FUNDAMENTALS. OF.

SPECIAL
_ STRENGTH-TRAINING IN SPORT
_Y.. VERKHOSHANSKY
1. B. BepxowanicKni

~ OcHoBbh
- eheunanbaon
—-CMNOBOK TOBFOTOBKM
Q B cnopTe ~
 ‘Fundamentals of Special Strength-Training
in Sport

by

Yuri Ivanovich Verhoshansky

Fizkultura i Spovt, Publishers, Moscow 1977

Translated by Andrew Charniga, dr.

Cover Photos and Design, DonaldH. Lingerfelt

Livonia, Mich ga :

; copyrigit
Andrew Charniga; ar.
1986
 Table of Contents
Page

Chapter I
Role and Placeof Special Strength-Training in the Pro-
The
cess of Attaining Sport Mastery Loe eevaeeeeees ven eeees 1

1.2 Morpho-functional Specialization of the Organism in

the Process of Attaining Sport Mastery deere ewer neee : 19

1.3 Structural Regularities of the Sportman's Physical

PreparedneSS .. seers eeeereee eee eee ee en 30

Chapter IT
Peculiarites of the Displaying of Man's Strength in

AthleticS cae e ewe eee eee, Leen eee yee eee eee eeeee 49

The Regimes of Muscular Work ....... coche n cece eeeeeees 50

2.2 Qualitative Characteristics of Man's Strength ......-- 58

2.3 The Dependence of the Working-Effect of Strength on

the Conditions of Displaying It 11.2... eee e eee eens 77

2.4 Factors Raising the Working Effect of Muscular
Strength ve seeceeceececceeeeeresereeeee ada geeeeeeeee 87
‘ : o “3 :
Chapter III
Means of Special Strength-Training in Athletics tence 104
The
3.1 The Problem of the MeanS ..... even eee vee eres e een eeeace 105

3.2 Principles of Stimulating Neuro-Muscular Tension to

Develop Strength ........+.+. eset. ween e ee naee 118

3.3 The Principle of "Dynamic Correspondence" as a Means

of Strength-Training for the Special Exercise ....-+ee. 140

Chapter IV , ;
of Modern ,Strength- Training Methods eee et neee 152
Fundamentals
4.1 The Problem og meta aye bec ee e 152.
“155,
4.2
4.3 . :

Training 180

Principal Aims -
4.4
Training ..--: 190
vive ene’ eee a wae 2.199 °
Conclusion ....+-6+5 :
 Chapter I
The Role and Place of Special-Strength Training
in the Process of Attaining Sport Mastery

Strength training is important for successful sport prepara-

tion. However, such an assertion remains only a declaration ifa

concrete methodical principle, specifying the role and place of

strength-training in the training process is not formulated “(in

the yearly cycle and its separate stages as well as in the long-
term).
In recent years considerable experience in the use of the

means of special strength-training has been gained to ’ be

sufficiently analyzed and some general conclusions reached.. How~

ever, it has not been that significant to form the basis for

the methodological strength-training of athletes. The role and

place of special strength-training can be objectively established

only through a basic scientific search, specifically oriented in

two directions: first, further study of the laws governing the

training of man's organism and finding valid means of realizing
his potential; second, an intensive study of the objective laws
determining the long-term, developmental, process of attaining
sport mastery (P.A.S.M.).
The first direction of scientific search already has found a

wealth of factual material. Interest in the second direction has

come quite recently. However, this material is still rather

limited (that which has already been obtained), but it enables

one to formulate important methodological principles concerning a

sportsman's special strength-training.

In considering further some of the laws governing the

process of attaining sport mastery we find an ingenious

connection between the problem of an athlete's special strength

and the determination of its role and place in the long-term pro-
cess of training.
1.1 Regularities in the Functional Perfectioning of Movements
~- Movement .--. this is that real phenomenon which is the

basis for sport activity and its composition. Athletic tasks are
resolved by means of movement. Movements are those objectives

which are directly or indirectly managed by the complex of

training influences in the course of the long-term preparation of

athletes.
The functional perfectioning of athletic movements in the
process of long-term training is realized primarily through

raising the athlete's motor potential and the ability to fully

utilize this potential for the solution of concrete motor tasks.

The development of motor potential is connected with the

functional perfectioning of the organism as a whole, but there is

a definite regularity in the manner in which its main organs and

systems participate immediately in the resolution of motor tasks,

during the functional perfectioning of the organism. :

The ability to fully and effectively utilize one's motor

potential for achieving success is the essence of sport-technical

mastery. This ability is realized by means of a. concrete system

of movements and appropriate criteria, the composition and organ-

ization of which are determined by the type of athletic activity

and the rules of competition. The process of attaining sport-—

technical mastery as a whole is a phenomenon of exceptional com-

plexity. It is therefore appropriate to limit one's study only

to those regularities in the perfectioning of movement which are

connected with its energetic execution, mainly through muscular

strength as well as from biomechanically appropriate spatial-time

organization.
1.1.1 Raising the Working-Effect of Movement
The working-effect of an athletic movement is the result of

man's active interaction with the objects in the external

environment. The speed and direction of movement depends upon

the character of the force developed.

If the form of movement is abstracted into its concrete
direction, the working organs, its execution and finally the

regime of muscular work, then the nature of the force developed

can be graphically depicted F(t). In the overwhelming majority

of athletic. movements ‘the .beginning and end. of. the force

developed lies on the abscissa (figure 1), because the movement

begins and ends with zero velocity. The working-effect of the

effort is determined by the impulse force (I=Ft) i.e., the area

under the curve F(t), where the largest portion of the . weight

overcome (P) lies. An increase in the working-effect of the

movement is realized in principle, by increasing this area which

is, strictly speaking, the goal of the functional perfectioning

of athletic movement.
As sport mastery increases the coordination structure of the

expressed effort undergoes specific time and spatial changes

which can be clearly displayed even within a relatively short

period of training. For example, the F(t) and F(s), the explo-

sive force (explosive leg movement in a seated position) obtained

at the beginning and end of 6 months of training for one subject

are graphically depicted in figure 2. Their coincidence on the

ordinate corresponds to the instant when the magnitude of the

force is equal to the weight of the load displaced. It is easy

to see that the F(t) graph depicts a shortening of the time

expended equal to the amount of weight displaced, an increase in

the maximum effort; shows the instant maximum effort is dis-

placed close to the beginning of working muscular tension; and

finally a shortening of the general duration of the effort. The

maximum effort is characteristically shifted to the beginning of

the movement in graph F(s). The obvious reason for the increase

in the area under the F(t) curve is the greater amount of weight

(P) displaced.
The changes in the character of the graph is a reflection of

the general regularities of the perfectioning of athletic move-

ment, which were revealed in a number of studies with athletes of

different specialization and qualification; utilizing different

regimes of muscular work as well as the same sportsman during the

course of training for different lengths of time.

On the basis of the experimental data obtained, it can be

assumed that in the process of long-term training the perfection-

ing of athletic movement proceeds in the following way (figure

3): initially there is a relatively uniform increase in force

(in comparison with the initial level-1) over the course of the
movement, i.e., timewise (figure 3,A; curve 2), with an insig-
nificant decrease in its duration; then a significant increase
in
maximum force and a noticeable decrease in the duration of the
movement (3); and finally there is an increase in the force
developed at the beginning of the working-effort with some
increase in its maximum, ‘and a decrease in the time expended to
achieve the latter. .
The change in the dynamics of an athletic movement, relative
to its working amplitude, observes a regular sequence (figure
3,b). The movement's dynamic mechanism initially is subject to
the shifting changes in the magnitude of force over the entire
working amplitude (1); which is associated first, with insuffi-
cient muscular strength and second, with the inability to utilize
it rationally. Then, with exercise, maximum dynamic force
increases and there is a tendency towards localization in the
working amplitude (2); which can concern any part of the working
amplitude depending upon the resolution of movement's tasks. In
ballistic types of speed-strength movements where there is a
relatively small resistance, the force is concentrated at the be-
ginning ‘portion of the working amplitude (3). The force at the
beginning of the movement is expressed to a lesser degree when
the resistance is significant. In this instance there is a ten-
dency to develop force quickly. Then there is some increase in
it until it reaches maximum in the middle of the second part of
the working amplitude.
Thus, the perfectioning of the working-effect is associated
with the display of a large maximum external force in a shorter
period of time. This is the only means possible which previous
argumentative, logical analysis (¥. V. Verkhoshansky, 1961, 1963)
corroborated observation of variations in the dynamics of move-
ments of athletes of different qualification (V. N. Papysheva,
1966; K. G. Gomberazde, 1970; V. G. Semyenov, 1970; V. V. Tatyan,
1974, and others). True, different regimes and external
conditions of muscular work in athletics undoubtedly have an in-
fluence on the manifestation of. this regularity. Thus, in move-
ments associated with overcoming significant external resistance
 (gymnastic elements, wrestling, weightlifting) the perfectioning
of the working-effect is realized primarily by the increase in

the maximum external force developed and some shortening of time

taken for its display (figure 4).

In ballistic movements, fencing, and some aspects of throw-

ing) perfectioning of the working-effect is associated with the

concentration of force at the beginning of the movement's ampli-

tude, i.e., with a significant increase in maximum force it is

shifted closer to the beginning of the movement and there is a

shortening of the time expended for its achievement (figure 5).

In exercises with a clearly expressed combination of muscu~

lar work regimes, the active working force is preceded by a phase

of muscular stretching (jumping in track and field, figure skat-

ing, acrobatics). Thus, the qualitative perfectioning of the

movement is realized by improving the muscles’ capacity to

express great force at the instant there is a switching from

yielding to overcoming work. The rapid switch from stretching to

contracting causes some decrease in the magnitude of the working

amplitude, i.e., there is a decrease in the angle of the working

joint in flexion (figure 6).

The working-effect in cyclic exercises (running, swimming

and rowing) is raised by improving the ability to quickly express

maximum force during the deep and rapid muscular relaxation in

the passive phase of the movement. There is a simultaneous

increase in the relative duration of the relaxation phase and a

shortening of the absolute duration of the cycle (figure 7).

Thus, in the course of atttaining sport mastery, the process

of raising the work-effect of the movement is independent of the

regime; and. the external conditions of the working of the motor

apparatus occurs with a specific regularity. This regularity is

expressed by an increased maximum working force, dis-

principally
placement of the instant of achieving maximum force to the

beginning of the working muscular tension, an increase in the

working amplitude of the movement and a shortening of its time of

. The magnitude of these.changes.are peculiar to the

execution.
type of sport.
1.1.2 Functional Perfectioning of the Motor Structure of
Athletic Movements
The effectiveness of movement is associated first of all
with the appropriate utilization of the working mechanisms of a
man's body, which are functional components of the motor
apparatus; providing the output of mechanical energy and its
effective utilization in accordance with external conditions.
Such working mechanisms are complex and are inherited over a long
period in the evolution of man's motor Functions. Sport training
adds nothing new to them. It only leads them to a high level of
perfection, improves their coordinational relationships and in-
creases energy potentials.
The working mechanisms of man's body include: the pulling
force of muscles transformed into external force with bone lever-
age; the synergistic and antagonistic relationships of the muscle
groups at the joints and the musculo-skeletal system as a whole;
tonic and tendon-ligamentous reflexes; the elastic qualities of
muscles allow the accummulation and the utilization of additional
elastic energy; the dominance mechanism, contributing to the
strengthening of a basic movement by drawing impulses from addi-
tional collateral movements; the rational, sequential inclusion
of muscles into the work with different functional qualities; the
tonus of the muscular system.
From a biomechanical standpoint, it is appropriate that one
should consider a motor complex that is organized in with the
anatomical-functional peculiarities of the body and permits (with
maximum effectiveness) one to utilize the inherent working mech-
anisms under concrete conditions, to solve motor tasks.
The body's working mechanisms determine the form of the
interaction during the process of solving this or that motor
task; and as a result of systematic training, combine in a
rational functioning system which secures a high working~-effect.
It is convenient to study the functional properties of the
body's working mechanisms and their basic tendencies toward per-
fectioning in the course of exercise at the level of the kinema-
tic pair (the two actively combine adjacent links), the kinematic
chain (sequential combination of a number of links) and the kine-
matic system (aggregate of kinematic chains).
The perfectioning of movement at the kinematic pair level is
dependent upon its linking purpose; or with the development of
the ability to express large motor force; or with the execution
of movement with large angular speed; or with these and others
simultaneously. The nature and direction of qualitative perfec-
tioning of movement are determined by the anatomical pecularities
of man's muscle-bone apparatus.
Facts accummulated from many studies indicate that in all of
the diverse isolated single-joint movements, changes in strength
are apparently dependent upon the role and functions of the joint
mechanism and the relative disposition of the body's links (see
the reviews of V. M. Zatsiorsky, 1966; Y. V. Verkhoshansky,
1970). Changes in joint angle change the conditions of muscular
work: the: length and angle of pull are changed. Muscular
strength and leverage are altered, and consequently, so is the
rotational moment force of the muscles. Therefore, the maximum
external force developed by the muscles corresponds to a specific
(in each concrete case) joint angle. Thus, maximum force is
achieved at a joint angle of 90 for isolated elbow flexion, at
120 for extension at the elbow joint, at 60-70 for extension at
the shoulder joint and at.an angle of 60 for extension at the
knee Joint. Trained athletes can express maximum force at a
number of angles close together (S. A. Kosilov, 1965; Vv. F.

Dorofyev, 1966; T. Hansen, I. Lindhard, 1923; D. Wilkie, 1950).

The graphic dependence of strength on joint angle can be
classified into 3 types: the ascending, descending (maximal and
minimal forces corresponding to the extreme parts of the angular
amplitude of joint movement, figure 8, curve F) and the
ascending-descending (minimal force is at the extreme parts and
maximal force at the middle of the angular amplitude).
A number of our studies have established that the ability to
express explosive-strength (the ratio one-half the maximum iso-
metric tension to the amount
.of time for .reaching..it) unidirec-
tionally changes with the change in external muscular force
(figure 8, curve Q). A decrease in the Q index along with the
change in joint angle is associated simultaneously with a
decrease in muscular tension and an increase in the expenditure
of time for its expression (figure 9).
The force-angle graph does not fundamentally change with the
increase in muscular strength as a result of training. However,

a number of studies (V. M. Zatsiorsky, L. M. Raitsin, 1974; L. M.

Raitsin, S. K. Sarsania, 1975) have established that the increase

in strength over the entire amplitude of single-joint movements

depends on the joint angle at which maximum muscular tension is

expressed during training. If it is expressed at an angle cor-

responding to the miscle's greatest length (i.e., the smallest

degree of flexion in the joint for active muscular flexion or the
least extension for muscular extension), then the transfer of
strength to the other joint angles is relatively uniform.
The reverse is true if maximum muscular force is expressed
when the muscles are in a state of contraction (shortened length,
Ed.) then the increase in strength is larger. However, the
transfer of the training-effect to the other joint angles is com-
paratively small and the further from this angle the lesser the
maximum strength transfer.
It is interesting to note that, at the joint angle at which
maximum force is expressed in training; there is a relatively
larger increase in strength than there is in the nearest joint
angles.
The functional perfectioning of movement at the kinematic
pair level is still associated with increasing the angular ampli-
tude of movement through larger mobility in the joint. ° However,
this applies primarily to kinematic pairs; those joint combina-

tions which have two or three planes of movement (talo-crural,

gleno-humeral, iliofemoral joints).
The working movements of man are realized by a system of
links in a kinematic chain where the angles in each joint combi-
nation are simultaneously changed. The fundamental working

functions .of. the kinematic chains in the motor apparatus consist

of transforming rotational joint movements to rectilinear (by

 fe Sau
- Ol Oe o3 Da
Ql oD ol Oe 03 oe Ly
2

1 - Development of FIGURE 2 - Graph of F(t) and

FIGURE
(F) over time F(S) of explosive force
workjng-force
(t)3 P - weight of the (explained ijn text).
resistance:

A FIGURE 4 - Displacement in
force during explosive
FIGURE 3 ~ Graphic changes in
isometric tension, 1) before
F(t) and F(S) during training.
training, 2) after training.

FIGURE 7 - DYNAMICS OF A
t CYCLICAL MOVEMENT, 1) before
6 - Angular displece- training, 2) after training.
FIGURE
FIGURE 5 - Displacement in 6
ment ( ) and dynamic forec:
ballistic movement, 1) before
training, 2) after training. (F) in a reactive-ballistic
type of movement, 1) before
training, 2) after training.

FOkmex - F D5 maw
ad jer Bo S rr
V
\ of
P \ cy TK
/ 40 A

\ ‘
[ABS a0

(424 ,
\\

o
80° 155" Bo ae
, a
p04 = «G08 ale
“+ O16
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0.06 0,08 O12 O16

FIGURE § - Change in retative-

FIGURE 9 - Change in speed of a
strength (F rel), and gradi ent-
gradual isometric force with
strength (Q) along with changes
changes in joint angle.
jn hip angles for quali fied
women-sprinters, 1) extension,
2) flexion.
‘lengthening ‘or shortening the system's levers) or angular
(relative. to the proximal joint) movement of the working points
found at the distal end of the system's links. The working-
effect of the movements executed by the kinematic chain varies to
a great extent, depending on attending conditions (relative dis-
position of the links, the motor potential of certain muscle
groups and others); and to a larger degree undergo qualitative
and quantitative changes during the course of exercises than the
working-effect in kinematic pairs. Qualitative perfectioning of
movement (as realized by the kinematic chain) is secured by three
basic factors: an increase in the working amplitude, the concen-
tration of dynamic force at a certain part of it and a rational
form to the interaction of the working muscles.
An increase in the working amplitude is realized, as is
known, by a large range of motion in the joint and by an increase
in the elasticity and strength potential of the corresponding
muscle groups (G. G. Topolyan, 1951; M. F. Ivanitsky, 1956; D. D.
Donskoi, 1960). The amplitude of movement increases in two
directions at the opening of the kinematic chain -- the beginning
and end of its parts. This is realized in the first case by an
increase in muscular strength and the ability (of the muscles) to
develop a powerful force during the course of the movement, as well
as an increase in the elasticity of the functional antagonists.
There are two clear regularities in the nature of the ex-
pressed force over the course of a movement: first, a decrease

in the force of pull from the muscles at the end of the movement,
especially with the ballistic regime of muscular work (it is more
pronounced the faster the movement and the lesser the external
resistance); second, there is an increase and a concentration of

working force at a certain part in the amplitude of the movement.

The first regularity is an obvious reflex regulator as expressed
by the inhibitory action of muscle antagonists (R. S. Pierson,
1965), which is a manifestation of the self-preservation function
ef the motor apparatus. This mechanism does not undergo change
with the growth in sport. mastery, . which concerns the second
regularity, about which certain tendencies can be noted and are

10.
 correlated to the process of the formation of a
directly
biomechanically appropriate movement, which we have already dis-

cussed.
The working force of an executable kinematic chain is pro-

duced by the d
work
coordinate of the muscle groups serving each

of its articulations. The coordination of force and the function

certain muscle groups have their own peculiarities in this

of
There is merit in noting the following two facts have
context.
as yet not received sufficient interpretation in the sport lit-

erature.
It has been established that the resulting force is less

than the sum of the forces of the muscles each kinematic pair are

of producing (Y. V. Verkhoshansky, 1961, 1965, 1970; V.

capable
Ss. Yegorov, 1966). For example, in isolated forearm flexion,

strength increases as the angle in the elbow joint decreases and

reaches maximum at 90 . However, with isolated flexion at the

shoulder, there is no significant difference in strength in the

40 to 160: range (H. Campney, R. Wehr, 1965). However, if the

entire arm executed stretching work (simultaneous extension at

the shoulder and forearm flexion with the working point at the

hand) then maximum force is produced at 160 in the elbow joint.

