to the
development of both their diplomas and international law can not be denied. The
choice of where the conferences will take place in this period has often been a
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weight of states' weight in international politics. In terms of states seeking power

like Prussia, the conference was perceived as a success achieved as a result of
the diplomatic negotiations that broke down. The fact that a large number of
international meetings were held in the Austrian territory during this period is a
sign of Metternich's diplomatic weight in European politics at that time. During
the European Harmonization period diplomacy developed in the form of
alliances within the largely confidentiality principle. Ernest Satow, one of the
most important diplomats of the period, rejected the concept of open diplomacy
that began to develop in the last years of his life. According to Satow, the

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diplomacy must be conducted secretly and the diplomatic words should be as
reliable as the written agreements. The Diplomatic Practice Guide, which the
British diplomat has received, is now regarded as one of the main works of his
diploma. Satow has emphasized the features of the diplomat and has
recommended that the diplomat learn the language of the state, which is in
charge of his intelligence, grace and remote vision. He has worked in the Far
Eastern states for a long time and has learned the languages and cultures of the
states he has worked very well. Knowing language is the criterion that
determines the quality of a diplomat today.

Open Diplomacy
The October 1917 Revolution, which took place during the First World War, is
very important for the evolution of diplomacy. As a matter of fact, Russia,
drawn from the war with the revolution, revealed the secret agreements that the
great states made before the war and during the war to destroy the Ottoman
Empire. These agreements; The Bosphorus Agreement, which left the Turkish
Straits to Russia; The London Agreement giving Italy, Antalya, Izmir and
Twelve Islands; The Sykes-Picot Agreement between the Middle East and
France and Britain; Some regions of Anatolia left Italy. The Jean de Maurienne
Treaty and the Balfour Declaration aimed at establishing a Jewish state in
Palestine. When it became evident that the Allies would win the war, the post-
war international system was largely a matter of the US President Woodrow
Wilson's congress on January 8, 1918. The first article of this speech, which is
referred to as 14 principles, is "Open peace treaties and open diplomacy in the
future" (Armaoğlu, 1985: 138). This discourse of Wilson declared from now on
that diplomatic negotiations would be made openly and that secret agreements
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would not be signed. It is essential that a natural resultant diploma of this

openness conforms to the moral norms. The Covenant of the League of Nations,
which emerged as a result of the Wilson principles, has been involved in peace
agreements signed with the states in a losing battle (McLean, 2005: 152).
Despite all this, however, the Paris Conference for the formation of post-war
order was not as open negotiations as was desired, but was carried out with
hidden negotiations between governments behind closed doors. The Paris
Conference, which resulted in the Versailles Agreement, which punished
Germany with severe conditions, was the last classical diplomacy conference;
the unfair situation that emerged with the treaty signed at the end of this

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 conference is also in II. It was the most important factor in the emergence of
World War II. The war with the establishment of the UN after the war has been
removed from being a major foreign policy instrument. The Vienna Convention
on Diplomatic Relations, signed in 1961, codified all the diplomatic rules and
procedures developed up to that date, and the diplomatic process currently in use
has been determined. Thanks to the possibilities provided by the UN system and
the rules developed by the Vienna Convention, open diplomacy has been
successfully applied to a century.
* Codification: By putting together the distributed rules and numbering them into a text.