If "repulsion" work is executed, maximal force is developed with

the arm bent, i.e., at the beginning of the "push-off". With

isolated extension at the knee joint, maximal force is produced

(with insignificant changes) from 80°to 130 and then quickly

drops (H. Campney, R. Wehr, 1965; M. Williams, L. Stutzman,

1959). However, with “repulsion” work when the system's links

are lengthened (extension at the iliofemoral and knee joints),

maximal force occurs when the joint angle is near maximum and

the angle in the knee joint is close to 160° +(V. F.

when
1965; V. S. Yegrov, 1966). The examples cited are a
Dorofeyev,
manifestation.of the adaptive mechanisms of man's working appara-

acquired in the long term process of evolution. Thus, in the

tus
latter instance there is the obvious influence of man's erect

gait, and with the shoulder girdle it is functionally advanta-

to develop maximum stretching force for pulling the arm

geous

il.
and vice-versa, force for bending the arm.
Studies (V. G. Semyenov in collaboration with V. V. Tatya-
nov) have .established that for the maximum strength each joint
combination of the lower extremities, there is a smaller correla-
tion with athletic improvements in running-jumping exercises than
the sum of the forces expressed by the entire extremity. This
correlation rises noticeably with the growth in mastery, which
indicates that the working-effect of the movement is determined
by the sportsman's ability to rationally utilize his muscular
potential; which in combination with functional in-sufficiencies,
some are compensated for by the advantages of the others.
An attentive analysis of muscle group combinations under
various work conditions of the kinematic chain, enables one to
observe a certain biomechanical expediency. Depending upon the
conditions of the activities, man involuntarily selects a rela-
tive disposition of the links in the kinematic chain that ensures
the required working-force by simultaneously or sequentially
utilizing zone angles of maximal strength in each joint. The
first case is appropriately associated with the overcoming of
significant external resistance, such as isometric tension (for
instance, the attempt i.e., to move a heavy object). The second
case is typical of movements which require the addition of as
large a velocity as possible to an external object or bodyweight
under conditions of limited working amplitude (the "take off" in
jumping for instance). This functional relationship between the
muscle groups attending the kinematic chain is such that the
movement is begun by the most powerful muscles of the proximal
joints (the key muscles in the kinematic chain) and is realized
with the support on the distal links and the joints rigidly
fixed. The distal links are then included in the work, while at
the proximal links, fixation begins in the joints which ensures a
rigid base for. completing the movement of the distal links.
Thus, man always strives to begin the working-force by
utilizing the joint-angle-zones of maximum strength. It can be
assumed that sport technique evolving over many decades is funda-
mentally constructed on just such working poses which ensure the

12.
most favorable conditions for expressing maximal force at the
time needed. However, in certain instances, it is not difficult
to see the conflict between these mechanisms and the requirements
of the movement's dynamics emerging from the conditions of the
sport activity. It reveals in particular the necessity to
increase the working amplitude of a movement especially in those
cases if it is necessary to express maximum strength in those
parts of the amplitude where this strength cannot be secured
anatomically. :
Nevertheless, the organism's extremely high adaptive
capacity to external conditions finds the optimal resolution to
such conflicting situations. This is possible, for instance,
when the corresponding muscle groups (prior to beginning the
working-force) possess some additional potential tension accum-
mulated in the preparatory movement phase. Thus, during the
amortization phase of the vertical jump, additional potential
elastic energy accummulated at the end of the amortization phase
is a source of strength, facilitating the extension of the legs.
Therefore, it is possible to proceed from certain joint-angle-
zones of maximal strength and achieve the greatest gain in the
amplitude of the movement in comparison with jumping from a half-
squat position (i.e., without the amortization phase). There is
a tendency for the amplitude of amortization in knee flexion to
decrease after'a depth-jump. There is an obvious effort towards
the zone angles of maximum strength in certain joints due to the
large dynamic load here. Some of the loss in the amplitude of
the movement is compensated for by the additional elastic poten-
tial energy of the muscles.
Thus, there is an expressed sequence in the process of
functional perfectioning of movement at the kinematic chain
level. First, the choice of the optimal working amplitude of a
movement is based on the rational correlation between the zone
angles of maximum strength in each joint, the real motor poten-
tial of the muscles and the conditions attending the resolution
of the motor task:. a) for small external loads there is a char-
acteristic striving to increase the amplitude of movement

13.
independent of the zone angles of maximum strength in each joint;
b) for large external loads and lacking additional sources of
strength, the movement is characteristically facilitated by the
shortening of its working amplitude in connection with the effort
to execute the working poses near the zone angles of maximum
strength; c) for large external loads and additional sources of
movement (force of inertia, elastic potential energy of the mus-
cles) there is a possibility of some increase in the working
amplitude outside the joint-angle-zones of maximum strength; 4d)
in all cases a forcible decrease in the working amplitude of
movement is compensated by potential elastic-muscular tension
accumulated in the prepatory phases of the movement, which
ensures a powerful initial muscular force.
Second, increase the maximal motor-force and its concentra-
tion primarily at the beginning part of the working amplitude.
Third, the muscles in the kinematic chain are included in
the work in an appropriate sequence which enables them to
sequentially express their functional qualities (ability for
powerful force and speed of contraction) during the course of the
movement.
Fourth, strive to execute the movemént within the range of
the zone angles of maximum strength in each joint and to simul-
taneously raise the dynamics of its execution through additional
potential elastic-energy of the muscles in the prepatory phase.
The kinematic system possesses significant degrees of free-
dom. Therefore, the process of functional perfectioning of move-
ment, as far as studying it from kinematic pairs to a kinematic
system,. is all the more associated with the problem of the
rational organization and control of the motor composition of the
action. Nevertheless, biomechanical factors continue, in the
given case, to play an important role.
The pecularities of the qualitative perfectioning of
movement considered earlier are associated with the rational
sequence of muscular tension in the kinematic chain and are to
the fullest extent related to the kinematic system. .The only
difference is in the number of functionally interacting muscle

14.
groups. This interaction consists chiefly of the work of the

strongest muscle groups of the legs and torso then the muscles of

the shoulder girdle.

Thus, the qualitative perfectioning of movement at the kine-

matic level is associated with the determination of the most

rational method of uniting individual kinematic chains and the

working mechanisms inherent to them into a single working mechan-

ism. The logical organization of such mechanisms is the bio-

dynamic structure of a complex motor act which is discussed sep-

arately because of its special significance.

1.1.3 The Biodynamic Structure of an Athletic Movement

The motor system constituting a sport exercise is formed and

functionally evolves on the basis of certain cause-effect rela-

tionships between its individual elements; and their line of

force depends on the nevro-muscular apparatus. In the course of

attaining sport mastery these relationships change continuously

as a result of the search for a more rational interdependence

between the elements of the motor complex as well as a result of

quantitative additions to its dynamic mechanism. The latter

represent the "rigid framework" of the movement system; determin-

ing its spatial-time characteristics and the functioning of the

working~effect. Therefore, the dynamic mechanism concept, or

biodynamic structure of a concrete sport exercise, is an extreme-

ly important condition for successfully solving the problem of

special-strength training. With respect to the biodynamic

structure of a sport action *(Y. V. Verkhoshansky, 1958, 1563,

1966, 1968) the strength field, appearing as a result of the

sportsman's interaction with external objects, is divided into

phases of active concentration and dynamic reaction. *The author

originally utilized the expression "Gynamic structure” for this

concept. However, recently in the methodological literature this

phrase was used rather frequently and without particular pretense

as to its meaning. It is therefore appropriate and correct to

subsequently speak of the "biodynamic structure" emphasizing that

one is speaknot.
ing only and not simply. about the interaction of

force as a physical manifestation, but about the appropriate mode

15.
of concordance in accentuating the active motor phases, the logic

of which is based upon a complex of psychological and biological

factors. Initially these dynamic elements are expressed weakly,

irregularly distributed in the strength field and are chaotic

10, A). With repetitive reproduction of movements their

(figure
quantitative significance and spatial-time coordination vary

within a wide range. The motor act as a whole is still dynamic-

ally unstable and its final effect is low and unstable. Then, as

adaptation to the interaction with the external surroundings

takes place, the athlete finds the means for more effectively

resolving the motor tasks. This is associated with differentia-

tions and increases in the dynamic accentuations, clearly

localizing them within the limits of the motor complex and ‘the

unification into a specific distinctly traceable system (figure

B). Now, with repetitive reproduction of a motor act, the

10,
of variation (in its quantitative significance and time
range
of its elements decrease, while there is a
relationship)
simultaneous compression, a concentration of this system in time

and its elements do not simply sum in time and space but interact

according to a pattern of correlation and subordination.

The correlation between the dynamic elements is such that

change in the quantitative and time characteristics in one of

any
them is expressed in the others, even far removed in space and

The inter-relationship of elements perform a form of sub-

time.
ordination which is manifested by the clearly expressed dominant

of some and the subordinating roles of the others. Thus,

roles
separate a key element (elements), crucial for the reso-
one can
of the motor objectives as well as organize the element
lution
actingas a systematic general beginning of the bio-
(elements)
structure; and in accordance with this secure the
dynamic
increased functional effect of the key element.

the biodynamic structure of a motor act is a stable

Thus,
connection of the accentuated phases of the active and
principal
dynamics in the movement system; securing the effective
reactive
utilization of..man's real motor. potential under conditions . of
motor tasks. The basis for the formation of
resolving concrete

16.
the dynamic structure of the motor act is the dialectical entity
and the inter-conditionality of the processes of differentiation
and integration of the elements' dynamics. As a result of the

motor system becoming an organic whole, it reacts and function-

ally evolves asa whole. With the formation of a biodynamic

structure, a motor act is transfered to a new higher-qualitative

level; signifying an increase in its working effect during the

rational utilization of the individual's real motor potential.

As has already been discussed, the dynamic structure is

constantly perfected by refining the connections between the

elements of the motor complex as well as by quantitatively aug-

menting it. However, the motor complex possesses a certain

flexibility in concrete situations and the ability to dispel
sharp influences from without, without losing its logical

integrity. This becomes possible owing to the biodynamic

structure's ability to vary the adaptive changes to the external
influences.
It should be pointed out that the principle of dynamic
organization is inherent to any complex motor act. However,
acyclic exercises require the expression of significant force in
a minimal amount of: time. Consequently, the whole notion of
training consists of forming and perfecting the biodynamic
structure. Cyclic exercises require the prolonged maintenance of
work-capacity; the biodynamic structure forms significantly
faster, its composition is simpler and the notion of training

consists primarily in perfecting the vegetative functions of the

organism. :
The biodynamic structure is part of the general strength

field, i.e., the sum total of all the external and internal

forces relative to the organism; arising in the course of resolv-

ing its motor tasks. In a purposeful action the composition of

the strength field is determined by the emphasis and the dosage,

i.e., control.
Beginning with N. A. Bernstein, the forces, producing move-

ment are represented. by a.type of geometric sum of three,

comprised of: external, internal and reactive strengths. The

17.
results of the aforementioned studies permit refinement and
addition to this classification. If it is based upon the
character, origin and direction of force, the strength field can
be classified in the following manner:
1. The active motive-force, whose origin, is the contrac-
tile function and the mechanical pull of muscle.
2. The reactive force is connected with or is the
expressed force arising as a result of the interaction
of the forces of active muscles with the immediate
external surroundings.
3. The accummulated-force is stored in the muscles as
elastic energy in the prepatory phases of the movement.
4, The force of inertia of the body (or its links).
5. The force of the body's weight (or its links).
This classification of the strength field's composition is
somewhat conditional, because the origin of their (besides the
last) obligation is the one and only source of man's muscular
strength. But, each appears in the process of solving motor
tasks, has a certain influence on the results; and therefore
should be considered when analyzing the dynamic mechanism of the
movement system and for selection of the special strength-train-
ing means.
These forces, depending upon the place and point of applica-
tion, can be external or internal relative to the interaction of

the body; and depending upon the body's (organ's) direction of

movement -- resist or inhibit movement.
Tt is necessary to add the following characteristics to the
strength field. The strength field consists of two. systems:
external and internal (relative to the organism) interaction with
the working apparatus. These systems appear simultaneously and
in a number of details, independently of each other although in
their appearance they experience and obviously have an inter-
influence on each other, the degree of which increases as sport

mastery rises. The compositionof the systems of external inter-

action render a decisive influence on.the.form and structural
composition of the internal strength systems, whereas the latter

18.
are dependent on the magnitude and direction of the resulting

dynamic movement and its change over time. Hence, the biodynamic
structure of a sport act can be the correct notion only in the
case if it represents part of the general strength field. At the

same time, control of the external interaction of the motor

apparatus is possible only through the internal biodynamic struc—

ture.
Consequently, when speaking about controlling the sports-

man's movements it is necessary to bear in mind not so much his

movement, i.e., the relative shifting of the body's links, as the

appearance of this dynamic mechanism and speak about controlling

the work-effect of the movement. This is the essence of the

pedagogical aspects of the problem of controlling man's movement.

1.2 Morpho-Functional Specialization of the Organism in the

Process of Attaining Sport Mastery

One of the conditions of development in the process of

attaining sport mastery is the appearance of the steady morpho—

functional perfectioning of the sportsman's organism, which

occurs with a certain regularity. In the beginning, the organism

reacts to a new motor regime with its entire system and this is
sufficient for the initial successes on the athletic field.
However, subsequent accommodative displacement acquires a clearly

expressed selective trend, conditioned by the motor specifics and

the peculiarities of the external influences. Under such condi-

tions, one of the organism's systems receives considerable

development, another less, depending upon their roles in securing

the requirements of the motor activity.

Accommodative reconstruction is examined in sufficient
detail and from many aspects; extensive material on this question

can be found in appropriate texts on anatomy, physiology,

medical-control, biomechanics and biochemistry of sport. How-

ever, the character and tempo of the reconstructions and their

interrelationship in the PASM has as yet not been studied

effectively. This is an important problem in the knowledge
system and constitutes tne natural-scientific foundation for the

theories of sport training.

19.
 Some tendencies are observed, in the dynamics of accommoda-

tive reconstruction of the sportsman's motor apparatus in long-

term preparation, connected with the ability to display strength.

1.2.1 Specific Forms of Displaying Muscular Strength

Depending upon the primary coordination structure of the

work of the motor apparatus, muscular strength acquires a

specific coloring which becomes all the more expressive in rela-

tion to the athlete's growth in sport mastery. The fundamental,

qualitatively specific forms in which strength is displayed that

are most typical of athletic activities are: absolute-strength,

explosive-strength, and strength-endurance.

Absolute-strength characterizes the sportsman's strength

potential and is a measure of the maximal volitional muscular

force in the isometric regime without a time limit or limit to

the amount of weight lifted.* *In physiology, measurement of

maximal muscular strength refers to the limit magnitude of work-

ing muscular tension revealed by means of electrical stimulation

at the point of neural ennervation to the given muscle group (Y.

M. Kots, 1975).
The so-called relative-strength of an athlete, (i.e., amount

of force per kilo of bodyweight or the sport apparatus), is dis-

tinguished in sports. This index is convenient for comparing the

strength of sportsmen of different bodyweights.

Speed-strength characterizes the ability to quickly execute

an unloaded movement or a movement against a relatively small

external resistance. Speed-strength is assessed by the speed of

the movement.
Explosive-strength characterizes the ability to express
significant tension in a minimal period of time. The maximum
force, over the time of its achievement relationship is usually

utilized for the quantitative evaluation of explosive-strength

EF MAX) x
(figure 11) [T= Snax

** This will subsequently be called the I-gradient.

Special studies (¥Y. VV. Verkhoshansky, 1966, 1970, 1972)

indicate that the F (t) curve of explosive-force has three

20.
components. The F(t) curve determines the absolute-strength of

muscles, ‘their capacity to accummulate external force at the

beginning of working tension and the ability to quickly achieve

maximal external force in the course of developing working

tension (isometric regime) or at the beginning of a muscular

contraction (dynamic regime). The first ability is conditionally

called "starting", the second "acceleration" strength. This

formula is utilized for the quantitative evaluation of starting-

strength as expressed in the dynamic regime: O= Fp

tp

or the tangent (t g alpha) to the F(t) curve at its beginning

part (see figure 11); the means of assessing acceleration

strength is the formula: 4 . F max-p
t max-tp

or the tangent of the angle of inclination of tangent (t g alpha)

to the F(t) curve at point Fp. With the isometric regime as the

base points of the F(t) curve, to assess parameters F and t of

starting and acceleration-strength, use the ordinate i Fo max. *

* Subsequently the Q and G indices are called Q-gradient and

G-gradient respectively.
Explosive-strength is most commonly displayed in athletic

movements when the contraction of the working muscles in the

fundamental phases of the exercise is preceded by a mechanical

stretching. In this instance, the working-effect of the switch

from stretching to active contraction utilizes the elastic poten-

tial of the stretch for increasing the power of the subsequent

contraction. This specific quality of muscle will subsequently

be called the reactive-capacity of muscle (R). ,

Strength-endurance characterizes the ability to effectively

maintain muscular functioning under work conditions of long dura-

tion. There are different types of muscular functioning associ-

ated with this: holding a necessary pose, repetitively executing

explosive effort, cyclic work of various intensities and others.

1.2.2 Peculiarities of the Functional Topography of a Sports-

man's Muscle System

Observations of some.of the functional qualities of certain

21.
muscle groups, adopted from work-physiology, (Y. M. U£flyand,
1965), have been widely disseminated in sport and enabled us to
determine the functional topography of the muscle system.
Usually the basic, objective observations are of the absolute-
strength of certain muscle groups. Visual representation of the
topography of muscular strength produces the so-called dynamome-
tric profile (¥. M. Uflyand, 1965), constructed according to the
poly-dynamic record of the strength of various muscle groups
(figure 12). The dynamometric profile enables one to compare the
strength preparedness of individual sportsmen. Of particular
interest is the study of the so-called general dynamometric pro-
file; characterizing the strength topography of the representa-
‘tive muscle groups of athletes of various specialization; as well
as the changes in the configurations of the general profile with
the sportsman's growth of sport mastery. Such a general profile
vividly reflects the peculiarities of the strength preparation of
sportsmen of specific specialization and can serve to some extent
as a standard for controlling the quality of the training pro-
cess.
A study conducted by V. G. Semyenov (1971) and co-workers
showed that the general configuration of the dyamometric profile
of sportsmen of one specialization is preserved as sport mastery
increases (figure 13). However, you can always discover some
irregularity in the rate of strength development of certain
muscle groups at the beginning as well as at the higher training
stages of sport mastery. This is peculiar to sport ontogenesis
and is associated with the changing conditions of the athlete's
interaction with external objects; due to which some muscle
groups receive a large potential for development, and others --
less.
Thus, the dynamometric profile vividly expresses the local-
specialized character of the functional perfectioning of a
person's motor apparatus; engaged in this or that type of sport.
However, muscular strength is only one of the qualitative
characteristics. of. the functional.specialization
of the motor
apparatus. People swith absolutely identical dynamometric

22.
profiles demonstrate essentially different sport. achievements.

cause of this is the different levels of development of such

The
as the ability to quickly produce external force from
indicators
the onset of working muscular tension. Two women sprinters

14) are roughly equal in muscular strength. However, one

(figure
of them runs the 100 M in 12.1 seconds and the other in 12.4

The reason for this is the differences in the speed

seconds.
qualities of the muscles as characterized by their ability to

quickly develop maximum working-force (the ratio of maximal

strength to the time of its display for explosive-isometric

muscular tension).
From this it is obvious, that the characteristics reflecting

topography of the sportsman's muscle system should include

the
and also those qualities of muscle essential to
its diversity;
the given type of sport. This enables one to obtain a comprehen-

sive idea of the so-called poly-functional profile of the sports-

muscle system (¥. Vv. Verkhoshansky, 1970); and has

man's
significance for determining the objectives of his
important
special preparation.
Depicted in figure 13 is a fragment of such a poly-

functional profile of women sprinters, of different qualifica-

tion, which consists chiefly of speed-strength characteristics

~- relative-strength). It is easy to see that the basic

(F-rel
in the women’s speed-strength, with the increase in
differences
mastery, are revealed in the two latter (particularly the latter)

characteristics.
The poly-functional profiles expressively indicate that the

specific functional reconstruction of the motor apparatus

chiefly those of its segments with which the sport

embraces
are primarily realized. The character of such recon-
activities
is a reflection of the specific peculiarities of the
struction
regime of the motor apparatus and with the growth of mastery
work
this is displayed all the more clearly.
Thus, the poly-functional profile of the muscle system

as.an objective prerequisite for concretizing the objec-

appears
special-strength training; since it enables one to
tives of

23.
determine which muscle groups are underdeveloped and need addi-
tional work.
1.2.3 Basic Tendencies in the Dynamics of the Punctional
Specialization of the Motor Apparatus in the Process of
Attaining Sport Mastery
The special-strength preparaedness of sportsmen of different
qualification gives one an idea of the most general tendencies in
the dynamics of the functional specialization of the motor appar-
atus; in the long-term process of training. For example there is
a relationship between an increase’ in the reactive capacity of
the neuro-muscular apparatus (R) and improvements in the long
jump, the triple jump (figure 15). At the same time, the
abilities assessed by the standing triple jump and the back squat
have a more complex form of correlation with the triple jump. An
analogous structure in the dynamics of the control indices can be
seen in the weightlifting example (data applies to the period
when competition consisted of the triathlon).
One should bear in mind however, that in the given case the
dynamic indices being examined (pedagogical tests) are realized
by this or that aggregate of specific motor abilities. The rate
of perfectioning of each of them can reflect different relation-
ships; the idea of which is an extraordinarily important condi-
tion for solving the problems of the organization of special-
strength training in sport.
A detailed study of this question revealed five variants
between the relationship of the indicators of the accommodative
reconstruction of the organism and athletic achievements (figure
16). This relationship can be expressed by the following func-
tions: linear (1), model with slowed (2) and accelerated (3)
growth, logistical (4) and parabolic of the third order (5).
The first variant (1) is characteristic of the key motor
abilities, i.e., abilities determining, for the most part,
success in the sport. The second variant (2) is characteristic
of those non-essential motor abilities which are indicators of
general-physical preparation. They play.an important role in the
initial stages of the PASM; then only secure conditions for the

24.
 ; A F B
!

t0bs #0120 i |
\1 I|
OS at i
—
2 Oo KT 7 aa t
aN al -
eg
—_ Rishi ALM FIGURE 11 - F(t) graph
IO g Lett Ana illustrating a method of
Rot. Lea G assessing explosive, starting
c @ - and acceleratijion-strength

FIGURE 10 - Disposition of ac- (explained in the text).

centuated active and reactive
dynamics jn the motor complex AbSolute Stvenath Relative Streneth
(2nd take-off in a triple F (xT) FP
J jump):
p) 1) resulting
u ng dynamo-
yna 0: . 300 T 4 W
2) accentuation in . av:
gram;
muscular tension attending the 200, ~ [I i :
hip (H), knee (K) and ankle (A) oo NZ a Vd

‘ joints of the support leg; 3) v

i accentuation of active and : 0 i
reactive (shaded) dynamics of a tr 2 8 4 5 foe 8 4 6
rotary movement. A- beginners, FIGURE 12 - Dynamometric,
H : B- qualified athletes. profile: I-high jump; and IJ-
. 2.00 distance running; 1) torso
4 extension, 2) torso flesion, 3)
e thigh extension, 4) ankle .
vy extension, 5) foot flexion. +
1.00
: c)
y \F Relative Straseth = 5
30 Fmax ; 4 1 3
F
o
oo BPE yy x M
i
100 A 20 gBalo* | a
z
EE
— Z
eEeS SRS
a Poutloeg
8
.
i cn
a al
et 2
Swed
on =
2
50 fr PEGELHS x
&
aox a
Gradiedt+ StenGih SSL A? 3
.

: 200 it opr ees wl Sort Results

F
a Gear SP eros= FIGURE 16 - Tendencies in the
Bn wD /\ «3B 88
‘ Li SocS
B85 tis
2830 accommodative truction jon of
j reconstruc
Vi Cie We or pr ear Por cr er & 235265 2 the organism during many years
400! pe
of training.
2
BNET ot
0 1 : : .

PF
_ FEFEFEFE em
my WeichtllFting
Thish ANGIe Foot torso TriPie TumP
functional a, np,
FIGURE 13 - General
profile of women-sprinters’
m sport 584°
muscle-systems (botto 8
P-exten- uy,
results); C-flexion,
11, 1
sion, 1,2,3,4 are JL1, Bo
BBO (at)
rt
P 18 7 250 a0 460
class and master of spo iD T.0(H) Trinthion total
“Ba Ket 10 +
respectively»
cs of control
FIGURE 15 - Dynami
to the sport
exercises relative
jum pers and
results of triple
25 weight liters.
harmonious development of the organism and are the foundation for
perfecting specific motor abilities.
The third variant (3) is characteristic of the specific

functional reconstruction chiefly determining the developmental

level of the key motor abilities; and consequently the success of

the athletic achievementsas a whole. The form of this relation-

ship indicates that the growth of sport achievements the
requires.

accelerated development of the key motor abilities. The correla-

tion of the latter with athletic results (equivalent with respect

to the key motor abilities) increases significantly with the

growth of sport mastery.

The fourth (4) and fifth (5) variants are characteristic of
the variety of dynamic non-essential and essential motor abili-

ties in the PASM.

It has been established that as sport mastery increases a
key role in the realizetion of a movement can be transfered from

one group of muscles to another. Specific regularities in the

process of functional specialization of key muscle groups are

discovered; in particular, the hetero-chronologicalness of the

rate of developing specific motor abilities.

Thus, in collaboration with I. I. Nikonov we found that
there is an irregular strength development of certain muscle

groups of pole vaulters. If the strength curves are compared

(figure 17, A) as well as the derivatives characterizing the

rate of strength increase relative to athletic achievements

(figure 17, B), then it is not difficult to notice that the arm
flexors (1) prolong the functional perfectioning, begun by the

abdominal muscles; from that moment when the strength of the

latter stablize.
Such a continuity is easily explained. The fact is that

young athletes raise their bodies up the pole with their

abdominal muscles. With the increase in mastery, this element is

executed quickly by the arms and shoulders. The strength of
these muscles progresses noticeably at the same time as the

strength of tthe arm extensors. (2), increases uniformly.

In a study conducted in collaboration with E. Purvin we

26.
discovered that with the growth of mastery in the shot put the

key role gradually switches from the muscies of the shoulder

girdle to the leg muscles. For beginners, the correlation

between athletic achievements and the strength of the arm muscles

is 0.83; and with leg strength 0.37; the corresponding figures

for qualified sportsmen are 0.73 and 0.87 respectively.

A more detailed analysis of the process of functional - spe~

cialization of the key muscle groups (in the jumpers and

sprinters example) also reveals the hetero-chronological pheno-

Menon. It appears in the given case in two forms: one, the non-

coincidental moments associated with the initial intensification

of the increase of certain specific motor abilities (figure ‘18,

A); two, in the obvious succession of functional specialization

in the key muscle groups (figure 18, B).

Thus, absolute-strength (Po) increases immediately at the

beginning of training, then the rise in explosive-strength (I)

begins to accelerate and only after -some time, - starting-strength

(Q). It should, however, be noted that the linear character of

the increase in absolute-strength is only typical of those types

of sports where the athletes overcome relatively small resis-

tance; and where the speed of displaying working-force and not

the magnitude of the external force is most important; there is

typically some slowing in the rate of strength increase in the

high mastery stage. ,

The second form of hetero-chronologicalness is expressed in

the non-coincidental moments associated with the initial acceler-

ation of growth in the key muscle groups of such specific abili-

ties as starting-strength (figure 18, B). They are first

revealed at foot flexion, then thigh extension and finally, thigh

flexion.
It is not difficult to trace the connection between the

examined forms of hetero-chronologicalness in the process of

functional perfectioning of certain muscle groups, from the

changes in the work regime of the motor apparatus in the long~

term preparation.of athletes. .The onset of training renders an

immediate increase in absolute-strength. Explosive-strength then

27.
begins to increase with the introduction of speed-strength train-

ing. Finally, the increase in the portion of special-strength

training within the general volume of means (including.the execu-

tion of the fundamental sport exercises with an intensity close

to the competition intensity) leads to a quick increase in

starting-strength.
The hetero-chronologicalness phenomenon, in the process of
functional specialization of the support apparatus, originates”
from the rate of development of starting-strength in certain
muscle groups. Then it has other causes. The flexors of the
soles of the feet are subjected to the most intense loads, at the
onset of training. Therefore, specific functional displacement
is discovered in them first, as expressed by the increase in the
Q-gradient (figure 18, B). Then as the power of the extensor
force (for pushing-off) increases, accommodative reconstruction
in the iliofemoral and knee joint extensors begins to intensify.
It should be pointed out that the work of these muscles opposes
the force of gravity and the inertial resistance of the body's
mass naturally requires significant tension from them. On the
other hand, the flexors of the thigh are confronted with the
force gravity and the inertial resistance of the mass of only one
leg, so they, consequently, possess a lesser prerequisite for
functional perfectioning. Therefore, the thigh flexors are sig-
nificantly weaker and display motive force slower than the thigh
extensors. At the same time, their starting-strength increases
later, but is distinguished by a less intense increase.
We should turn our attention to the fact that the Q and I
gradients increase slowly in the high sport mastery stage (see

figure 18). As was shown previously, this fact is associated

with a decrease in the effectiveness of the special-strength

training means; which appears to be one of the reasons for the

decrease in the growth of sporting achievements. It can be

assumed, in connection with this, that the fundamental means of

special-strength training in such a case is the sport exercise

itself, executed at the .intensity close .to the. sportsman's

individual limit.

28.
 functional specialization of the motor apparatus
Thus, the
proceeds with a certain regularity which is expressed
in the PASM
hetero-chronological moments beginning with
first, in the
reconstruction of certain muscle groups;
significant functional
rates of functional reconstruction; and
second, in the different
logico-conditioned sequentialness of the
third, in a specific

development of the required motor abilities.

the PASM is
The functional specialization of the organism in
first, in the specialization of
manifested in two basic forms:
(certain segments of it acquire a clearly
the motor apparatus
displacement and are principally those
expressed accommodative
the heavy fundamental work during the sport activity);
which bear
of the organism as a whole and
second, in the specialization
of the aforementioned parts of its work-
‘especially the isolation
in the development of specific motor abilities;
ing apparatus
success of the concrete sport activity. Thus,
necessary for the
of specialization of the organism by organ on the
it is a matter
one hand and by motor ability on the other.
by organ is clearly local; restricted to
Specialization
groups and their functional units. Specializa-
specific muscle
is expressed in the development of such qualities
tion by ability
as a whole and chiefly the key working systems
of the organism
determine the level of its specific work-
which primarily
mastery grows the local character of the
capacity. As sport
specialization becomes all the more expres-
organism's functional
of the motor abilities all the more
sive and the specificity
concrete.
emphasized that the examined tendency of the
Tt should be
dynamic functional specialization of the ogranism
long-term
in essence, the natural course of the accommodative
reflects,
not really controlled, because its regularities
process (i.e.,
Tt can be assumed, that the time and quan-
are simply unknown).
the stages and the tendencies in the
titative parameters. of
of the organism are not an objective
functional specialization
of rationalizing and raising the
necessity. In the interests
training, these parameters can be
effectiveness of long-term

29.
 deliberately changed within reasonable limits. In other words,

it is a matter of the purposeful and the controlled realization

of the regularities that objectively determine the character and

the dynamics of functional specialization of the organism in the

course of long-term training; for which the means of special

strength-training have an important role.
1.3 Structural Regularities of the Sportsman's — Physical Pre-
paredness
Sport activity is characterized by the introduction of an

unaccustomed (for the organism) regimen. The organism accommo-

datively reacts to it with its entire complex of systems: the

central-nervous, somatic, vegetative and the psychological

spheres. A certain inter-correlation in the displacement to

these spheres secures the effective activity of the organism as a

whole. Thus, it is a matter of the structure of the sportsman's

physical preparedness (i.e., the inter-relationship of the

morpho-functional, accommodative-reconstruction to the organism
that determines its work-capacity). The organism's work-capacity
acquires a certain qualitative specificity depending on the type
of sport. So, one can speak of the primary development of man's
ability to display strength, speed, endurance, etc., and call
this key qualitative characteristic his motor function.
Each key function has a typical accommodative rYreconstruc-—
tion. It is roughly inherent to any sportsman of one speciali-

zation although it can have an individual expression in each

concrete case. Especially distinct, individual differences can
.be displayed in the structure of strength preparedness. Differ-
ent sportsmen obtain the same results with different degrees of

work on the basic muscle groups; with their different ability to

quickly contract; and finally, the compensation for the func-

tional lag of one muscle, results in a more expressive develop-

ment in another.
Hence, the notion of an athlete's structure of strength pre-

paredness has great significance for the organization of the

and
strength-training;. especially for the.selection.of effective

means and methods of developing muscular strength.

30.
1.3.1 The Structure of the Sportsman's Physical Preparedness

The concept of the structure of physical qualities in

general, was formulated in a number of works (V. M. Zatsiorsky,

1965; Y. V. Verkhoshansky, 1963, 1970, 1972); but only the

1961,
statement of the problems. Up until now a sufficiently in-depth

elaboration has not been obtained. At the same time facts

related to the structure of the sportsman's physical preparedness

are rather extensive and concentrated in the literature around

such questions as the intercorrelation of physical qualities (in

the process of their development); and the "transfer" of these

qualities from one type of activity to another (see N. V. zimkin,

1956, 1965; N. WN. Yakovlev and others, 1960; V. M. Zatsiorsky,

D. Hebb, 1949; F. Lindeburg, 1949: D. Nelson, 1957; R.

1965;

Woodworth, 1958; B. Cratty, 1962, 1964). rt is appropriate here

to note only the fundamental tenets of the attempts to elaborate,

in-depth, the structure of the sportsman's physical preparedness.

Tt has been established, that the transferance of physical

qualities decreases with the increase in trainability (N. V.

Zimkin, 1965; V. M. Zatsiorsky, 1965); that the transferance

mechanism is to a great extent specific (F. Cumbeca, et. al.,

1957: D. Nelson, 1957; I. Bachman, 1961; B. Cratty, 1968; I.
Lawther, 1968; A. Barrow, 1971); that the intercorrelation be-

tween physical qualities can be positive, negative or neutral (N.

Vv. Zimkin, 1956); and positive transferance at the initial stages

of training can then switch to negative (A. V. Korobkov, 1958).

It has been noted repeatedly in works dealing with the

methodological questions of the intercorrelation of physical

qualities. that training consisting of exercises requiring speed,

strength and endurance, develops each of these qualities collec-

tively, better than training each of them individually even with

an increase in the load (N. G. Ozolin, 1949, 1970). The develop-

ment of each quality has a positive influence on the development

the others, and vice-versa, a lag in the development of one or

of
several qualities limits the development of others (A. WN. Kres-

tovnikov, 1951; S. V.-Kaledin, 1961)... For example, the develop-

of strength and speed conditions the development of the

ment

31.
 ability to display speed-strength (A. V. Korobkov, 1953; N. V.

Zimkin, 1956; V. V. Kuznetsov, 1970).

Here the theoretical premise is based on the so-called
"united" physical mechanism (the conditioned reflex), which

underlies muscular activity. Training leads to the formation of

a "vast background" of temporary connections, on the foundation

of which (thanks to the "plasticity" of the nervous system)

various combinations of the qualitative aspects of the motor

activities can arise, depending upon the emphasis of training.

It is assumed that in the beginning the means should develop the

complex of motor qualities separately; and then they are

integrated based on the sport exercises or movements structurally

similar to them. :
Recent developments have supplemented the 30's conception of

the so-called qualitative specificity of man's motor abilities,

based upon considerable factual material (I. Downey, 1923; G.

Allport, 1933; C. McCloy, 1937; H. Tones, 1949; see Y. V. Verkho-

shansky, 1970, 1972). This is indicative of the highly complex

relationships between motor abilities; the development of a

variety of means with the different regimes of muscular work, and

due to this, the low degree of generality, a high degree of
specificity and a poor transferance from one type of activity to

“ another. General and specific abilities are in agreement with

this conception. General abilities are the basis for the execu-

tion of more than one task, they are constant in comparison with

the significant fluctuations of the conditions under which the

task is executed. Man's general motor abilities provide the

foundation for the realization of motor activities; determine the

relative stability of the vital signs; and are regulated by

heredity, the structure and physiology of the body.

Specific abilities condition the functional specifics of

performance in complex motor situations; and are the chief
results of motor experience, influenced by the environment and

the interaction with it. If general abilities ensure the

execution of several close (according to the qualitative indica~

tors) task groups, then specific abilities will, to a _ large

32.
 independent, securing only one concrete activity.
extent, be
have been made to formulate theories, explaining
Attempts
physiological mechanism of qualitative speci-
the essence of the
independence of the motor abilities; in
ficity and the functional
of specific neuro-motor coordination of muscular
the presence
1954; F. Henky, 1952, 1960; F. Henkey, G.
activities (F. Pitts,
smith, 1962). However such attempts are
Whitlec, 1960,; K.
speculative conclusions based upon rather
represented by only
:
"light weight" facts.
is still much that is unclear and contradictory
There
of strength abilities, despite numerous
regarding the structure
in our country and abroad. An analysis of the
studies conducted
of Y. V.- verkhoshansky, 1970, 1972)
literature (see observations
some of the positions on the basis of
enables us to differentiate
are more or less unanimity of opinion among special-
which there
significant portion of experimental works indicate
ists. Thus, a
developed by one means does not have all-
that muscular strength
that there is no correlation between muscular
around usefulness;
of movement; that strength exercises worsen
strength and speed
that there is no connection between static and
speed of movement;
that there is no carry-over “from isometric
dynamic strength;
regime and that dynamic strength is to a
training to the dynamic
extent connected with motor abilities than isometric
greater
strength.
it should be noted that the conclusions -reached
However,
of motor abilities are made par-
regarding the interdependence
of experimental data obtained from a contin-
tially on the basis
of primarily low sport qualification and without
gent of subjects
consideration the objective regularities determining
taking into
mastery. It is therefore necessary to be
the dynamics of sport
regards to these conclusions and restrict and
very cautious in
to those categories of sportsmen (sub-
limit their correctness
they were obtained and not hasten with general-
jects) from which
ities.
structure of athletes' physical (and in
The. notion. of .the
preparedness is based on the consideration
particular strength)

33.
of factual data and research (¥. V. Verkhoshansky, with collabor-

ators). With respect to this, we propose that it is appropriate

to distinguish between the notions of the composition and the

structure of the sportsman's physical preparedness. By composi-

tion we mean the complex of qualitatively specific forms of the

work-capacity, objectively inherent to a person which determine

the success of his sport activities. By structure we mean the

expedient, systemic-form principle of interdependence to the

complex of motor abilities securing their functional unity and

man's working potential.
1.3.2 General Characteristics of the Connections Between Motor
Abilities
Research (Y. V. Verkhoshansky, 1970, 1972; V. G. Semyenov,
1971; V. V. Tatyan, 1974; A. V. Khodykin, 1976) enables us to

speak of the following qualitative types of connections of motor

abilities: general and partial, essential and non-essential,

positive and negative, direct and indirect.

General and Partial Types of Connections. The general type
of connection is characterizedby the relationship between two

abilities, taking into account the influence of the other abili-

ties; while the partial has only an indirect relationship between

two abilities. Calculation of the general and partial correla-

tions is utilized for quantitatively assessing these types of

connections. :
Studies of the general and partial types of connections,
with sportsmen of different specialization and qualification have
established: 1) depending upon the abilities compared, the

assessment of the partial type of connection can be lower (the

most typical case) or higher than the assessment of the general

type of connection; 2) the assessment of the partial connection

between the same abilities, representative of different types of

sports, is more stable and firm than the assessment of the gen-

eral type of connection.

Essential and Non-essential Types of Connections. They are

characterized to a -greater or lesser. extent,. by .the inter-

influence of the motor abilities in concrete sport activities.

34.
Research indicates that: 1) essential connections are more
stable than non-essential connection (assessed by a general type
of correlation), can bear a non-essential character, veiing the
influence of the other abilities.
Positive and Negative Types of Connections. They are also
characterized by the relationship between abilities where one of
them favors, or vice-versa, hinders the other. Experimental data
indicates that: 1) the positive type of connection is the most
characteristic of the complex of motor abilities; 2) the negative
type of connection appears primarily at the level of the partial
connections; 3) the positive type of connection, at the general
correlation level, can become negative at the partial correlation
level.
It should be noted that the negative type of connection has
been repeatedly discovered for such abilities as short and long
distance running, absolute~strength, speed of movement as well as
the ability to display explosive-force against a relatively small
external resistance.
Direct and Indirect Types of Connections. The first type of
connection is characterized by an indirect (direct) relation be-
tween two abilities and can express any of the afore-described
types of connections. The second type is also a relation when
there is an essential, direct connection between two abilities
(for example there is no correlation between abilities A and B in
figure 19.1 but they are nevertheless connected through the other
-- third [C] ability). This type of connection is the most char~
acteristic structure of physical preparedness. For example,
there is no direct, significant connection between running speed
and a sprinter's absolute leg strength (it has already been
mentioned that this connection is negative at the partial level);
however, there is a close connection with jumping exercises,
which are also,rather closely connected with running speed. This
example is superfluous since it emphasizes how important it is to
have a clear representation of the structure of an athlete's
special strength preparedness
and based. upon this .to determine
tasks and to select and dose the means of special-strength

35.
training.
The indirect types of connections between motor abilities
can be more complex. Thus, there is no direct, significant con-
nection (see figure 19.2) between the height achieved in a verti-
cal jump (h) and the absolute-strength of the legs (Po). How-
ever, the latter determines the magnitude of the maximal force of
the "take-off" (F max), which in its turn, influences the magni-
tude of the impulse force of the push-off (Ft); and in the final
analysis, the height of the jump.
The interdependence of the motor abilities changes both
qualitatively and quantitatively with the growth of mastery.
The most typical dynamics of the connections at the qualita-
tive level are the changes of the specific proportion of the
aforementioned types of connections between the separate abili-
ties and in some cases a clear switch from one type of connection
to another. Thus, while preserving the partial type of connec-
tion, the general connection between individual abilities can
increase or decrease because the non-essential connection can
acquire vital importance and vice-versa. For example, triple
jumpers lose some of. their ability to execute the standing long
jump {or triple jump) and conversely increase their sprinting
speeds (at 30 and 100 M).
Positive and negative connections represent a special case.
The changes in them are primarily one-sided with the growth of
mastery -- from positive to negative (mainly at the partial cor-
relation level); although a complete transition from one type to
another type is apparently impossible because of the influence of
the third (leveling) ability. In the initial stages of training,
the principle -~ "all means are good", is completely justified.
However, as far as the structure of physical preparedness forma-
tion is concerned, the negative correlations between abilities
show through more there, than where they should; but owing to the
third ability, level out. Leveling proceeds according to the
statistical mean principle; because of which, the optimal cor-
respondance between a mumber of. abilities is achieved, due to
some quantitative decrease in both types of connections.

36.
 For example, the negative correlation between the 100 M and

the 1500 M runs becomes all the more manifest in decathlon

athletes with the growth of mastery. However, due to the

improvement in the ability to run 400 M this correlation ‘is

leveled-out by some decrease in the closeness of the connection

between running the 400 and 1500 M; and it is increased between

the 100 and 400 M run.

Direct and indirect connections between abilities are sub-
jected to the least qualitative changes. They are always present

in the structure of physical preparedness, are its specific pro-

perties; and changes are primarily quantitative.

From the standpoint-of quantitative changes, the connections

between the individual abilities can be divided into two princi-

pal tendencies: a decrease or increase’in the closeness of the

connection and a linear or non-linear change of its indicators.