Differences between the Classic Diplomacy and the Open

Diplomacy
There are significant differences that distinguish the period of open diplomacy,
which continues from day one to the end of World War I (1918), from the period
of classical diplomacy. These differences are mainly due to the increase in the
number of diplomatic missions; the second is the reduction of the autonomy of
the ambassadors; the rise of third-generation public opinion; while the fourth is
the ever-increasing importance of peak diplomacy (Snow and Brown, 2000:
397).
One of the most important of the 14 chiefs declared by President Wilson at the
end of the First World War is that the nations have the right to self-
determination. As a matter of fact, many new states emerged at the end of the
war, mainly in Central and Eastern Europe. A similar development was
experienced after World War II, and the European states, which had been weak
and defensible in the war, began emptying the colonies of almost every part of
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the world and experienced a period of rapid decolonization. Diplomacy has also
been transformed into an activity in which these new states participate in
international gatherings and diplomacy exclusively escapes the function of
negotiations between strong states and develops peaceful relations between
equal and independent states.
Open diplomacy is a century of communication revolution at the same time. Up
to the twentieth century, diplomats could only communicate with their own
states through special couriers, and it sometimes took months for a message to
arrive and come back. For this reason, diplomats could use initiatives in the

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negotiation process, whether in large quantities. Thus the success of the treaty
that emerged was due to the intelligence of the diplomat, the negotiation skill
and the cunning. However, due to the development of means of transmission
such as telephone, fax and internet, diplomats have been constantly monitored
and directed from the center. For this reason, the autonomous positions of
diplomats are gradually decreasing and they are gradually becoming officers
who implement the directives given to them.
The increase in communication technologies also made it possible for the
peoples to be informed instantly of all the events in the world. Since the
nineteenth century, democracy began to rise all over the world and the people
have gained a role in seeing and directing all the diplomatic activities of the
states. The peoples are not watching the states for their heavy human rights
violations and are forced to vote actively and actively on their affairs.The
genocide in Bosnia and Herzegovina is an obvious example of this. This drama
has long been a spectator, but especially with live broadcasts made by CNN
television, the suffering has caused an outrage all over the world. As a result of
this, diplomatic traffic accelerated by the pressure of international public
opinion, resulted in the construction of a humanitarian intervention in Bosnia.
For this reason, the strengthening of international public opinion through the
media is called the CNN influence (Robinson, 2002).
The development of communication technology as well as communication
technology has improved the top diplomacy that leaders have come together
more frequently with each other. Previously, negotiations through diplomats
could be made more frequently at the level of leaders, allowing for easier
resolution of many problems arising from lack of authority and misperceptions.
In the Cold War era, the US and USSR leaders often met to overcome the
problems caused by false perceptions. An example of the diplomatic
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contribution of the Red Telephone Agreement of June 20, 1963, which aims to
overcome the problems caused by misunderstandings between the US and the
SCB through direct interviews. In 1972, US President Nixon's visit to China
caused the relations between the two states to soften, and President Carter
declared on 15 December 1978 that diplomatic relations between the United
States and China had begun as a result of this softness (Keylor, 1996: 444). The
highlight of the face-to-face interview in diplomacy can be clearly seen in the
USA-China example.

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 TYPE OF DİPLOMACY
Different types of diplomacy have been tried in the historical evolution of
diplomacy. Among the types of diplomacy mentioned in this book; bilateral
diplomacy, multi-lateral diplomacy, parliamentary diplomacy, top diplomacy,
third-party diplomacy and coercive diplomacy.

Bilateral Diplomacy
Bilateral diplomacy means that diplomas are conducted between two states.
bilateral diplomacy can be carried out between diplomatic missions and other
representatives of the state where they reside, as well as through the negotiation
of the representatives of the two states in the territory of a third state (Berridge
and James, 2003: 21). Bilateral diplomacy was the most common type of
diplomacy, especially in the period of classical diplomacy. Confidentiality is the
most important thing in this type of diplomacy that is carried out without a
conference or congress or mediation or reconciliation. The two sides negotiate in
secrecy and the results of the negotiations are usually not communicated to third
parties. In bilateral diplomacy, the principle of reciprocity is very important. All
rights and obligations acquired in the negotiation process generally apply to both
parties. In the non-aggression and alliance agreements established with bilateral
diplomacy, the parties are equipped with similar rights and responsibilities in the
common enemy under the reciprocity principle.