These tendencies can be illustrated most completely by a model of

the correlational structure of the specific physical preparedness

of triple jumpers (figure 20). ‘Presented in the model is an

appraisal of the connection between tests; determining, in their

aggregate, the level of the jumper's sprinting, strength and

jumping preparedness. The coefficient of correlation relative to

the groups of sportsmen based on the results in the triple jump

are in the range 13.50-14.49, 14.50-15.49 and 15.50-16.70 M.

respectively (there were 40 men in each group).

1.3.3 Factoral Structure of Motor Abilities

Very interesting data for understanding the structure of

physical preparedness was obtained in special studies utilizing

factoral analysis on a complex of tests (15-32); assessing the

motor abilities of sportsmen of different specialization and

qualification. An aggregate of junior and senior classified

sportsmen in each type of sport were selected. In specific

cases, the experimental data of training for various lengths of

time of one group of sportsmen was analyzed. The possibility

arose to examine not only the factoral structure of sportsmen's

physical preparedness in. this or.that type of specialization but

(chiefly) the change in this structure which is connected with

37.
the growth of sport mastery.
The quantity (composition) of factors increase with the

growth of mastery and are distinguished from the aggregate

characteristics from which motor abilities are assessed. This is

expressed in the spearation of one or two factors. For example,

the change in the structure of physical preparedness (table 1) of

triple jumpers with the growth of mastery is connected with the

separation of the first factor (separation of running 30 M, and
the standing long and triple Jump). Thus, if the factor

composition of a junior jumper's physical preparedness can he

identified as: 1) special sprint-jump preparedness and, 2)

strength preparedness, then a new factor is added for qualified.

jumpers; the basis of which is explosive-jumping-strength (the

specific factor).
The division of one relatively general, beginning motor
ability into two specific abilities is a typical phenomenon of

the process of the formation of sportsmen's physical-preparedness

structure. The separation of the snatch and the clean and jerk

indices from squats and barbell pulls indicators (weightlifters);

the division of the absolute and relative strength indices
(volleyball players); the division of the abilities to run with a
running and a regular start as well as running 30 and 100 M from

a regular start (sprinters, jumpers) and others have been

observed in practical investigations.
The factor analysis procedure enables one to quantitatively

assess the contribution of each factor in the general dispersion

of factors. This circumstance was utilized for observation of

the changes in the. specific factor proportion with the growth of

mastery. It has been established that simultaneous with the

change in the factor composition (and consequently determinate
motor abilities determining
the success of sporting activities),
there occurs . (along with the growth of mastery) a distinctive

over-assessment of their significance (see table 1). One of them

acquires a greater significance, another becomes less important.

It should. be noted.that there is a general tendency in speed-

strength type of sports for the role of muscular strength to

38.
 Chapter I

Matrix of Factor Weights Table 1

Lower Higher
Characteristics Classifications Classifications

43.6 14.1 46.3 13.7 7.7

I Ir I It Tit

Triple Jump 757 114 671 244 290

Long Jump 721 -171 840 ~078 175
100 M Run 666 -252 672 -064 416
30 M Run 477 -302 180 -159 -567
Standing Long Jump 642 -221 267 035 551
Standing Triple Jump 718 219 153 020 711
Snatch 233 843 186 815 214
Clean and Jerk 185 884 189 877 218
. Squat 170 757 081 790 229

Matrix of Factor Weights Table 2

Lower Higher
Characteristics Classifications Classifications

41.5 13.3 58.6 18.3

I Ii I It

Standing Long Jump 102 697 170 914

Standing Triple Jump 210 712 222 917
F rel 640 288 579 369
ie) 670 141 899 280
Ir 728 094 729 214
T -B47 -164 -933 -191

39.
decrease and the role of the ability to express explosive force
to increase (with the exception of weightlifters because they
experience a sharp increase in relative muscular strength with
the growth of mastery).
It has been established that simultaneous with the growth of
sport mastery, the factor share of the individual motor abilities
change (table 2) i.e., the degree of correlation of the latter
with the given factor. Two fundamental tendencies are observed
here -- an increase or decrease in the degree of connection of
the individual characteristics with the corresponding determinant
ability. It should be emphasized that this case convincingly
corroborates the aforementioned tendency of the decreasing role
of absolute-strength types of sports.
Research also indicates that the formation of the most
essential changes of the composition and structure of physical
preparedness primarily occurs in the beginning stage of an
athlete's training. At the high sport mastery stage significant
changes in the structure of physical preparedness do not occur;
which is indicative of the stability of the composition of the
determinant motor abilities and the significance of the factor
share of the individual characteristics.
1.3.4 General Notions about the Structure of Physical Prepared-
ness.
In the methodological literature and the practice of sport
it is acceptable to divide motor abilities into general and
special. However, it should be emphasized that sport work-
Capacity is secured by a complex of motor abilities which are
concrete, according to their qualitative characteristics; are
relatively independent in both their manifestation and develop-
ment; and can be called determinants. They are the determinants
for a whole series of motor manifestations, the underlying basis
of which is the united physiological mechanism.
Taking into account the definite functional role of the
determinant motor abilities, it is appropriate to divide them
into specific, mon-specific and. leveling abilities. The latter
secure the so-called key motor ability, which adequately

40.
expresses the motor requirements that originated from the condi-
tions and the motor regime of the concrete sport activity.
The functional role of specific abiities consists of secur-
ing the working productivity of the key motor abilities. The
non-specific ability (according to its qualitative characteris-
tic) does not satisfy the regime requirements the . organism is.
introduced to and therefore participates as an assistance factor.
The non-specific. ability's role is noticeable, there, where the
specific ability is displayed because of some objective
difficulty. For example, if speed of movement (the specific
ability) is the primary requirement but displaying it’'to a high
level is difficult because of external resistance then muscular
strength (the non-specific ability) acts as an assistance factor.
On the other hand, if the qualitative level of explosive-strength
displayed, decreases due to progressive fatigue for example,.the
required motor effect can be maintained by special-endurance,.
The non-specific ability can often have a negative influence
on the key. motor ability. For example, an extraordinary develop-
ment of absolute-strength has a negative influence on speed.
Leveling abilities executean important functional role in
the perfectioning of the key motor ability and the formation of
the structure of physical preparedness as a whole. They smooth
out the contradiction of the specific abilities; but in return
neutralize the influence of the non-specific, if the latter
acquires a clearly negative form with respect to the first.
Considering the qualitative diversity of motor functions,
where the formation of a whole series of non-specific motor
abilities is possible, it should be recognized that the leveling
role of certain functions acquired by the organism has exclusive
significance for securing a high level of sport work-capacity,
under the changing conditions of the activity.
Finally, it should be noted that determinant motor abilities
present their own complex structures of the elementary forms of
the motor abilities. Thus, within the structure of the physical
preparedness, .according. to. the. hierarchy principle, the key
determinant and elementary abilities should be distinguished.

4l.
Based on studies of the types of connections between abilities
(1.3.2) we can represent the principal organizational structure
of physical preparedness (figure 21) in the following way. The
key motor ability (B) is the result of the development and
integration of a complex of determinants, primarily the specific
{C) and non-specific (HC) ability for each concrete case of abil-
ities. The leveling motor abilities (H), in the process of inte-
gration, actively participate first, in smoothing out the
negative correlation between certain specific and non-specific
abilities; second, remedy the connection between them, and third,
expand the functional range and the accommodative potential of
the key abilities. Each of the determinant abilities is repre-
sented as a structural complex of elementary abilities (E). ,
Underlying the formation of the structures of physical pre-
paredness is the dialectical unity of the differentiation and
integration of the motor abilities. As a result, a qualitatively
new ability arises which is able to realize a high working effect
under a wide range of conditions. This, if it can be so express-
ed, emerging ability is a qualitative novelty; its functional
potential is greater than the sum of the properties of all the
abilities. -
The development of the specific motor abilities is one of
the conditions for the formation of the structures of physical
preparedness. Before making asumptions about the functional
mechanism of the specific motor abilities it is necessary to
consider the following factors. First, the elementary forms of
the motor abilities are functionally independent, are not trans-
formed into the key abilities (specific) and preserve their own
qualitative individuality with the growth of trainability. Sec-
ond, the specific motor ability (for example, explosivé-strength)
is in general, inherent to man and an innate property of his
motor apparatus. Third, the specific ability is developed only
by a certain motor regime.
Two premises for a theoretical hypothesis arise here:
either the .basis of the specific
motor ability.is functionally
and qualitatively isolated from the close motor ability

42.
 mechanisms or it is determined by the specific neuromotor

structure, integrating part of the functional mechanisms of

separate elementary forms of the motor abilities into a unified

functional whole.
To simply accept this or a different hypothesis is diffi-

cult. It can only be stated (with good reason) that the

formation and development of specific abilities is not based upon

the synthesis of the elementary forms of the motor abilities;
developed individually; and not by means of the gradual trans-
formation from some abilities to others.
The latter circumstance relates to the second hypothesis,
although it can only be on
accepted. the basis of logic. This
- hypothesis can be expressed by the principal scheme (figure 22)
of the structure of explosive-force. The scheme emphasizes that

_the development of this ability (I), occurs under the conditions

of a specific motor regime (CDP), has an influence on the compo-—

nents of explosive muscular strength (starting-Q, absolute-F,

acceleration-G, the ability to quickly realize unloaded movement—

V) and forms its specific neuro-motor structure (CHC). The
latter is the fundamental condition for the development of
explosive-strength, its specific neuro-motor structure acquires
this or.that functionally qualitative trait.
It should be noted that there is a principal distinction
between the system-forming mechanism of the structure of physical

preparedness as a whole, and the mechanism of the key and speci-

fic motor abilities. In the first of the two cases, the advan-

tageous process of integration forms the foundation; in the

latter case -- the process of accommodative perfectioning already

has a functional structure. Therefore, the structure of physical

preparedness and the structure of the key motor ability are more

flexible, mobile and are formed on the basis of the wide

diversity of the motor regimen. The specific motor abilities are

more conservative and their neuro-motor structure is only per-

fected by a narrow range of means.

It is necessary.to.control the formation of the structure of

physical preparedness, the solution to this problem, in theory of

43.
sport, is of exceptional complexity. This complexity is due to

the fact that the physiological mechanism of integration of the

structure of the motor abilities is as yet not sufficiently

clear. Besides this, the structure of physical preparedness is

revealed only in statistical expression. Therefore, it is

extremely important to determine the general statistical
regularities of the organization of this structure, acting as the

‘premise in the search for means of objective assessment and

controlof the influences on it.
So, the material examined in this chapter indicates that the

organism's adaptive behavior under the conditions of sport

activity is a dialectical contradiction in nature. This is dis-

played by such tendencies as the integral and elective character

of the accommodative reaction, the generality and specificity of
acquiring functional reconstruction and the unity of divergent

and convergent directions in the development of accommodative

changes in the organism. The tendencies mentioned find concrete

expression in the local specialization of the motor apparatus and

the intensive development of specific motor abilities against the

background of the rise in the organism's general work-capacity.

Functional reconstruction begins with the organism as a whole

then proceeds according to two interdependent (because of the

organism's unity) and at the same time develops along independent

(because of the differentiation and elective character of the

organism's reaction) lines. The first unites general-functional
reconstruction ‘chiefly through the quantitative criteria of the

training work; the second, goes a long way in determining the

first by the rate of its development, -- specific reconstruction,

having a clearly expressed qualitative tint; acquired chiefly

through the specific criteria of the training load. Specific-

ally, this line primarily determines the success of the sport

activities. In the first place, for the partial training effect,

achieved at the fundamental components Tevel of the PASM (special

and technical preparedness), there is a clear tendency for its

specific characteristics to move close.together in securing the

resolution of a single aim -- raise the organism's special work-

44,
capacity (figure 23).
Observations of the accommodative displacement to the
organism and its external relationships in the course of long
term training showed that there is a tendency towards a correla-
tion curve with sport results (see for example 1.2.3). This
circumstance contributes to exposing the most general dynamic and
structural regularities of the PASM (Y. V. Verkhoshansky, 1966,
1970). ;
It is appropriate to examine the dynamic and structural com-
ponents of the PASM in general; which stand out, in lightof the
aforementioned factors. The dynamics of the four fundamental
components of sport mastery (A - the sportsman's special work-
capacity, B - the sportsman's ability to fully utilize his real
motor potential in sport activities, levels of C - general and
D - special preparedness) relative to sport results, can he
expressed by the scheme presented in figure 24. ‘The athlete's
special work-capacity chiefly determines his sporting success; it
improves steadily and has a linear correlation with sport
results. Perfectioning of the ability to effectively utilize
motor potentials can be described as a monotonously growing
curve, asymetrically converging on the line expressing the
increase in the key motor ability. Perfectioning of the organ-
ism's general work-capacity can be expressed aS a monotonously
growing and special preparedness as an intensely growing
parabola. .
The close correlation between the components differentiate,
and to a significant degree, determine the motor specificity of
the sport exercise. However, a certain regularity is observed in
the dynamics of these connections according to the growth of
mastery; its principal direction generally, can be: expressed in
the form of a vector correlational matrix (figure 25), where the
arrows indicate the tendency in the changes of the close
connections (up ~ increase, down - decrease). -
Of course this scheme does not pretend to quantitatively,
strictly express the..dependencies.
and probably excessively sim-
plifies reality. However, it is sufficient for the practical

45.
 1
~22,~28,-35:
04.36.38 09,2743
ra = | 22288
Rel. Stres6th,Ke

Triple Tame| &

27-4018 a :2
=
5
=
to
31,58,56 — 38.48.34
z
sfaa
it
7
S| ¢ g[
+-- spss!
Lowe sump |
Lis.su2e
AB.2U2
mi:
a
T
Ye
uv

rors IB3u8 18,28,28-—— 32.24

i joan | snatch
[sauat | ona crt
{—-30,-21-20 68,59.41
44,1908 33, 28.21
97,33.84

of
FIGURE 20 - Carrleation
phys ical prep ared ness
special
of triple jump ers.
4d 4A 48 52

Resul5

al
B
FIGURE 17, - Increase in
Ghocial Strancth

relative-strength of the

m
7
Giark Sttedsth
shoulder flexors (1), arm
ess

\
2

7T
extensors (2), and the

e]
(3) of pole-
frefared

abdominal muscles
vaulters with the growth of
sport inastery (A), and the

'
results

FIGURE 22 — Model of special-

increase in muscular strength, Results
jn units of sport results (B).
FIGURE 1B - Dynamics of speed-
strength (A), and starting
strength (8), relative to sport
results (AF-ankle flexion, TE-

abilities.
thigh extension and TF-thigh
flexion).

FIGURE 19 - Types of connec-

motor
tions between motor abilities:
ALA
1) theoretical model, 2) con-
crete example. i=)
Va FIGURE 25 - Vector correla-
c ‘tgomal matrix of changes in the
G NIN
close connections making up the
JA N\
DB
Composition

- PASM,
of PASM

23 - Dynamics of special
FIGURE . (=)
(2), pre~
(1), and technical
M.
paredness of the PAS
traimabilitY
of

& () ©) @)
* FIGURE - Tendencies in the
24
Level

of an
fundamental composition - Model of
FIGURE 21 ep ared-
sport mastery. physical pr
athlete's
Results ness.-

46
aims of clearly characterizing the tendencies in the dynamics of
the fundamental components of the PASM; and can serve as a point

of orientation for long-term planning of training, at least until

there is a more subtle and "richer" mathematical attempt to

resolve the problem of not yielding more precise and reliable

results.
A few words in conclusion about sport technique (the preci-

sion and essence of this notion) which secures from the afore-
mentioned regularities in the dynamics of the PASM.
The working-effect of an athletic movement is none other

than the -product of the specific form of the organization and

control of man's interaction with the environment. However, the

scheme presented in figure 23 indicates that the fundamental

notion of "sport technique" appears not only and not so much as

the organization of the motor composition of the exercise as the

determination of this organization of the sportsman's ability to

purposefully utilize the external conditions and their

possibilities. This ability is the result of many years of

perfectioning the motor functions and its securing of the

organism's systems. And if this is so, then sport technique is

the result of a certain form of the process unfolding over time,

and consequently, as a concrete scientific notion, includes time
coordinates. This determines an important methodological

principle, that sport technique is not a constant which can be

achieved once but is the result of an uninterrupted and intermin-

able process of movement from lesser perfection to greater per-

fection.
' ‘The aforementioned consideration persuasively indicates that
sport technique is widely understood in practice and the methodo-
logical literature as a means of solving motor problems and not

exhausting the essence of a certain notion. Strictly speaking,

sport technique is an expressed concrete system of movement,

representing not so much a means of solving motor problems as the

very motor problem itself which the athlete must solve each time

he executes a sport exercise. ..Consequently,. sport. technique,

consists of the search and assimulation of rational motor methods

47.
 that provide the best way to utilize the sportsman's motor

potentials.
Therefore, the sportsman's ability to utilize his real
potential in purposeful, adequate motor tasks by maintaining a

concrete system of movement is the essence of sport-technical

mastery. Continual perfectioning of this abiity is a key invari-

vant ‘of the training process and the degree of completeness of the

utilization of motor potential -- is the criterion of its effec-

. tiveness.

48.
 Chapter II
Peculiarities of the Displaying of Man's
Strength in Athletics

It was not very long ago when an athlete did not trouble

to discuss the point which is so important in today's

himself
The question of strength was decided rather simply:
training.
could lift the most weight or record the highest reading
whomever
was the strongest. . However, experience and sci-
on a dynamometer
has uncovered facts which indicate how
entific experimentation
those evaluations of strength were. This resulted in
primitive
to consider the question of strength preparation in
the necessity
carefully; and to precisely define the concept of
sport more
Thus, what is understood by the term strength? -
strength.
The notion of strength is first of all physical. In mechan-

it expresses the extent of the interaction of bodies, causing

ies
Therefore, in the physical sense, as a vector
their movement.

quantity -- strength is understood with respect to the quantita-

.spects of man's interactions -- with say the support, an

tive
other external objects. In other words when assess-—
apparatusor
ing the force which results in movement -~ its working-effect.
If one speaks of the source of movement, then one is talking

about strength -- a man's ability to perform work. This ability

reason for the movement of the body or of its links. In

is the
this instance, we are referring to the type of force associated

with the pull of man's muscles -~ a physiological phenomenan.

finally the notion of "strength" is utilized as one of

And,
characteristics of volitional movement by man to
the qualitative
motor tasks. Here, in conjunction with such eri-
solve concrete
endurance, dexterity and others, strength is a
teria as speed,
notion; evaluating the qualitative side of the execu-
pedagogical
tion of movement.
The infinite diversity of man's movements makes it necessary

evaluate the strength components of movement

to quantitatively
-maximal strength, _impulse-~strength,.work and power);
(moderate,
to display strength ‘(absolute and relative-
man's ability

49.
strength, the moment force of muscular contraction relative to
the joint); as well as a differential comparative evaluation of
the strength components of movement (fast and explosive-strength,
speed-strength movements, strength-endurance and others), re-
flecting the qualitative specificity of movements and the selec-
tion of the corresponding means and methods of strength prepara-
tion. :
Thus, muscular strength is a concrete notion and it is dis-
played purposefully under concrete conditions. However, the con-
ditions under which muscular strengthis displayed in athletics
are extraordinarily diverse. Therefore, prior to talking about
the means and methods of special-strength preparation, the funda-
mental peculiarities of displaying muscular strength in sport
movements should be examined.
2.1 The Regimes of Muscular Work ;
Many experimental studies have been devoted to the different
regimes of muscular work. Based on the purpose of the works
(prior to their undertaking), they can be divided into two
groups. one group is devoted to determining the conditions and
regimes which secure the working-effect of muscular strength; the
other to the search for the regime which most” effectively de-
velops muscular strength. Unfortunately many of these investiga-
tions lead to nothing less than an abundance of contradictions
and confusion.
For example, one author maintains the largest strength gains
are made with the dynamic (overcoming) regime, another -- with
isometric tension (see Y. V. Verkhoshansky, 1970, 1972). Besides
this, a careful analysis of the experimental design creates the
impression that similar contradictions are associated with in-
correct generalized conclusions of the participating factors
obtained in different laboratories and natural surroundings; on
different muscle groups of subjects of different. preparedness;
different loads and movement speeds. Thus, it was established
that with maximal isometric tension of the biceps muscle (the
elbow bent.. at a.90° angle). the subject.was able .to..develop a
force 6.5-10.0 kg greater than the maximal weight he could lift.

50.
However, this changes with the decreasing load and the increasing

speed of movement. The electrical activity in the biceps muscle

as it is lifting a weight 50-80% of maximum is. significantly

greater (as far as the force produced) than it is during the

period it is subsequently 'held' (A. S. Stepanov, M. A. Burlakov,

1963; Vv. D. Monogarov, WN. P. Laputin, 1966; I. Scheraev A.O.

1954, ‘1957; Ph. Rasch, W. Pierson, 1960), in both its magnitude

and display of strength (I. N. Knipst, 1952; A. A. Yanchevsky, R.

P. Steklove, 1966). Thus, there is an important difference in

the characteristics of the muscular force displayed depending

upon the magnitude of the load and the speed of movement associ-

ated with it. It should be pointed out, that the force arm of

the muscles increases . four-fold up to an angle of 90° during

elbow flexion. Therefore, if for example, you compare the force

of a maximal isometric contraction developed at an angle of 90°

and the maximum weight raised beginning at an angle of 180°, then

_the advantage will naturally be the first instance.

Consequently, if one is talking about developing muscular

strength, then to discuss excelling at dynamic or isometric Yre-

gimes is scarcely appropriate, because the biomechanical condi-

tions for the display of strength are not comparable. If the

necessity arises to compare the training-effect of a certain

regime then you must first answer the question: what kind of

strength are you measuring?

A similar approach is necessary when you are considering the

advantages of yielding and overcoming regimes of muscular work.

ft has been shown (A. Bethe, 1929) that the force a muscle

develops with a maximal contraction (active strength) is signifi-

cantly less than the resistance strength the contracting ‘muscle

displays when it is stretched (passive strength) [on the whole

1.2 - 1.6 times more]. The superiority of passive strength over

active for some muscle groups are the following: for the arms --

22%, forearms -- 46.8% and 50% for leg extensors. According to

Semyonov's data (1968), the maximal force developed by the leg

extensors at an .of
angle 120° .in the knee is 465 kg in the iso-

metric regime and 401 kg in the overcoming regime. For combined

51.
regimes, the largest strength was recorded in the slow yielding
regime (under conditions of equivalent forced leg flexion with
the aid of an electric motor) after preliminary maximal isometric
tension -- 504 kg; and 453 kg in the yielding regime after over-
coming work.
The stretch reflex (myotatic reflex) has great significance
for increasing the working-effect yielding work.- Experiments
on
animals and humans have established that the larger the speed of
muscle stretch,. the stronger the myotatic reflex (A. Samoyloff,
M. Kisseleff, 1928; 0. Foerster, H. Altenlurgey, 1933; O. Lippold
A.O., 1957). It has been noted, that the better trained the

athlete, the more precisely and fully the utilization of reflex

muscle’ tension; which comes about in the course of executing

yielding work (Y. 2. Zakharyents, 1962).

The energy expenditure of yielding (passive) work is signi-
ficantly less for the organism than overcoming (active) work. It
has been demonstrated (Chauveau, 1904), by the substitution of
active contraction with resistance work -- that the expenditure
of energy is almost 1/2, when movement velocity does not exceed
0.12 meters/second. These conclusions have been coroborated ex-
perimentally. It has been revealed that more energy is expended
by contraction of a muscle which shortens and executes work than
for an isometric contraction. The energy expenditure for muscle
lengthening is less than an isometric contraction (W. Fenn, 1924,
W. Hartree, A. Hill, 1928; A. Hill, 1930; M. Cattel, 1983; B.
Abbott A.O., 1952; D. Wilkie, 1954). However, it should be em-
phasized that the aforementioned advantage of yielding work is
displayed. only with slow movement and large loads. Therefore,
there is no reason to associate these advantages with the poten-
tial to acquire the ability for quick and powerful movements in
overcoming work.
This was a very short survey of the important mechanical and
physiological differences in the forms of muscular activity.
Therefore, the search for an absolute, universal regime of muscu-.

lax work to. develep strength is as useless..as it is to discuss

the advantages of a specific regime without taking into consider-

52.
> on the type of sport activity and the specific character of

rhe muscular tension.

Before going on to the next section, one should designate

nore precise terminology for all of the diverse manifestations of

muscular work. This is associated with the types of mechanical

york and their corresponding regimes of muscular tension. We do

1ot pretend to have classified all the forms in which the working

activity of muscles are expressed in figure 26. It is obviously

snly for convenience; and within the limited scope of this book,
a systematization of the concept. Although it should be pointed
aut that the principle can be utilized to devise a stricter and

nore representative classification. ,

Thus, to evaluate the external manifestation of muscular

activity one proceeds by differentiating the four basic types of

nuscular work (based upon mechanical criteria): overcoming,

yielding, holding and combined. In specific cases, when talking

about moving the body (its links, external objects); or maintain-

: a posture with muscular force equal to bodyweight (its links,

external objects); or external influences, then one can speak of

the correspondence of dynamic and static muscular work. True, in

the latter case, there is no work in the physical sense, since

there is no movement. Therefore, in order to quantitatively

evaluate static work the production of force over a distance is

not used; but assessment is based on the physiological meaning of

work; and the production of force and the time of its action are

utilized. :
Muscular tension should be considered a physiological cri-

terion and is distinguished by three basic regimes: isotonic --

a change in length, but the tension developed remains constant;

isometric -~- tension is developed without a change in the length

of the muscle; aucsotonic -- there is a change in tension along
with the change in muscle length. However, these regimes do not
exhaust all the tensions of the working activity of muscle and do
r * vreflect such essential peculiarities of a sportsman's move-

t as the speed and magnitude of.the tension; dependence of the

tension upon the external interaction of the motor apparatus, and

53.
tic

ng

nen
 92 JuNoI4
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OINOL aIsvHd
NOISN3L YVINISNW 40 AW1dSTG SHL 30 YALIWYVHS

54.
SINOLOSSNY OTYLSWOST JING LOST
NOISN3L YYINISAW 40 SAWI9SY
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others. Therefore, taking into consideration the diversicy of

sport activities it is necessary to éistinguish the specific

character of the display of muscular tension, in particular, the

a@ifferent speeds with which tension is developed; its magnitude;

duration and repetition, as well as the state of the muscle pre-

ceding the working tension. With all the diversity in sport

movement, the display of muscular tension can be conditionally

into eight types (see figure 26). These criteria will be

divided
decisive in the subsequent discussion of special-strength prepar-

ation in sport.
The tonic type of muscular tension is characterized by sig-

nificant and relatively prolonged tension; the speed with which

it is developed however, does not have decisive significance.

This type of tension can be cbserved in wrestling when one ath-

lete pins another to the mat; in weightlifting when the sportsman

the barbell on the chest or presses it overhead; and in
holds
many gynmastic elements. In all these instances, the muscles are

working at their absolute limit force capabilities; and in indi-

vidual elements of single-combat competition, it is advantageous

to manifest absolute force against an opponent. -However, tonic

tension can accompany a significantly lesser force in instances

where it is necessary to hold a pose (shooting, gymnastics).

Depending upon the type of sport, the qualitative characteris~

tic of the strength displayed by tonic tension, is determined

by strength-endurance or the absolute magnitude of musculer

strength. ‘
The Phasic type of ‘tension corrresponds to dynamic muscular

in exercises requiring the display of a motive force of a

work
certain magnitude. Such exercises are typically cyclic move-

Each cycle has its own changing rhyc=hm of muscular cor-

ments.
traction and relaxation and repetition frequency. Here, the

with which maximal motor force is developed is not so

speed
but strength or speed-strength endurance play an
important;
important role. The type of exercise, the magnitude of tension

or the cycling temoo..(swimming, gpeed-skating) cr both

(rowing);
can have decisive significance in the working of the
(bicycling)

55.
muscles. It is also possible to develop the ability for phasic

work of long duration at a moderate tension (running and swimming

distances).
The Phaso-tonic type occurs when work can change to holding

and vice-versa, due to different musical rhythms and tempos of

movement (gymnastics, wrestling). The qualitative aspects of a

sportsman's strength preparation in these cases, is very complex

and multi-sided. One type of sport or even one sport exercise

may require both tonic and phasic tension; and it is very impor-

tant to note, that there may be a rapid switch from one type of

tension to another at a high level of effort, in each of them.

This occurs in gymnastics during the switch from the dynamic ele—

ments to the static (holding); or when a boxer attacks quickly

against the opponent's resistance.

Explosive-force is inherent to the following types of muscu-

lar tension: explosive-isometric, explosive-ballistic and explo-

sive-reactive-ballistic.
The Explosive-Isometric type of muscular tension is inherent

to movements in which significant resistance is overcome (for

example, snatching or jerking a barbell, some elements in gymnas~

tics and wrestling, throwing a heavy projectile). A basic pecu-

liarity of these movements is the necessity to develop a signifi-

cant working-force; the maximum of which is achieved, advanta-.

geously, at the end of the movement.

The Explosive-Ballistic type of muscular tension is charac-

teristic of movements in which maximal force is applied to a

relatively small resistance (for example, the shot put, javelin,

some elements of figure skating, the serve in tennis and others).

Here the motive force reaches maximum quickly at the beginning
and middle ranges of the movement, then begins to diminish. Due-
to inertia and muscular force (which at the end of the working

amplitude does. not exceed the weight of the load) the load has no

acceleration but is only maintaining its velocity. The typical

kinematic characteristics of ballistic movements are presented in

figure 27. As -the resistance. increases,. this type of muscular

tension switches to explosive-isometric.

56.
 A ballistic movement, in its correct working phase, can be

preceded by some muscular stretching.

The Explosive-Reactive-Ballistic type of muscular tension

has the same peculiarities as the explosive-ballistic type except

for the regime of muscular work. Here the preliminary stretch
phase is sharp and clear-cut, after which there is an immediate

switch to overcoming work. This can be observed in some throw-

ing, in the individual elements of wrestling, gymnastics, figure

skating, kicking in football, volleyball or tennis.

In speed movements where the rapid switch of the working

links or the body as a whole, plays an important role; the type

ef tension is a quick momentary muscular contraction (punching in

boxing, the prick in fencing), or is repeated at a specific tempo

(for example, sprinters). The first. instance is an example of

the speed of an acyclic type of tension; and the second, of the

speed of a cyclic type.

The speed type of tension is basically inherent.to movements

where the force developed resists the inertial force of the

system's working links and can be executed with an insignificant

additional load (rapier, racket). Therefore, they do not require

that tension be developed quickly. Speed-cyclic types of tension

require that the level of the working~effect be maintained in

each cycle of tension (with respect to its repetition) during the

muscles' highly-developed ability to relax after a working move-

ment.

Many movements in sport are superficially similar in their

spatial structure and are executed with basically the same mus-—

cles. For example, punching in boxing, putting the shot, the

bench press, the spike in volleyball, the serve in tennis,

javelin throwing and others. Even the experienced eye can not

see the essential differences in the kinematic characteristics of

some of them. -The reverse is true for other movements. The dif-

ferences in the speed, amplitude, direction, beginning conditions

of execution and the magnitude of the strength displayed are

strikingly obvious to. the naked eye. A more detailed analysis

(with instruments) reveals such nuances as the variations in the

57.
activity and the muscles working, the sequence and speed of their
inclusion in the work, energy expenditure, means of utilizing

energy resources and others.

All of the diversity in athletic exercises can be divided

into a number of groups in which they are unified according to

the primary peculiarities of the muscles' activity. Such an

approach is clearly practical when the selection of training

methods is considered; in so far as helping to reveal the most
common exercise traits in muscular work for the group; as well as

the specific character of this work, expressed in the speed with

which tension is developed, its magnitude, duration and repeti-

tion, state of the muscles, and the preceding working tension.

2.2 Qualitative Characteristics of Man's Strength :

The diversity of the conditions under which muscles work in

athletics, conditions the differences in the functioning of the

motor apparatus and consequently, the primary development of a.

specific strength capability. Dividing the strength capabilities

into four parts is rather conditional (absolute, speed, explosive

-strength and strength-endurance) because all of them (in spite

of their inherent-qualitative specificity) are interrelated in

both their display and development. They are not displayed
separately (or more precisely are displayed rarely) but are part

of the components of any movement. The strength ability most

characteristic of athletic activities is explosive-strength, as

displayed in acyclic and cyclic movements. The former is dis-
tinguished by powerful muscular work, while the latter by the

necessity to maintain an optimal power level for a relatively

long time. If attention is turned to the fact that the explosive

character with which strength is displayed to any degree (de-

pending upon external conditions) is secured by the presence of

absolute or speed-strength, then two general abilities --

explosive-strength and strength-endurance are the basis for the

realization of all the diverse athletic movements of man.

2.2.1 Explosive-Strength
Explosive-muscular-force is determined by the external re-
sistance overcome. Therefore, it makes sense in considering the

58.
peculiarities of explosive-force (in the dynamic regime of muscu-

work) to look at loads of various weight; for example, the

lar
graph of F (t), depicted in figure 28. Also shown in figure 28

are absolute-strength (Po), in the isometric regime (for specific

joint angles); the corresponding maximum strength in the dynamic

regime; and the graphic F (t) of explosive-isometric tension.

The graph has a number of peculiarities. In all instances

the maximum force F (t) is less than Po. The closest value to

(P) is the maximum force of explosive-isometric tension. In the

regime, the difference between Po and F max (i.e., the

dynamic
strength deficit) increases as the resistance decreases (table

3). In other words, with decreasing external resistance, the

realization of the muscles' strength potential for explosive-

forceis diminished; which the correlation between Po and F max

indicates.
; Despite the differences in height of F (t) over the abscissa
on the graph for different loads and isometric tension, they are

precisely superimposed upon each other at their beginning points.

This is ‘seen when the resistance of the weight of dynamic work

and the resting inertia of a shifting load are compared. For ex-

ample, presented in figure 29 is a graph of F (t), explosive-

force at 40 (1) and 70% (2) of Po (continuous line) and the re-

sistance of resting inertia of turning, equivalent masses (broken

line).
Thus, if explosive-force is entirely dependent upon external

conditions; and its maximum on the level of absolute-strength;

then the beginning part of the graph F (t) is determined by the

special ability of. the neuro-muscular .apparatus; conditionally

characterized earlier (Y. V. verkhoshansky, 1968, 1970) as start-

ing-strength. It can be assumed the the degree to which this

ability is displayed, is secured by the intensity of the hemo-

physical conversion of substances in the muscles, which are

responsible for the quick development of initial tension. The

of these conversions during limit volitional effort is

intensity
characteristically. constant (for.given. functional state and a

level of trainability); and is independent of the

sportsman's

59.
 TABLE 3

Resistance Fmax in Strength Fmax Po

Movement % of Po Deficit Corrleation

80% of Po 94.0 6.0 0.822

60% of Po 82.7 17.3 0.798

40% of Po 64.4 35.6 0.657

20% of Po 47.7 52.3 0.316

Matrix of Factor Weights TABLE 4

* Women, Foot Men, Thigh

Character—
istic 51.8 29.3 12.8 8.3 48.0 28.5 10.6 8.9

I Ii TILT IV I: 1 IIL IV

Po 318 889 -105 089 187 958 095 — 085

Fmax 448 857-125 135 214 961 008 067

tmax -876 152 315 367 ~887 416 -016 133

I 804 222 -337 006 932 065 219 167

Q 179 188 = -925 144 300-114 856 209

G 150 335 -362 628 198 218 318 591

60.
external resistance, its character (the load or its resting
inertia) and the regime of muscular work (dynamic, isometric).
During explosive-isometric tension and dynamic effort with

loads 60 and 80% of Po, the external force quickly attains a cer-
tain level (due to the starting-strength) and continues to grow

more slowly to maximum (see figure 28). In dynamic regimes of

muscular work, graphic changes in F (t) correspond to the instant

the force reaches that of the weight of the load. One can assume

that ain so far as this is the instant when the movement begins,

that it is carried-out by the inclusion of some new physiological

mechanism, mobilized by additional resources for the purpose of

increasing muscular strength; and it determines the ability of

the muscles to display power of movement.
The ability to determine that segment of the working-effort
which secures the accéleration of a moving object was condition-

ally described as the acceleration force of muscle (Y. V.

Verkhoshansky, 1970, 1972).
Thus, one can conclude that explosive-strength (this general
qualitative characteristic) distinguishes movements which require
the display of significant neuro-muscular tension in the shortest
time, from several other movements of the speed-strength type;

and assesses the ability to quickly build up the working force to

maximum. Starting-strength is the ability to quickly develop

force at the initial moments of tension. Acceleration-strength
is the ability to quickly build up working force at the beginning
of contraction. ©
Tt ais not difficult to conclude that during dynamic-explo-
sive-force with 20-40% of Po, the F (t) curve is characteristic-
ally determined entirely by the starting-strength of the muscles.

With a resistance of 60-80% of Po their functional characteris-

tics are essentially changed. As it was in the previous in-
stance, the beginning of the F (t) curve ‘is determined by

starting-strength, however, further on it is increasingly con-

nected with the muscles' ability to quickly display the maximum

possible strength, .of

i.e.,.the.acceleration-strength muscle.

A number of specially designed studies indicate that there

61.
is a small connection between starting-strength and acceleration-
strength; and that they are qualitatively specific motor

abilities. Thus, based on a factor analysis, the F (t) curve of

explosive-force in the and

isometric dynamic regimes indicates
these abilities are distinguished by different factors. As an
example, ‘we listed fragments, typical for these investigations,

of matrix factor weights for the parameters of the F (t) curve of

explosive-isometric-tension of highly-qualified women sprinters

in foot flexion; and thigh extension of jumpers of middle-quali-"

fication (table 4). The distinguishing factors are easily iden-

tified in the following way: 1) general ability to display

explosive-strength, 2) the sportsman's strength potential, 3) the

muscles' ability to rapidly display a working-force at the onset

of tension, i.e., starting-strength, 4) the muscles' ability to

quickly accumulate the kinetic effect of the initial working

tension, i.e., acceleration-strength. We should add that in cer-

tain experiments where the absolute speed of movement was record-

ed (the average velocity of an unloaded movement Vo); it was

singled-out as an independent factor.

Thus, the working-effect of an athletic movement, executed

with maximal volitional tension, is determined to a greater or a

lesser degree by the four qualitative special-strength abilities:

absolute-strength (Po), starting-strength (Q), acceleration-

strength (G) and the absolute speed of muscular contraction (Vo).

To a greater or lesser degree these abilities are intrinsic to

children and adult sportsmen of various levels of preparedness

and specialization, executing isometric and dynamic regimes of

muscular work (investigated by I. M. Dabrovolsky, A. Mamadzhan-

yan, D. M. Tliev, E. Purvin, V. G. Semenov,V. N. Deniskin and

others). It has been established that training did not change

the aforementioned factoral structure of the speed-strength

abilities. Depending on character and primarily the emphasis of

training, the factor weight of certain characteristics, the as-

sessment of this or that strength ability, as well as the contri-

bution of each factor in the general dispersion are altered (Y.

Vv. Verkhoshansky 1972, 1973). —

62.
 In the interests of solving the problem of special-strength
preparation it is expedient to dwell on the principal relation-
ships between the strength abilities and their role in the reali-
gation of athletic movements (depending on external conditions).
The larger the resistance the greater the connection be-
tween strength potential Po, and maximal explosive-force F max.
As external resistance increases the percent generality of the
individual differences between Po and F max increases (figure 30,
curve #1), and vice-versa; as it decreases the percent specifi-
city of the differences between them increases.*
*[The quantitative assessment of the generality (generality
- r’) and specificity (specificity - k?) factors is based on the
motor task (determined by the correlation coefficient between the
signs). Raising the correlation coefficient to the second power,
and multiplying the 100 (x? x 100) gives the percent generality
of the individual differences, determined as the sign of similar-
ity for the two shifting magnitudes. The quantity characterizing
the specificity for both of the shifts (k*), is determined by the
equation (2? x 100) + ke = 100. It is acceptible to consider
that the specificity of the sign is significant, if k is larger
than r?, (W. Lotter, 1961; F. Henry, L. Smith, 1961; I. Bachman,
1961).]
In all instances, the strength potential Po and the maximum
force F max, with any ordinate values of the F (t) curve, are
less, the closer the latter during the onset of force. The mean

generality of the individual differences between Po and the value

of the beginning portion of the F (t) curve is 20-25%; at the
same instant, the specificity is 75-808. It should be pointed
out that the connection between potential and the values of the
F (t) curve at its initial point, for poorly trained people, is
substantial but with the rise in trainability, this becomes
unreliable. The degree of generality between Po and the initial
part of the F (t) curve diminishes noticeably, as a result of
even short-term training (30-36 workouts).
Not only is there no.relationship between. the strength
potential Po and absolute speed Vo; it is negative (the correla-

63.
tion does not permit the rejection of the null hypothesis). The
connection between strength potential and the speed of a working
movement, executed against external resistance, has a significant
generality (up to 40% of Po) which then increases with an approx-
imately linear dependence on the external resistance (figure 31).
Thus, absolute-strength determines neither the working-
effect, at the initial instant of muscular tension; or the
maximum force in movements against small external resistance. It
is connected with maximum explosive-force only if the external
resistance is significant. Not only does absolute-strength not
ensure the development of absolute speed of movement, but it is
associated with just the opposite ~- it is a negative factor.
However, if the movement is executed against an external resis-
tance, then the larger the resistance, the more speed is depen-
dent on absolute-strength. There is an exceptionally low degree
of generality between the absolute speed of movement Vo, and its
speed, if it is carried-out against an external resistance. In
this instance, even with a resistance 20% of Po; the specificity
of the individual differences reaches 70% (figure 30, curve 2).
Consequently, the absolute speed of movement has a very moderate
influence on the speed of explosive force, if the external resis-
tance is ‘in the range of 10-20% of Po. The correlation between
the gradient characteristics of the F (t) curve are different.
The mean degree of power between the I and G gradients is 84%;
the degree of specificity -- 16%; between the I and Q gradients
52 and 48% respectively; and between the Q and G gradients 27 and
73%. The significance of the gradient forces are moderately
connected with absolute-strength (I and G to a larger and Q and G
to a lesser degree) and to the absolute speed of movement (Q to a
larger and I and G to a lesser degree). Here the power segment
of the individual differences depends on the external resistance
and averages 20%, whereas the specificity portion is 80%. The
gradient forces and their corresponding time parameters of the
F (t) curve, have a typically higher power; reaching an average
of 648%. Due to training,
..the power of the gradient.forces from
Po decrease significantly (particularly ©) and in accordance with

64,
the time parameters, the F (t) curve, increases; but the absolute

speed changes insignificantly.