Multilateral Diplomacy
The earliest example of a multi-dimensional diplomacy is the Olympic truce
seen in the ancient Greek city states. The multidisciplinary diplomacy, in which
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many governments have come together for a common purpose and negotiated,
has become very popular in Europe, especially after the seventeenth century.
These multi-lateral diplomacy activities, which are called the Congress system,
are in the balance of power and seeking peaceful solutions by discussing
continental problems. However, the institutionalization of the multidisciplinary
diploma was provided by the Vienna Congress. In the nineteenth century, the
Aix-la-Chapelle Congress, the Paris Congress, and the Berlin Congress are
examples of multi-dimensional diplomacy. Multiracial diplomacy is also defined
as the summit diplomacy when carried out by the heads of state and government.

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However, multi-lateral diplomacy can be carried out by all diplomatic actors
with diplomatic representation authority. The diplomacy conducted by ministers,
parliamentarians and diplomats is also very much referred to as cross-border
diplomacy.
With the founding of the League of Nations, multi-lateral diplomacy has lost its
ability to be a force and prestige struggle and has begun to fulfill its essential
function of resolving problems existing in the international system. In the
aftermath of the Second World War, the UN began to function in the same way
and has become a permanent place where states can present their views and
suggestions on international questions. But the states have also sought to combat
global problems through non-UN conferences by way of cross-country
diplomacy. G-8 meetings where the wealthiest states of the world come together
to discuss global economic problems; Conferences organized in cities like
Genoa, Punta del Este, Montreal and Doha, which resulted in the establishment
of the World Trade Organization, can be seen as examples of successful multi-
dimensional diplomacy.

Parliamentary Diplomacy
Parliamentary diplomacy is a concept used to describe negotiations carried out
within the League of Nations, established after the First World War, but the
concept is much broader today. Today, the number of international organizations
has increased greatly. As a result of this increase, many governments send
representatives to these organizations, and these representatives sign
negotiations and negotiate agreements on behalf of their states. . This is the very
recent diplomacy carried out in these international organizations is now called
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parliamentary diplomacy. This type of diplomacy is often referred to as

parliamentary diplomacy, since diplomats, rather than parliamentarians, often
conduct negotiated negotiations in these international organizations, such as
compromising and mediating concessions in the negotiation process,
reconciliation, mediation, resembling negotiations on legislative action in
parliamentary meetings. Today, diplomatic negotiations conducted in
organizations such as the UN General Assembly, the World Trade Organization,
the Council of Europe, or the Organization for Islamic Cooperation can be given
as examples of parliamentary diplomacy.

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 Summit Diplomacy
It is called the diplomatic peak (peak) diploma, which takes place at the level of
heads of state and government. During the European Harmonization process,
many congresses and conferences were held in top diplomatic character. With
the development of the means of transport after World War II, leaders were able
to go abroad more easily and the peak diploma began to gain importance again.
In the development process of the summit diploma, many protocols such as
where to organize the congress or conference, on which dictation to organize,
which minutes to write the minutes and final agreements, which representatives
to enter salone first, the seating arrangement, States recognized their superiority
of the protocol during this congress and conference as an important indicator of
strength. These problems have been largely overcome by the Vienna Congress
of 1815, and some of them have become standard with the Vienna Convention
on Diplomatic Relations, which continues to be valid today, but which was
signed in 1961. Today, these protocol rules are both standardized and more
flexible than in the past. For example, in the Davos Summit, the heads of state
and government held conversations in very intimate images, reflecting on their
bicycle trips together on the G-8 summits.
The summit of the Council of Europe, where the heads of states and
governments of EU member states are convened every six months, is a good
example to the present top diplomacy. Despite the general consensus that
decisions are taken at these meetings, an exceptional decision-making method,
now called constructive absence (Howorth, 2004: 4), has also been identified.
Thus, the states and government heads of states who do not want to participate
in the decision to join the summit but who do not want to prevent the EU from
making a decision on the legendary issue have been given the right to vote
unanimously by staying out of the board. However, it should not be forgotten
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that this is an exception. In summit diplomacy, it is a general rule that decisions

are taken in an intergovernmental way, that is, by a vote of unity. As a matter of
fact, the decision of the NATO summit attended by the heads of state and
government is absolutely taken by the vote.