Starting-strength (Q) and acceleration-strength (G) are

weakly dependent upon each other. The general abilities to dis-

play explosive-strength (I) and acceleration-strength (G) are to

a significant degree determined by an aggregate of causes.

Starting-strength (Q) and the general ability to display explo-

sive force (I) have little in common.

It should be emphasized, that the componential abilities ex-

amined are intrinsic to the neuro-muscular apparatus of man, but

are, nonetheless, utilized for the realization of speed-strength

movements to an unequal degree. Depending upon external condi-~

tions one of them acquires a preeminent role. The general ten-

dency here can be expressed by the following: the lesser the

external resistance of the movement (consequently, the faster and

briefer its execution) the larger the role of such abilities as

absolute speed; and especially, starting-strength. And, vice-

the larger the external resistance the greater the

versa,

importance of acceleration and absolute-strength. In accordance

with these criteria of componential abilities (which secure the

working-effect of explosive force), one can arrange the following

Vo - Q - G ~ Po; which can correlate concretely with the

series:

external resistance of the movement, as depicted on the abscissa

in figure 30.
This series has some peculiarities. First, the development

of componential abilities proceeds independent of each other, the

progression of one of them is reflected in a very insignificant

development in the others. The further the abilities are removed

from each other in this series; the lesser their interaction.

Second, the development of each ability requires an adequate

motor regime. A training influence directed primarily at one

ability has no. afffect (or affects very little) the other abili-~

ties. Third, the relative "independence of the componential

abilities in their display as well as in their development be-

comes even more obvious with the increase in the sportsman's

trainability. Fourth, the componential abilities are subjected

65.
to unequal training. The abilities on the right side of the

series are easier to perfect than those on the left.

In a practical sense, since sport movement is always associ-

ated with overcoming an external resistance, two componential

abilities primarily determine the working-effect of explosive

force -- starting and acceleration-strength. In order to examine

their role in the execution of speed-strength movements we have

to look at the graph in figure 28. It is obvious that when

overcoming insignificant external resistance (20 and even 403 of

Po) man is simply unable to display his strength potential. In

this instance, the impulse force producing the movement is

developed chiefly by starting-strength. With a large resistance

(more than 60% of Po) the impulse force securing the working

movement is developed primarily by acceleration and absolute-

strength. Starting-strength plays an assistive role here. Thus,

in order for the working tension to reach a certain level as

quickly as possible, starting-strength is the underlying mechan-

ism crucial for the display of acceleration-strength. First, it

follows that with an external resistance, starting-strength is

displayed under isometric conditions of muscular tension (the

greater the external resistance the larger it is expressed); and

acceleration-strength is displayed in the dynamic regime; second,

the higher the level to which starting-strength is developed, the

faster the acceleration-strength can be realized. The latter

circumstance should unconditionally be emphasized considering the

limited time for the execution of a speed-strength movement in

athletics.
Not all of the componential abilities are equal in. securing

the working-effect of explosive-strength. Depending upon the

conditions one or the other acquires a key role and consequently

receives the main potential for intensive perfectioning. Parti-

cipating to a greater or lesser extent during the realization of

powerful motor acts, the componential abilities, due to relative

independence of the securing of their neuro~motor mechanisms,

unite not in organic, but functional units. In.other words, they

integrate into some new general ability but they regulate the

66.
 interaction, solve general tasks and at the same time maintain

their qualitative individuality and preparedness to enter into

any functional union which the changing conditions of the
activity may require. Depending ‘upon the character of the

movement, a motor program is formed through which the componen-

tial abilities are realized instantaneously and in succession.

‘For example, initially the mechanisms crucial to the display of

starting-strength are realized, then speed of movement (if only

the force of inertia of a working organ or the body as a whole is

overcome); or mechanisms crucial to the display of starting then

acceleration and absolute-strength (if there is additional burden

oer resistance). It is not difficult to see the potential for ex-

_tensive accommodative maneuvering in the interests of securing

the most effective motive diversity (according to motor regimes)
of movement, while utilizing comparatively limited neuro-motor
mechanisms.
We should dwell here on the particular form of the muscles'
ability to realize explosive force (characterized earlier as the
reactive ability of the neuro-muscular apparatus). This is
understood as the specific ability to display a powerful motive
force immediately after an intense, mechanical, muscular-stretch
i.e., there is a rapid switch from yielding to overcoming work at
the instant a maximal dynamic load developed. The preliminary
stretch causes an elastic excitatory deformation in the muscles,
creating an accummulation of potential energy which is trans-

_formed into kinetic energy as the muscles begin to contract.

This is added to the muscles' force and increases their working-
effect. ,
Reactive ability, as a specific quality of man's working
apparatus comes from some of the principles of neuro-muscular

physiology. It is known, for example, that the preliminary

stretching of a muscle increases the working-effect of its subse-

quent contraction. It has been established that the overcoming
work of a muscle which begins contracting quickly after a prelim-

inary stretch (in a state of tension),..is larger than-the over~

coming work of the same muscle executing an isometric contraction

67.
 L
160, a

120}
Peay

a
00
P=60% Fus
80 WZ P=40%
60
N peony,
49
20

NW
0 02 Ba 3 aa
FIGURE 28 - F(t) graph of ex-
plosive isometric tension
F(jiso} and dynamic work with
20, 40, 60 and BO% of maximum
strength (P) for a leg-press
FIGURE 27 - Graph of a bal- movement.
istie movement.
100
Fst :
100 = 80 7 (
iN 80 4 :
°
Z - \T .=~ 4 AY XN

«~—Sd
aD

50 VA \
\.
‘
\
ji onan SE
. 2” 40 ~btoSCDO
\! \ | Resist ance, Korn, |
40 A \ ‘. Vom Qe GP,

20 [ \ AN \\\ \
FIGURE 30 - Alteration in the
b \ te: power of individual differ~
Ot D2 a3 a4 o5 0.6 ences (r2) between the maxi-
mum explosive effort (1); and
Figure 29. F(t) graph of dynamic between absolute speed of
work of limit volitional effort movement and the speed of a
(explained in text) resistance movement (2) de-
pending on the external
resistance (% of Po).
‘Byty (eu) b
7 ef
* 100 sa [
8g] f- Lh 50 : Vd L

40 A
Ne 80
\
“1 —m™
we 4 ye
a Fa a 70
ofp WEA A =
ab Ay(cm)- t(
oan, 6D DS wo 16 20 25 3.0
oar soso
ResistawCe,"”5
FIGURE 33
~ Time-distance
FIGURE 32 - Dependence of
FIGURE 31 - Alteration in graph of a 6 Kg weight thrown
height (h2) attained by 8 6 Kg
power of individual differ- upward after falling from a
weight thrown upward after
ences (r2) between strength height of 2M: ae before
falling from different heights
potential and the speed of a training, b- after training.
(hl): a- before training, b-
Tesistance movement depending
after training.
on external resistance (% of
Po).

68
(B. Abbott, XX. Aubert, 1952; G. Covagna A.O., 1965, 1968). The

additional strength achieved as a result of stretching grows, de-

pending on its speed and muscle length (A. Hill, 1938; B. Katz,

1939; 8S. Wolker, 1953); the faster the stretch the greater the

additional strength (G. Covagna A.I., 1965). Practical applica-

tion of this effect was done with work (I. M. Sechenov, 1901) and
athletic (W. Fenn, 1930; G. Covagna A.I., 1964) movements. The

material obtained from the athletic exercises showed, in particu-

lar, that the utilization of a preliminary stretch as a working

mechanism ensures that the execution of the motor task will be

more effective (N. G. Ozolin, L. V. Chkhaidze, 1951; Y. V. Verk-

hoshansky, 1961, 1963). The regime, in which an external

resistance is actively overcome after being preceded by a sharp

preliminary muscular stretch, is the most effective for training

explosive-strength (¥. V. Verkhoshansky, 1963).
The basic characteristics of the neuro-muscular apparatus’
reactive ability were demonstrated vividly in a laboratory exper~-
imentin which the muscular work involved in the take-off for the
triple jump was modeled. The subject throws a load upward along
guiding rails after it has been dropped from different heights.
The height of the drop and the height of the throw were recorded.
The path was graphed -- the time for the working points of the
hand (figure 32). The curves depicted indicate that with the in-
creasing strength of the irritant (characterized here as _ the
falling load's kinetic energy) the working-effect (height of this
load's subsequent flight) increases; stabilizes, as the strength
of the irritant exceeds some optimal limit, then begins to de-
crease. With training, the height of the reactive curve over the

axis of the abscissa increases, and its plateau and the descend-

ing part are displaced to the right. In other words, the neuro-
muscular apparatus has the ability to respond with a positive

reaction to such a strong irritant; which at first, caused the

working-effect of the movement to be diminished.
This experiment merits attention to still another detail --

the time of the working pointsof the hand is traced on the graph
(figure 33). The movement has an amortization phase in which the

69.
speed of the load's preliminary fall is cancelled out and an
active thrust phase in which a vertical velocity is imparted to
the load (the motor purpose is to throw the load as high as pos-
sible). The slope in the graph between the descending and as-
cending parts indicates that the transition from yielding to
overcoming work is preceded momentarily by holding work. Its
duration varies, but on the whole it has a tendency to shorten in
conjunction with the increasing strength of the irritant. As a
result of specific training, the movement is executed as a whole
quicker, more energetic, with a faster switch from yielding to
overcoming work; and with a large velocity of muscular contrac-
tion in the thrust phase. . The working-effect of the movement is
higher, in that instance, where the preliminary muscle stretch
bears a sharp, shock character.
In the course of studying reactive ability, the question
arises as to how this can be quantitatively evaluated. We can
utilize this formula R= KZ
KL

where it is permissable for K to represent any characteristic of

muscular work in the stretching or active thrust phases; for
example, the power of the working-force. However, the complexity
of determining the range between the phases restricts the possi-
bility of utilizing Rn, to the laboratory. This formula is con-
venient for practical work:
R= pave
Pt
where Favg is the mean working force, t - its duration and P -
the weight of the moving object or the sportsman's bodyweight.
The physical coefficient of reactivity - R - consists, primarily
of assessment of the overloading of the working organ in units of
movement time (Y. V. Verkhoshansky, 1963). The reactivity co-
efficient has found widespread utilization in research (V. I.
Chudinov, 1966; V. N. Papysheva, 1966; V. V. Kuznetsov, 1966; S.
G. Kharabuga, 1967; L. Y¥. Chereshneva, 1967; P. E. Polmachev,

1968; V. A. Kuznetsov, 1970; V. G. Semenov, 1971 and others).

In order to objectively evaluate reactive ability we-devised

the so-called reactive test; which consists of a series of

70.
 jumps (without use of the hands) after 4 depth-jump (h =
vertical
loads and with Loads of 10, 20, 30, and 40
0.4 meters); without

kilograms. The height of the jump was measured with a centimeter

tape and the duration of the support period with a stop watch.

graphed the height of the jump (figure 34). The left part
We
speed; and the right part, the force component of
assesses
ability. The coefficient of reactivity is determined by
reactive
length of the support period and the analytical examination
the
mean take-off force (based on the height of the drop and
of the
the height of the jump).
number of investigations studied the interdependence of
A
reactive ability (evaluated with the reactivity test) with muscu-

strength and functional speed. The connection between

lar
reactive ability and muscular strength increases with the

in the additional load. A high corrleation (r = 0.95)

increase
only with large dynamic loads (30 and 40 kg.). The
was observed
largest correlation between reactive ability and speed (deter-

by the duration of the support period) was noticed only for

mined
and t, registered for one specific movement. It should also be
R
out that the closeness of the connection between R and t
pointed
by far higher than that between R and F in all the tests. The
is
correlation between the length of the support period and strength

a tendency to increase in proportion to the weight of the

has
but it is essentially true only with large loads (30 and 40
load;
;
kg.).
The correlation between the speed of muscular contraction

maximal strength is dependent upon the conditions of the

and
With a relatively small dynamic load (depth jumps
take-off.
weight) absolute-strength has a negative influence on the
without
of muscular contraction; but it has a positve influence
speed
relatively large dynamic loads (depth jumps with 40 kg.).
with
hand, relative-strength has a positive influence on
On the other
of muscular contraction with small dynamic loads; and a
the speed
negative influence with large loads.

We have evidence that reactive ability.is a specific charac-

the motor apparatus acquired and perfected in the

tetrstic of

71.
 Matrix of Factor Weights of
Biomechanical Characteristics of the
Second Jump of the Triple Jump

TABLE 5

Factors
Characteristics I II III

Speed of Preceding Phases 860 -315 -040

Initial Flight Speed . 858 -501 ~078

Loss of Speed at the Take-Off ~283 781 201

Angle of Flight -209 531 632

Height of Flight 183 008 797

Length of the Jump 753 472 196

Duration of the Take-Off 741 239 157

Foenter of Take-Off 903 358 -187

Feangent Of Take-Off -150 944 055

Coefficient of Reactivity 969 004 -070

72.
process of training. The motor regimes in athletics condition
the level to which reactive ability is developed (figure 35).

The highest level of reactive ability was demonstrated by jumpers

and the lowest by middle-distance runners; of the subjects

studied. Reactive abilityis to a significant degree inherent to

triple jumping; which is obvious from its linear relationship

with athletic results (figure 35) and the high correlation be-
tween them (on the order of 0.95). Reactive ability also has a
high factor weight in the complex of biomechanical characteris-
tics of the take-off in the triple jump (table 5).
2.2.2 Strength-Endurance
Strength-Endurance is the specific form of man's strength

displayed in motor activities which require a relatively long

duration of muscular tension without diminishment of working

effectiveness. For example, a sportsman rowing 2,000 meters in
6-7 minutes must execute 230-250 strokes (at a rate of 36-45 per
minute) with the force of each stroke equal to a weight of 40-60
kg. (E. B. Samsonov, 1969).
Strength-endurance, like explosive-strength is an intricate
complex of motor abilities which finds its expression primarily
in two forms: dynamic and static. Dynamic-strength endurance is
typically associated with cyclic exercises in which considerable
tension is repeated, uninterupted in each cycle of movement (run-
ning, swimming, rowing); and also with acyclic exercises which

are executed repetitively with various rest intervals (jumping,

throwing). One should also differentiate the particular types of

dynamic-strength-endurance which secure the effectiveness of re-
peated intensive efforts. during a sportsman's continuous

movements (for example, the set up in volleyball, | punching in

boxing, the prick in fencing or the take-down in wrestling).

Static-strength-endurance is associated with those activities

where it is necessary to execute holding tension of various mag~

nitude and duration (wrestling, sailing); as well as with holding

a certain posture (shooting, skating). For example, skaters were

discovered to have the highest indices of static-endurance in the

postures which they are characteristically forced to maintain

73.
(G. I. Chernyaev, 1965).
The type of athletic activity and the character with which
muscular tension is displayed determine the particular qualita-
tive distinctions between these two forms of strength-endurance.
Thus, based upon the character of muscular tension, strength-~en-
durance can be divided into tension of large or moderate power.
Depending upon the type of athletic activity, one should dis-
tinguish between dynamic~strength-endurance, which is associated
with repetitive exercises with various rest intervals (repetitive
movement), as well as moderate or fast tempos of repeating separ-
ate movement cycles (cyclical exercises); and static-strength-
endurance, which is associated with relatively long or short term
muscular tension, distinguished by its magnitude.
Finally, depending on the number of muscles taking part in
the work, it is necessary to classify strength-endurance into
general and local. General-strength-endurance is associated with
those activities where a large quantity of muscle groups ‘are
involved in the work. Local-strength-endurance is associated
with those activities which are carried out by individual muscle
groups. This is very significant in so far as the means of
strength training should primarily influence those muscle groups
which chiefly carry-out the movement. In several cyclic sports
such muscle groups can be observed directly (on an electromyo-
graph), for example - rowing (A. M. Lazarov, 1967); and indirect-
ly (on the basis of correlating muscular strength with athletic
results), in swimming for instance (G. A. Shchavelyev, 1969).
The muscles tested in rowing were the quadriceps, gastrocnemius,
biceps,. triceps, deltoid and latissimus dorsi muscles. In swim-
ming, the relative participation of the various muscle groups
depends upon the stroke executed. For example, the relative
strength of the arm flexors, leg extensors and gastrocnemius mus-
cles do not have a significant connection with swimming speed of
the crawl, back and butterfly strokes; but there is a significant
connection with the breast stroke. On the other hand, the rela-
tive strength of the. arm.extensors.is closely connected with the
swimming speed of the first three strokes, but not with the

74,
breast stroke.
Thus, the forms in which strength-endurance are displayed
are extraordinarily diverse and there is an intricate interdepen-
dence between them; as there is with the other strength abili-
ties. For example, a close connection has been established
between strength and static-endurance, strength-endurance and the

special-endurance of distance runners, swimmers and skiers (Y. A.

Popov, 1968; WN. N. Trushkin, 1968; A. A. Guzhalovski and B. M,
Fomichenko, 1971). In certain instances these connections have
an intricate character. Thus, figure 36 is a correlational model
of the special-strength preparation of crawl stroke sprinters.
The highest correlations with swimming results are the maximal
‘force of the pull developed in a period of 10 seconds (r=0.810);
and the sum of the pulling force developed over a periodof 40
seconds (r=0.721); which is closely connected with endurance on
dry land and in the water (direct connection); as well as with

static-strength of the stroke and general muscular strength (in-

direct connection).
This is one of only a few studies dealing with the problem
of the structure of strength-endurance. Unfortunately, recent
studies are still extraordinarily weak and are "Eull of holes" on.
the theory of athletic training. There exist a number of works
in the area of general-endurance (M. Y¥. Nabatnikova, 1972;N. I.
Volkov, 1975; V. V. Mikhailov, G. M. Panov, 1975) which do not
touch at all on the structure of strength-endurance. Further-
more, as has been noted repeatedly (V. M. Zatsiorsky, N. I. Vol-
kov, WN. G. Kulik, 1965; Y. V. Verkhoshansky, 1970) the compara-
tively small number of experimental works in this area are
distinguished by their large diversity and contradictory conclu-
sions. For example, one author found a general, positive
correlation between strength and endurance; another discovered no

such relationship; while a third observed a negative correlation

between these abilities. The reason for these discrepancies is
that they are measuring different endurance abilities. With
respect to this it has.been suggested (V...M. Zatsiorsky, et. al.,
1965) that endurance be classified into two types: absolute (the

75.
achieved result without determining the developmental level of

the other motor abilities) and partial (the calculated develop-

ment of the other abilities when their influence is in some kind

of way excluded). Thus, for determining partial endurance in

strength exercises, a weight (in a static exercise - holding)

should be raised which is some portion of the subject's maximal

strength. A partial index is obtained by either no correlation

with maximal strength or a negative correlation. In those in-

stances, when the subjects raise the same weight, the assessment
of absolute-strength-endurance has a high positive correlation

with strength. Thus, as has been noted, the contradictory evalu-

ations of strength-endurance and its connection with strength is

explained by the fact that some works utilized partial endurance
and others - absolute. ,
Strength-endurance is as specific as are the other qualita-

tive characteristics of muscular activity. However, the specifi-

city of strength-endurance is expressed to a lesser degree than

say the specificity of speed; but its carry-over from one type of
activity to another is greater.
One should bear in mind that strength~endurance secures a
high level of special work-capacity; inherent chiefly to cyclic

types of sports and primarily with those requiring the repetition

of large powerful efforts. In acyclic sports and chiefly those

where technique and skill are important, the role of strength-

endurance (depending upon the growth of sport mastery) is all the

more significant. For example, archers experience a steady in-

crease in maximal muscular strength (F max) and strength-

endurance (t max) (figure 37); while at the same time, the rela-

tionship between these indices and sporting results gradually

decreases. It follows then, that the rise in the results of
highly-qualified sportsmen (archers) is determined not so much by

strength-endurance as it is the ability to control the muscular

tension necessary for stretching the bow-string (V. S. Farfel and

collab., 1975). ,
The opinion that special (including strength) endurance is

developed from a preliminary base of general endurance is rather

76.
universally accepted (see M. Y. Nabatnikov's review, 1972). The
best way to develop strength-endurance is to execute the competi-
tion exercises under difficult conditions or in a large volume.
However, this does not exclude the utilization of special-
strength exercises. ;
In conclusion, it should be pointed out that up until now an
objective reliable means of evaluating strength-endurance has not
been devised. Specialists utilize various and frequently inade-
quate tests which diminish the applied and theoretical value of
the studies and create contradictions. Therefore, the first con-
dition to be met for eliminating "gaps"
in the theory of sport
training is to devise objective, unified ways of evaluating
strength-endurance.
2.3 The Dependence of the Working-Effect of Strength on the Con-
ditions of Displaying It
Muscular force and consequently, the working-effect of move-
ment are significantly influenced by external conditions which
accompany the activities of man; as well as physiological and
psychological factors.
2.3.1 The Influence of the Pre-Working State of Muscles on the
Working-Effect of the Movement
The working-effect of an athletic movement is for the most
part determined by the state of the muscle prior to the display
of force: it is important whether at the beginning it is re-
laxed, tense or in a stretched state.
Under laboratory conditions, with model movements (throwing
a load upward on a special device), evaluation of the working-
effect (height the load attains) is dependent on the pre-working
state of the neuro-muscular apparatus: 1) a relaxed muscle, 2)
an isometric tension with loads of various weight, 3) the muscles
are stretched during the "wave" phase in swimming, 4) a "shock"
muscular stretch as a result of quickly braking a load which has
fallen from some height. The results of an experiment, graphic-
ally depicted by (Sy) distance, velocity (Vy) and acceleration
(Ay) of a load,. illustrates.the growth.of the working-efffect by
switching from one "thrust" variant to another in the sequence

77.
shown (figure 38).
In other experiments, the same type of pre-working state of
muscle (besides the first) is reproduced in the take-off for the
vertical jump. The subjects executed the vertical jump without
arm movement, from a static half-squat position, after a prelim-
inary half-squat and after a depth-jump, froma height 0.5 M.
The heights attained were, respectively: 39.0 + 6; 44.2 £5 and
48.6 + 7 om. (Y. V. Verkhoshansky, 1963, 1970).
Thus, the muscle's preliminary state renders an appreciable
influence on the working-effect of the movement. When the mus-
cles are relaxed or in a state of isometric tension, the speed
and power of their subsequent working contraction is primarily
determined by the effector impulses to the muscles. If the mus-
cles undergo a preliminary stretch by an external force, then the
work they perform is aided by the utilization of the elastic
energy they have accumulated. Of considerable significance are
the muscles' (tendon and myotatic) reflex properties, which
increase the power of their contractility, the faster and the
more intense the afferent impulses.
It is important here to examine the first type of pre-work-
ing state of muscle. It is frequently asserted in the methodo-
logical literature that it is necessary for the muscles to be
relaxed in the pre-working state. This is considered an
important indicator of a sportsman's mastery. However, this
recommendation should not be generalized as applicable to every
sport activity, without considering the character and conditions
of the movements.
It is known, that the working force is preceded by some
transmutation in the muscles, displayed particularly in its
preliminary tension (the anticipation tuner of the musculature,
N. A. Bernstein). A great speed of movement was noted from the
sudden release of muscles in a state of full tentanus (Jewell,
Wilkie, 1958). ‘Under conditions of preliminary muscular tension,
the subjects executed the movement 4% faster, the reaction time
was 7% faster, than in the relaxed state. The best reaction time

and speed of movement indices correspond to the following

78.
 7 T | 3 ——
| | 28 aN
6-2

= 21] a /
5— a
; Fale
= a
ze Pasrabarenk Pasrufiarens
4p) NN a
8 a naga Tynvenula

Ki) '
=M PH Prep P+a0 P+40 x 0.877 0,814
at ea rr i? Low)
DePth-Jump {h=0,5)
Cratwveckan
cwna
I ]
D.BI8 rpeixa
0.766
FIGURE 34 - Graph of reactive- FIGURE 35 - Dependence be-
ness test for jumpers (1), tween reactive ability and
throwers (2), short (3) and achievements in the triple foxeaareau Roxaserean
BRIMODAHBOCTY GUHOCAKBOCTH
middie (4) distance runners jump (i- first, 2- second, 3-
* (explained in text). third take-off).

Fmax = tmax.o
aT) 5D rR
F max/S wa
4o- 4a}Soot iy” Og
i ae
30 a OE
ES
0.508

20h 20 | ae 04 1
072
Peayastar
| 70.700
wa 10Du
O72
4

oe 10 o.2
FIGURE 36 - Correlation modei
600 800 1000 1200 Poiarts (Results) of special-strength prepared-
ness of crawl stroke
FIGURE 37 - Dynamics of
sprinters.
strength indices (Fmax) and
strength endurance (tmax) ag a6Sy iu) 4 3
we
relative to results of 04
Uf
archers. The broken line
shows the correlation of Fmax
03 A
and tmax to sport results (5). te
et a2 0s 04
hI 40 Vy
20 as
20-4
& vamie)
2
Aza aT
an a > Q
age (HEM
we | Nery n
2 in a = 20
3s Xu < (0

WN
i)
a2
s= i
|/ \\ ao1

22! | \ MH.
| Not
es a \ ; a Pan
2% 40% 60% 80% worm FIGURE 38 - Graph af path
fy Peed a B
(Sy), speed (Vy) and acceler-
SPeed ¢r Vv wee
ation (Ay) of a moving weight
ConttactioN a FIGURE. 39 - Dependence between
contrac- for different pre-working
the load and speed of
FIGURE 40 -Change in muscular states of muscles (explained
tion in the leg extension
power as a funetion of speed
example.
in text).
of contraction (D. Wilkie,
1950).

79..
preliminary conditions: stretched, tensed and relaxed muscles
(L. Smith, 1964). It was also demonstrated that the latent
period of a motor reflex reaction is shorter when the muscle is
lightly tensed for ten milliseconds (R. S. Person, 1965), than
under other conditions.
The experimental data presented, indicates that when a move-
ment is begun with the muscles relaxed, they are not ready to
work; consequently, there is a lesser kinetic effect than they
are capable. The larger the disparity in the kinetic effect, the
greater the resistance they overcome.
Clearly, preliminary muscular tension is not a bad factor,
as it is frequently made out to be in the methodological litera-
ture: it is just the reverse, because an optimal magnitude in-
creases the working-effect of the movement. Therefore, prelimi-
nary relaxation should be understood to be relative, i.e.,

depending upon the specific movement. Relaxation -- meaning the

elimination of excessive muscular tension, does not have a direct
relationship to the movement or the working of the muscles en-
gaged in the passive phase of cyclic locomotion (for example,
movement with momentum); but it is without a doubt an important
index of mastery in many sports. However, for brief movements,
especially ‘explosive movements, optimal preliminary tension is
appropriate and necessary; although its duration should be limit-
ed, because exceeding it can significantly diminish the dynamic
force.
2.3.2 The Dependence of the Load--on the Speed of Muscular Con-
traction :
Athletic.activities require chiefly quick and forceful move-
ments, and consequently, special attention to the development of.
quick-strength. And, in so far as strength is developed primar-
ily with resistance exercises, it is necessary to clearly demon-
strate the dependence between the amount of weight and the speed
of muscular contraction.
In order to determine the relationship between the speed of
an isotonic muscular..contraction
and the resistance overcome,
several mathematical formulas have been devised which effectively

80.
coincide with experimental data (W. Fenn, B. March, 1935; A.
Hill, 1938; M. Polissar, 1952; Aubert, 1956). Hill's equation is
the most widely used for muscle dynamics:
(P + a) (V + b) = (Po + a) b = const.
Graphically it describes a parabola (figure 39), with the
asymetries parallel to the main axis of the coordinates, ata
distance from the latter of a and b respectively. The parameters
a and b are constants, representing strength and speed respec-—
tively. They can be determined from dynamics experiments or from
measuring the heat produced by the muscles (A. Hill, 1950; B.
Katy, 1939). :
Thus, the equation establishes the functional connection
between the amount of weight being raised (P) and the maximal
speed of muscular contraction (V). It is evident the speed of
muscular contraction diminishes hyperbolically as the load- in-
creases; and since any hyperbolic equation can be adduced by the
formula xy = const, then obviously the speed of muscular contrac-
tion is inversely proportional to the load. It is important to
point out that it is possible strength and speed (P and V) with
different loads, depend on the maximal strength potential (Po),
as measured in the isometric regime.
The load determines such important mechanical characteris-
tics as the power of muscular work. If muscular contraction is
examined, where the changes realized in connection with the loads
are the strength (F) and the speed of contraction (V), then the
dependence between them, as in the example of forearm flexion,

will look like that depicted in figure 40. Consequently, muscu-

lar power is determined by the product of these changes (N = FV)
and reaches . maximum at approximately 1/3 the maximal speed of
muscular contraction and at 1/4 its maximal strength (D. Wilkie,
1950). In other words, maximal muscular power is displayed when
the external .resistance requires 25% of the maximal force the
muscles are capable of producing.
Thus, the picture which emerges from the equation of mus-—
cle dynamics is that of a dialectical contradiction between the
weight of the load and speed of movement. If this contradiction

81.
 \

is not important for the development of absolute-strength, then

it is for the problem of speed-strength. As to what extent this

problem is solved today will be obvious in this text.
2.3.3 The Dependence of Strength on the Speed of Muscular Con-

traction
Analysis of Hill's equation of muscle dynamics indicates

that speed of movement is dependent upon absolute muscular

strength, as measured in the isometric regime. It is not diffi-

cult to corroborate this. Physics postulates indicate that in

general, speed (V), is directly proportional to force (F) and the

time of its action (t); and inversely proportional to the mass of

the body (m), i-e.-, y= Ft

m

The physics of this expression is obvious: in order to increase

speed it is necessary to increase the significance and duration

of the force applied or decrease the mass of the body. However,

for practical purposes not all of the enumerated possibilities

are realized in man's movements. Sportsmen are unable to

decrease the mass of their body or a standard athletic apparatus,

and increase movement time. The first is obvious, the second is

explained as the limited working amplitude of the movements.

Strictly speaking, it is only possible to increase the time of a

movement, with a limited-amplitude, by decreasing its speed,

which is foolish. Consequently, only one recourse remains -- in-

crease strength.
This is well known in practice and has been corroborated
experimentally. In reality, speed of movement increases with the
increase in muscular strength (I. Kusinitz, C. Kecney, 1958; D.

Clarke, F. Henry, 1961; A. Hunoid, 1961). The question is suffi-

ciently clear. However some facts exist which throw some doubt

on the logic of this reasoning. It is not difficult to see a

unidirectional. displacement in muscular strength and speed of

movement as a result of training; and laboratory experiments have

discovered a rather moderate correlation between these displace-

ments (D. Clarke, F. Henry, 1961). .It. has been established that

there is essentially no correlation between the absolute speed of

82.
unloaded movement and relative strength (P. Rach, 1956; F. Henry,

1960; F. Henry, I. Whitely, 1960). However, the role of strength

grows as the amount of weight increases. For example, if the

speed for raising a weight of 13% of maximum requires 39% of the

maximum strength, then a load equal to 51% requires 71% of maxi-

mal strength (N. A. Masalgin, 1966). Thus, the correlation

between strength and speed of movement increases with the in-

crease in the amount of weight lifted (figure 41). However, in

this instance, the strength is applied to the load. This same

correlation can be seen under other conditions; such as when a

movement is executed after a moving load is stopped and is thrust

in the opposite direction. In this case, as the correlation

between muscular strength and speed of movement can remain

relatively constant or even decrease (figure 42).

Apart from the amount of weight and the regime of muscular

work, the connection between strength and speed of movement is

also determined by the qualitative differences in man's ability

to display strength. An important characteristic of the rela-

tionship between strength and speed is the ratio (Po) (A. Hill,

1938, H. Ralston, et.al., 1949; D. Wilkie, 1950). If the speed

of the load is expressed as a portion of the maximal isometric

strength Po, and maximal contraction speed without a load Vo,

then the relationship a/Po completely determines the character of

the load curve —— the speed. N. A. Masalgin's research has shown

that the a/Po ratio is to a significant degree conditioned by the

peculiarities of the sport.

Systematic training in this or that type of muscular activ-

ity provokes the formation of a specific relationship between

strength and the speed of muscular contraction. Hill (1950),

discussed the broad significance of the velocity constant (b);

explained this by the differences in the speed of movement of

various animals, and noted the different form of the load curve

-- the speed of sprinters and distance runners.

So, it is rather obvious that absolute strength is the main

factor determining speed of movement; but the decisive role of

strength is not equivalent under different conditions or when

83.
lifting different weights. The question remains however, as to

why there is no correlation between absolute-strength and speed

of movement; but under natural training conditions with the
increase in strength, there is a corresponding in
increase. speed.

What is the reason for such a paradox that throws some doubt on
the objectivity of the research mentioned? The latter are
already rather numerous and sufficiently authentic. Well then,
it remains to be seen which means in training, including those

for developing strength, have a positive influence on the devel-

opment of speed. In other words, this means that something
affects some specific neuro-motor mechanism that is essential for
training speed of movement. It should be stated, with to
respect
this, that the relationship between speed and strength is the
basis of an earlier conclusion which is: in the selection of a
means of strength-training the sportsman should be totally aware
of the conditions under which the specific strength is displayed
in a movement or athletic exercise, for the sake of which the
strength is developed.
2.3.4 The Relationship between Strength and Posture
Of the conditions influencing the displaying of strength,
the relative disposition of the body's working links has impor-
tant significance, i.e., man's posture. The joint angles in the
working links change with movement. Consequently, so does the

operating length of the muscles for a given articulation and the

angle of attachment to the bones. Increasing or decreasing the

leverage and the moment force.of the muscles changes the mechan-

ical conditions of work; which can be advantageous when the

muscles' force potentials are utilized fully and a hinderance

when only part of the muscles' maximal tension is utilized.
The changes in strength, depending on posture can be associ-

ated with changes in the muscles' functioning. For example, the

pectineus muscle, during -extension of the iliofemoral joint,

externally rotates the thigh; and during flexion of the same

joint, rotates the thigh internally (H. Baeyer, 1922). Depending

upon the position of the thigh, -the sartorius muscle can either
bend or straighten the thigh (M. F. Ivanntsky, 1956; OD. D.

84.
Donskoi, 1960). Research on the contribution of the sartorius
muscle in flexion and extension of the thigh has established that
the close correlation between the strength of the sartorius mus-
cle (measured in a position with the thigh at 30° relative to the
vertical axis of the body) and the strength of the thigh flexors
and extensors is greatest at the extreme positions of the latter.
The correlation is 0.92 for flexion (at an angle of 210° ), then
decreases to 0.41 (at 90°), while the reverse is true for exten-
sion -- 0.86 at 90° and 0.32 at 210°.
In certain cases an insignificant change in the position of
the links can lead to significant alterations in strength. Thus,
pronation of the forearm decreases the strength of the arm in
flexion by 1/3 (P. Rasch, 1956; kK. Wells, 1960, B. Tricker,
1967). An insignificant bend in the arms while lifting a barbell
decreases the lifting force by 40%; a rounded torsoby 13.3% and
tilting of the head an average of 93 (L. P. Sokolov, 1967).
The maximal force displayed at the working points of the
system's links during the simultaneous working of muscle groups
operating different joints, is for the most part, dependent upon
the position of the system's links relative to the proximal
joints. For example, the force developed in extension or flexion
of the knee joint is determined by the body's position relative
to the iliofemoral joints (H. Clarke, et. al., 1950; S. Houtz,
et. al., 1957; G. Lehman, 1962). Thus, maximal force in thigh
extension in the seated position was found to be at an angle of
160° in the knee joint. However, in the leg press (lying down)
no difference in force was discovered within the range 100-140°
(F. Lindeburg, 1964). Strength increases 10-12% if the torso is
moved 20-25° backwards from the vertical (V. F. Dorofeyev, 1965),
with the subject seated in the "rowers" position.
Thus, if a sportsman wishes to produce maximal force in a
movement it is necessary for him to consider the anatomical sta-
bility of the motor apparatus and take care that at the crucial
moment his posture is in such a position to enable his muscles to
develop maximal external force. .
2.3.5 The Dependence of Strength on Muscle Mass

85.
 Strength is associated with the physiological diameter of
the muscles and, consequently, indirectly to body weight. There-
fore, the heavier the athlete the larger the load he can lift.
The sportsman's bodyweight is proportional
to the cube of its
linear dimensions, at the same time a muscle's physiological
diameter is only proportional to its square. The mathematical
relationship between maximum strength (F) and bodyweight (w) can
be expressed as F = a - w 2/3, where a is a constant, which
characterizes the athlete's level of trainability (T. Lietzke,
1956). Expressed as a logarithm this equation appears: log F =
log a+ 0.66 log w. This equation satisfactorily expresses the
relationship between a weightlifter's bodyweight and his results
in the weightlifting exercises. The connection between a
wrestler's absolute-strength and his bodyweight is expressed by.
this equation: log F = log 1.005 + 0.724 log w (E. G. Martirosov
and others, 1967). A rectilinear dependence between the strength
of certain muscles and bodyweight has been observed in wrestlers.
Quantitative analysis has corroborated the rather close con-
nection between a weightlifter's bodyweight and his achievements
(P. Rasch, 1960; M. V. Starodubtsev, 1966; I. A. Pismyensky,
1974). However, this dependence is associated only with maximum
strength and not with the speed with which it is displayed. If
the latter factor is considered, then the relationship between an
athlete's bodyweight and the strength displayed will be totally
different. It has been demonstrated, that the correlation
between bodyweight and the weight of the barbell decreases as the
speed of the lift increases. Thus, it is 0.719 for the press,
0.706 for the clean and jerk and 0.685 for the snatch (M. V.
Starodubtsev, 1966). A decrease in bodyweight has a far lesser
affect on the snatch than the press (A. WN. Vorobyev, 1964; A. S.

Medvedev, G. S. Tumanyan, 1967).

Thus, the highest correlation between muscle mass and

strength is observed in those cases when strength is maximal and

the speed at which it is displayed is of secondary significance.
The connection.between strength.and bodyweight . decreases as the
speed at which strength is displayed increases; or to be more

86.
precise, it does not have the vital importance for explosive

types of exercises; especially jumping exercises (L. Smith, 1961;

H. Peters, 1961; 2. Kuras, 1962; H. Schunke, H. Peters, 1962).

In athletics, especially when comparing athletes of differ-

ent bodyweight and physical preparation, it is acceptable to

utilize relative-strength. It has been observed that as a

sportsman's bodyweight increases so does his absolute-strength;

while relative-strength decreases (A. N. Krestovnikov, 1939; I.

N. Knipst, 1952; V. I. Chudinov, 1961; V. M. Zatsiorsky, 1966; E.

G. Martirosov and others, 1967); although you can come across

just the opposite (I. N. Abramovsky, 1966).
Thus, an increase in muscle mass is accompanied by an in-

crease in muscular strength, only in certain cases where the

required movement is connected with overcoming a large resistance

or moving it with a low velocity. Examination of the facts from

all sides, indicates that morphological changes in muscles,

especially hypertrophy, condition the character of the strength

displayed as well as the method of its development. These facts

lead to the fundamental problem of the methods of strength prep-

aration -- associated with the specificity of muscular strength.

2.4 Factors Raising of the Working-Effect of Muscular Strength
The external strength man is able to display is not constant

and is to a significant degree dependent upon the conditions pre-

ceding and accompanying the motor activities. Therefore, in

opposition with distance, time, rivals and gravity, the greater

an athlete's chances for victory, the better he knows how to

fully and skillfully utilize the reserves of the ‘nervous and

muscular systems. :

2.4.1 The Warmup

The warmup serves to bring the sportsman's organism to the

necessary work-capacity. The warmup has two parts -- general and

special. The .purpose of the general part is to raise the func

tional potential of the organism as a whole; ‘ the purpose of the

special part is to establish the most optimal interrelationship

between the structure of the forthcoming movement and the activi-

ties of the C.N.S.; carried-out by the motor apparatus executing

87.
the given movement (N. G. Ozolin, 1949; A. N. Krestovnikov, 1951;
R. Miller, 1951; L. Blank, 1955). The raising of the work~
capacity of the organism by means of the warmup, is determined by
the intra-central changes of the mobilization as well as the
changes at the working peripheries, i.e., in the muscles.
Naturally, the special part of the warmup preceding strength
work in all of its manifestations (see the review of H. Thompson,
1958; “Dp. Swegan, G. Jankosky, 1958; I. Grose, 1958; A. Sedgwick,
H. Whalen, 1964) is of special interest.
It is known, that a muscle contracts faster and more
intensely the higher its temperature (I. S&S. Beritov, 1947). The
electrical activity of a muscle increases with increasing body
temperature (K. Golenhofen, H. Goptert, 1958; K. Book, K. Golen-
hofen, 1959) and after stimulation, the active-state period de-
creases (A. Hill, 1951; kL. MacPherson, D. Wilkie, 1954). In-
creasing the temperature locally, increases strength; as measured
on a dynamometer (A. Robbins, 1942); and the amount of time a
muscle is able to hold a standard tension or execute standard
work (A. Nukada, 1955). A hot shower increases isometric endur-
ance (A. Nukada, 1955); as well as the speed of muscular contrac-
tion and endurance, in work of a cyclic character, up to 7.5-9%
(EB. Assmusen, 0. Boje, 1945; L. Miudo, 1946; F. Carlisle, 1956;
H. DeVries, 1959). On the other hand, cooling renders a decrease
in strength and lengthens contraction time. Muscles cooled to
18°C, have a work-cpacity period that is 2-3 times shorter (N. A.
Tikhomirova, 1961; I. Fray, G. Smith, 1941). It is known, that
Massage has no influence on endurance in cyclic exercises (FP.
Karpovich, C. . Hale, 1956; H. DeVries, 1959); but increases the
power of explosive work (V. Skubic, I. Hodgkins, 1957; L.
Merlino, 1959). However, maximal work-capacity can be achieved
only after a series of contractions; the number and character of
which are determined by the functional state of the organism and

the intensity of the forthcoming work. Repetitive work as a form

of warmup increases speed of movement (D. Swegan, G. Jdanosky,

1958). At the same time, if this. work is.of a.moderate inten-
sity, then it is not advantageous for strength. An active warm-

88.
up, which includes intense exercises, is an effective means for

successfully executing speed-strength exercises and particularly

exercises of an explosive character (I. Hipple, 1956; E. Michael,

et. al., 1957; B. Pacheco, 1957).