Third Party Diplomacy

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It may not always be easy to conduct negotiations between diplomatic channels
between the two states. Fighting parties or states with different ideological
camps may sometimes need intervention by a third party to discuss a topic. In
these cases mediators or mediators come into play. Not only between the two
states, but also occasionally after the civil wars, the conflicting parties can be
brought to the negotiating table by the intervention of a third party. Similarly,
states that do not prefer to hold official interviews with national liberation
organizations or terrorist organizations may notify their organizations of their
wishes and learn their wishes through a third party. A diplomat, a president of
another government, a leader of an international organization, a retired
statesman who no doubt has any respect for his reputation, or a cleric as seen in
the negotiations between the United Kingdom and the IRA (Irish Liberation
Army) could act as mediator or mediator.
Throughout history, many battles have been brought to an end through third
party diplomacy. International disputes such as wars and the use of third-party
diplomacy in civil wars are quite common. The fact that 255 out of 310 conflicts
between 1945 and 1974 could be solved by mediation (iSkit, 2007: 397) is
evidence of how important third party diplomacy is in conflict resolution.
The long-standing chronic problems such as the Arab-Israeli wars, the Kashmir
problem between India and Pakistan, and the Cyprus problem have been
transformed into a form in which naked violence has not been exploited through
third party diplomacy. In 1978, former US President Carter mediated Arab-
Israeli tension and achieved significant results. Likewise, Pakistan has mediated
the rapprochement between the US and China, and the result has been achieved.
There are also times when the mediator can not produce the desired results.
Turkey's mediation between Israel and Syria has not contributed much to the
resolution of questions between the two states.
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The Cyprus issue is one of the best examples of a third-party diplomacy that has
been developed under the auspices of the UN. UN Secretary General Pérez de
Cuéllar, Butros Butros Gali and Kofi Annan have long been mediators and
mediators in negotiations between the Turkish and Greek Cypriot sides.
Negotiations have been going on since 1974, despite being interrupted at various
times. Between the United Kingdom and the IRA, the IRA provided a dialogue
between the British government and the terrorist organization, called a racist
named Alex Raid (Appleby, 2000: 170).

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 In third-party diplomacy, the parties should be primarily concerned with the
function that the third party will install. For this reason, the third party will
contact the parties in advance to learn the conditions of the negotiation and the
goals that the parties wish to achieve. It may initiate third-party negotiations
with a judgment on how much of these goals can be reached. There are two
ways that negotiations can be followed by the third party: mediation and
mediation. The reconciliation takes place when the parties come to the table
without any preconditions and negotiate the proposal that the mediator offers. At
this point, the parties do not have to accept the offer of the mediator. However,
in the mediation, the parties sit on the table declaring that they will accept the
proposal from the beginning. Otherwise, mediation will not take place unless
there is a prior declaration of acceptance. Before the Annan Plan went into
referendum in 2004, the parties agreed that they would be filled by the UN
Secretary General, and that a plan could finally be drawn up.

Compelling Diplomacy
Today, compulsive diplomacy is the most commonly used form of diplomacy.
One state, the economic tools of intelligence activities, military intervention to
force even taking something that did not want to use a number of methods to
various propaganda activities and guidance from the threat of coercive
diplomacy is given name. the method used during the Cuban Missile Crisis
between the United States and the USSR in 1962 was often resorted to by
powerful states in particular (Weigall, 2002: 46). After World War II, as the war
began to become a largely foreign policy method, states often began to use
compulsory diplomas to realize their own interests. During the Arab Spring,
many states against Tunisia, Egypt, and Libya have been intensively involved in
compulsory diplomacy, and as a result, governments have changed in all three
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states in 2011.

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