Thus, women basketball players increased their jumps from 1-

4.5 CM (P. Panaiotov, 1962); and track and field jumpers up to 10

CM (V. M. Dyachkov, 1961). The strength of boxers increased an

average of 40-70 KG; and the striking time decreased 0.02 to 0.04

seconds. It is interesting that at rest between strong and quick

punches, there is no significant relationship (r = 0.40, not sig-

nificant); after a warmup, it is distinguished from the null

hypothesis [r = 0.624 at P < 0.99] (A. A. Karabanov, 1966). “Tt

has been observed repeatedly that a 100 M sprint or a 4 x 100 M

relay sprint aids the subsequent long jump results (V. Y. Verkho-

shansky, 1961). ,
Thus, preliminary work, similar in character to the subse~

quent, diminishes significantly the working period in comparison

to work of any coordination structure. But it chiefly enables

the musclesto withstand (without injury) a large load and exe-

cute significant (in strength and speed) contractions. The move-

ments included in the warmup should be appropriate for the

special exercise, not only in their coordination structure but

the intensity of the neuro-muscular tension as well. The latter

circumstance is particularly important for speed-strength exer-

cises.
2.4.2 The After-Effect
It is known, that if a muscle is stimulated with several
impulses its activity falls slower after the last one, ‘than when

it is stimulated by one impulse. Any irritation, whether it is

momentary or not, leaves traces in the nervous system. The

traces phenomenan lasts for some time after irritation ceases;

which is indicative of the relative inertness of the nervous
system and has an enormous significance for the organism's acti-
vities (P. P. Pimenov, 1907, I. P. Pavlov, 1929, L. A. Orbeli,

1947). These phenomena and the processes.of structural and func-

tional accommodative reconstruction associated with them, are the

89.
foundation for the development of the sportsman's trainability.
They determine the uninterrupted rise in trainability despite an
interruption in the training process (L. P. Matveev, 1964; OD.
Mateev, 1964; N. V. Zimkin, 1965).
In the literature (particularly foreign), there are rather
contradictory interpretations concerning the after-effects of
muscular activity. There is a statistically significant increase
in the speed of an unloaded movement after the execution of this
same movement, with a weight (I. Murray, 1959; W. Van Huss, et.
al., 1962), and vice versa; such an effect was lacking, despite
the subjects' assertions that (subjectively) their movements were
quicker after using loads (M. Nofsinger, 1963; R. Nelson, W.
Lamber, 1965). An increase in the vertical jump did not occur
after executing resistive exercises (A. Stockholm, R. Welson,
1965). Shot put results even deteriorated after doing prelimi-
nary "puts" with a heavier shot (R. Bischke, L. Morehouse, 1950).
The after-effect is examined in more detail in the domestic
literature. It has been noted that preliminary static-tension
renders a positive influence on the subsequent dynamic work. ©
Despite fatigue following static-tension, the effectiveness of
dynamic-work increases; usually up to 20% in comparison with work
executed without preliminary static-tension. With the reverse
sequence of work, results worsen (Y. A. Shiedin, V. G. Kunevich,
1935; M. I. Vinogradov, V. E. Delov, 1938; WN. K. Vereshchagin,
1956; M. WN. Farfel, 1964; Y¥Y. M. Uflyand, 1965 and others). The

after-effect occurs immediately after preliminary static-tension.

The first dynamic contraction still bears some evidence of inhib-
itory influence, but by the second, strength increases sharply in
comparison with the initial level (M. V. Leinik, 1951; M. I.
Vinogradov, 1966). The data presented indicates that static-ten-
sion, under certain conditions, can serve as a stimulant for
dynamic work .and play an important role in the development of
muscular strength.
Dynamic-work executed with heavy weights (a high intensity
of tension with a relatively small volume) also renders a posi-
tive after-effect in the C.N.S.; which is expressed in a general

90.
toning influence on the motor apparatus and improvement in speed
and strength (V. P. Portnov, 1955; I. P. Ratov, 1957; vV. M.
Diachkov, 1961; I. V. Muravov and F. T. Tkachev, 1964; S. P.
Letunov, 1965). ,
In practice, the after-effect phenomenan of strength work is
utilized in planning its quick and delayed effects. Bear in mind
there is a quantitative improvement in activities immediately
following strength tensions, i.e., quick after-effects. Prelim-
‘inary, intense strength tensions lead to improved results in
jumping exercises (V. M. Diachkov, 1958; 1961; Y. V. Verkoshan-—
sky, 1961; V. V. Tatian, 1964; F. T. Tkachev, 1967); putting the
shot (D. Fritsch, 1961; L. S. Ivanova, 1964; A. D. Markov, 1966);
and rowing (N. R. Ermishkin, S. V. Vozniak, 1965; A. K. Chuprun,
1966). For the delayed effects, preliminary stimulation is
utilized for improving the functional state of the neuro-muscular
apparatus during the sportsman's preparation for competition or
in training for speed-strength (V. M. Diachkov, 1961; V. V.
Vrzhesnevsky, 1964; A.V. Khodykin, 1976). The positive effect
is obtained only if this state is achieved at the optimal level.
Over-excitation of the C.N.S. renders a negative influence on the
precision and coordination of movements, i.¢., on the quality of
athletic technique (V. M. Diachkov, 1961; 0. D. Yakimova, 1964).
The traces in the nervous system phenomena and their in-
fluence on the effect of the subsequent work are conditioned by
many factors; in particular, the strength of the irritant,
fatigue and the time interval separating the previous work from
the subsequent. Thus, after tonic-work (barbell squats) the
following changes in the parameters of the F (t) curve of
.explosive isometric force, in a controlled task (leg extension),
are observed. There is a rather significant increase in maximum
force (figure 43) over the first minute, at 25% of the initial
level; then after 4-5 minutes it continues to grow to 65%. The
beginning part of the F (t) curve undergoes less significant
changes because the magnitude and duration exceed the initial
levels less, the closer the beginning: force comesto the F (t)
ordinate. The time required to reach maximum force (figure 44)

91.
immediately after tonic-work was reduced by 2.6%; by 4.6% after
3-4 minutes; and it later began to increase till it exceeded the
initial level (V. V. Tatian, 1964). The largest increase in
dynamic strength after a static effort corresponds to a load of
503 of maximum (at 90%), and the least to 25% of maximum (at
6.7%) and 1008 (at 5.8%). With the growth of trainability, the
post-working displacement can occur with large loads -- up to
100% of maximum (E. P. Ilin, 1961). Consequently, with the rise
in trainability and the strength of the irritant, the ability to
render a subsequent positive effect also rises. However, in
principle the optimal and not the maximal load is necessary for
obtaining the greatest after-working-displacement.
The strength of the irritant also determines the time to
achieve the maximum lifting force and the length of the after-
effect. Therefore, from a practical standpoint, when the subse-
quent work begins, is of some importance. For example, vertical
jump height varied in the after-working period; depending on the
character of the tonic work (figure 45). Three to four minutes
after barbell squats the height of the jump was 6.8% above ini-
tial levels and 8-10 minutes after depth jumps 8.0% above initial
levels (V. V. Tatian, 1964). In experiments with preliminary
static-tension (E. P. TIlin, 1961), the maximum was achieved
quickest with loads of 25% (after 12 minutes); the slowest with
100% (after 15.4 minutes), and 50% (after 17.2 minutes). Re-
search has determined that the optimal rest interval bewteen sets
in weightlifting (during the presence of the traces phenomenan in
the C.N.S.) is 2-5 minutes (S. E. Ermolayev, 1937; A. N. Krestov-
nikov, 1952; Sh. D. Budze, 1959; M. B. Kazakov, 1961). It has
been established, that weightlifters who time their rest inter-
vals make 20% fewer failures than those who do not (E. A.
Klimonov, 1965).
The delayed~effect of strength work depends on the volume
and intensity of the preceding loads. For example, a moderate
habitual volume of barbell exercises renders a positive tonic
influence on the motor apparatus of: sportsmen, the next day or
the day after (V. M. Diachkov, 1961). The use of depth jumps as

92.
a means of stimulation delayed this moment for 5-6 days (¥. V.
verkhoshansky, 1963; A. V. Khodykin, 1976).
The utilization of the traces phenomenon, opens some inter-
esting perspectives for raising the effectiveness of strength

preparation with a limited volume of training work. Sportsmen

and coaches have great potential for creativity, which can signi-

ficantly enrich the theory and methodology of sport training.

2.4.3 Additional Movement
Some experienced coaches ‘judge the mastery of a sprinter by

his jaws. If the teeth are clenched and the face has a strained
expression -- the level of mastery is low. If the jaw is loose
and the face calm, then their movements are free and unconstrain-
ed and they possess the skill for running fast. Although

curious, it is a rather accurate evaluation of mastery in cyclic

movements during which the muscles work in a rapid of
sequence,
tension and relaxation. However, in acyclic movements requiring
the display of powerful force, no one is able to evaluate mastery
in this manner. In this instance, muscular force is concentrated
in a single instantaneous tension and even the anatomical antago-
nists function as synergists. Under these conditions, the so-
called additional movement contributes to raising the working~
effect.
Muscular activity (electrical excitation indicator} is
dependent not only on the processes taking place within but the

state of the other muscle groups. Both unloaded and movements

with large resistance provoke an electrical potential on the
unexercised side of the body (M. N. Farfel, 1961; A. S. Levin,

1964;. F. Sills, A. Olson, 1958). Furthermore, the strength and

endurance of the arm muscles executing dynamic work increase sig-
nificantly by including other skeletal muscles in the work (A. F.
Gorbunova, M. I. Khabarova, 1955;.E. A. Mukhamedova, 1958). Ex-

excising the muscles on one side of the body causes an increase

in strength on the other unexercised side (C. Wissler, W.

Richardson, 1900; R. Davis, 1942; F. Hellebrant, et. al., 1947;

A. Slater-Hammel, 1950; D. Laun,. 1954).

Thus, an additional movement which can not be associated

93.
with raising the economicalness of the motor complex, has a spe-
cific physiological expediency; and its rational organization has
great significance,
The combination ot two or several motor systems included
simultaneously or sequentially, has some advantages. Thus, the

amount of force developed by the right arm is significantly in-

fluenced by the muscles taking part in the additional movement:

a momentary contraction of the flexors of the left arm increases

the strength and speed of the muscles flexing the right arm to a

larger degree than a contraction of the arm extensors (E. A.

Mukhammedova, 1958). If, during the rhythmic flexing of the
right arm, the extensors of the left are momentarily tensed, then

the work-capacity of the right arm will increase by 39-42%; if

the flexors of the left arm are tensed -- it will decrease B-228.
Tensing the extensors of the left arm after first fatiguing the
flexors of the right, increases the capacity of the latter to do
significantly more work. Tensing the flexors of the left arm has
no effect, in this instance (G. V. Popov, 1938).
Thus, the change in the work-capacity of one muscle group by
including others in the work, is dependent on many factors and is
different under different circumstances. The sportsman's train-
ability, the type of muscular activity during the additional work
(dynamic or static), as well as the decrease or increase in the
load and work rhythm influence the working-effect (M. I. Vinogra~
dov, 1966). Thus, in the aforementioned experiments by E. A.
Mukhammedov, a large stimulatory effect is obtained when the
additional effort of the left arm comprises 1/3 - 1/4 that of the
right arm. ,
Finally, results are determined by the phase of work of the
muscle groups or, in other words, the functional state of the
motor apparatus. Research indicates that in order to obtain a

distinct stimulatory effect, the appropriate motor analyzer

should be in a state of stable excitation and reactiveness. The
excitation of one "neuro-center" strengthens this process in the
other centers, if the latter acquire a significant dominance.
Thus, tension in the additional muscle groups causes (because of

94.
the afferent impulses coming from them) an increase in the excit-

ability of the dominent center and leads to a strengthening of

the effector process in the fundamental muscle groups. The basis

for this dominance principle is obvious: in the beginning stages

of work when dominance is still only forming, the inclusion of

the other muscle groups will be ineffective. The effect appears

only after some time has passed, when dominance has alrady been

established (D. I. Shatenstein, BE. I. Yordanskaya, 1955).

In you
athletics can find examples where the motor-effect is

secured (while utilizing additional movement) by the dominance

center and by clearly mechanical factors. This is observed in

exercises featuring a take-off from a support, utilizing a rotary

movement. In this instance the concentration of muscular excita-

tion, crucial for the acceleration of the rotary movement of the

body's links, strengthens the excitation in the domminant center;

securing the key element of the take-off -- the work of the

extensor muscles. At the same time reactive forces, resulting

from the accelerated shifting of the amortization, increase

the power of the muscles executing the take-off (for example, an
average of 25% in the vertical Jump). Thus, additional move-
ment is an example of the organism's accommodative mobilization,
when necessary, to display maximal tension; and it can have a
place in training for developing strength.
2.4.4 Prepatory Movement
If you were to execute a vertical jump from a half-squat
position, then “it will become immediately obvious that this is
not possible without a preliminary movement. Considerable
tension will be needed to restrain the natural prepatory movement

which man willfully or unwillfully resorts to each time he is

preparing to execute an action requiring the display of signifi-

cant force.
The prepatory movement is different in each concrete case

depending upon the situation and the resolution of the motor

tasks. However, the idea is still the same -- to increase the
length of and’
the.working.range prepare the muscles for a more

powerful working-effort. The latter is accomplished by stretch-

95.
ing the muscles, which causes a strong motor impulse (due to the
myotatic mechanism) and creates an additional, potential elastic
tension. At this juncture it is appropriate to recall the obser-
vations of A. A. Utomsky (1927); who emphasized that the primary
nature of the contractile effect of muscles is the process of
muscular tension and it is through this tension that contraction
and mechanical work are produced.
The fact that preliminary muscular tension, preceded a
working-effort requiring a concentrated display of strength
(based on EMG data) was noted in several investigations (I. N.
Salchenko, 1960; E. G. Kotelnikov, 1966; V. B. Popov, 1968; E.
Asmussen, F. Bonde-Peterson, 1974). True, this fact should not
make one draw conclusions about the necessity of special tension
for the execution of exercises. Preliminary muscular tension can
be appropriate if it is well timed and immediately precedes the
working-effort; or is accomplished during the course of the
prepatory movement and its magnitude is determined by the organ-
ism. Thus, there is always the notion to think of prepatory
movements when it is necessary to achieve great strength and
speed of movement; and not underestimate them as something
incompatible with the notion of economization of a motor act.
2.4.5 Rational Coordination in Muscular Work
Even with relatively simple movements, the same effect can
be secured through multiple combinations of the muscles partici-
pating in the work. A stereotypical working-effect, in non-
standard muscular work, was observed (K. Fidelius, 1959; E. K.
Zhukov, Is. Z2.. Zakhariants, 1960; WN. V. zimkin, 1962; I. P.
Ratov, 1962). The external display of this stereotypical work-
ing-effect varies, according to the amplitude, speed and strength
of the movement. Thus, the impulse-force of the vertical jump
take-off varies according to the force and the time of its
action. The higher the sportsman's trainability, the more stable
the impulse-force; the more rational and stable the distribution

of force over time (Y. Verkhoshansky, 1963; S. M. Arutyunyan,

1964). Thus, dGuring exercise the ineffective and weakly-
effective variants of integration, comprising the elements of

96.
movement, are differentiated from the more effective (N. V.
Zimkin, 1962; A. A. Korobova, 1964). Well prepared sportsmen use

only ‘those effective combinations which enable them to utilize

their real motor potential to the maximum.
Changes in the character of muscular activity, during the
execution of movement, can occur in several forms: 1) change in

the sequence of including different muscle groups in the activ-

ity, 2) change in the number of muscle groups participating in

the movement, 3) increase or decrease in the relative participa-

tion of some muscles in the movement (V. S. Averianov, 1963; I.

V. Moikin, 1964). In cyclic movements, the duration of the

active and relative rest phases changes (L. G. Kuchin, 1960; G.
G. Ratishvili, 1966); and the maximal output shifts from one

group of muscles to another (A. M. lLazareva, 1966; T. M.

Absalyamov, 1968). Movements associated with overcoming large

resistance or executed with great speed, characteristically in-

volve a switch in the activity to the muscles of the proximal

links (M. F. Ivanitsky, 1956; V. M. Lebedev, 1962; I. V. Moikin,

1964); and a differentiation in the activity of different sec-

tions of the muscle (V. 8. Averianov, A. I. Shibanov, 1964). ,

In complex multi-link movements, the resulting force does

not equal the tension each of the muscle synergists are capable,
thus, the largest summated force a rower develops is at the

beginning of the movement (table 6); although at this instant the

legs are working at an unadvantageous angle in the knee and ilio-

femoral joints. However, the percent utilization of absolute-
strength (the sum of the maximum force that the muscles of the

arms, .torso and legs develop individually) is the largest (v. S.

Egorov, 1966). Thus, the unadvantageous conditions for the work

of one muscle can be compensated for by the more advantageous

conditions for another's work (in this instance the back muscles)
due to the suitable coordination of effort.
The most important aspect of muscular coordination in speed-

strength exercises, is the concentration of force at the crucial

(from a biomechanics standpoint) phases of the movement. In the

future, one of the most typical regularities of motor skills will

97.
 A Mean Strength of Rowers
in Three Positions and Percent Utilization
of Absolute Strength

TABLE 6

Classification
Stroke Phase
III II I MS

Beginning : 128 131 134 143

34% 31% 32% 33%

Middle 119 124 130 128

27% 26% 27% 29%

End 112 116 118 - 126

26% 24% 25% 26%

98.
 concentration of muscular force where the dynamic
be the
are necessary for the formation of the biodynamic
accentuations
complex motor act; and raises the total working-
structure of a

effect of the latter.

2.4.6 Tuning, Instructing, Emotions

muscular activity, including the display of
The organism's
isolated but is part of the formation of the so-~
strength, is not
This purpose is basic reaction of a
called individual's purpose.
of the situation in which he sets and
subject to the influence
characteristically, a preparedness for a
resolves tasks. It is
and is a major factor in any motor activity (D.
certain activity
N. Uzgnadze, 1961; I. T. Bzhalava, 1966).
preparedness for action is associated with the
Physiological
which secure an adequate preception of
tuner receptors,
with the functional mobilization of the motor
irritation; and
motor activity. The physiological nature
units, which facilitate
has been similarly examined by E. N. Sokolov
of this phenomenan
(1961); P. K. Anokhin (1965). The motor
(1959); WN. A. Berstein
sport, as a tuner to the forthcoming action (N. G.
objective in
Shoikhet, 1964, 1966; Y. S. Eremin, 1968), is
Ozolin, 1949; K. E.
by the influence of the situation and informational-
formed
influences of the teacher and assumes a clear-cut
instructional
of the motor task. The formation of such tuners
representation
creates the objective prerequisite for great success.

a preliminary verbal signal concerning the heaviness

Thus,
a change in the tonus of the working muscles
of the load renders
The words “heavy load" increase the tonic tension
of the arms.
muscles of the arm; the words “Light load"
of the working
of these same muscles (M. WN. Farfel, 1961,
decrease the tonus
increases muscular strength. It can increase
1964). Hypnosis
by 22.5% and lower it 31.73 (M. Ikai, A. Steinhaus,
strength
instructions can have a significant affect on
1961). The correct
sportsman is oriented to executing the movement
strength if the
accentuating one or more of its qualitative characteristics;
by
the. coordination of effort. Thus, the optimal
or further improve
of force, speed and amplitude of a speed-strength
combination

99.
 De
a a a7 N
O85 P-Bat

06 ah |
ou P-2e0
L %or Pe
8 25 5D mort <a] yup
BF ee Be BS 8
FIGURE 41 - Alteration in cor-
Telation (r) between speed of FIGURE 42 ~ Alteration in cor-
Movement and resistance. The relation (r) between speed of
weight is expressed as a per- movement for throwing 2 and 8
centage of maximum (N. A. Kg weights and maximum jso-
Masalgin, 1966). metric strength depending on
the height of the preliminary
fall.

Ext
BOL te
P| 08:
Fmax "|
120, |
7
Ler
as8 |

05
Sb Ole tun
a0
t 2 7 Ey
Ene
t 2 a 4 5 5 7 f] 8 10 . .
FIGURE 44 - Alterations in
- F(t) curve of ex- time of achieving maximum ex-
FIGURE 43
plosive isometric effort after plosive isometric force after
barbell squating. Broken tonic work.
lines indicate initial levels.

shew
%
at
i.B3 SS mS

ul NS B
Li) I,

LT mop porepetrery a A a A peg Meee Ba ——— = an

tai
rr a ae 2

FIGURE 45 - Change in height

of a vertical jump after tonic
work of different character
(1- barbell squat, 2- take-off
after a depth. jump).

100
movement secures the maximum (for a given functional state of the
organism) effect (determined empirically in training). However,
active guidance of the action helps in finding the effective
combination faster. It has been shown that sportsmen with little
experience, execute the take-off after a depth jump, faster or
slower than usual (table 7); which leads to an increase in the
height attained (Y. V. Verkhoshansky, 1963).
Qualified instruction can ensure the maximal: utilization of
force through a rational redistribution of muscular effort.
Thus, rowers informed of the amount of force recorded, developed

by the sum of the action of all the muscles, imitate the

beginning, middle and end of the row. Then they are told “to
repeat the effort in these positions, utilizing the force advan-
tages of the muscle groups indicated. All of the subjects
increased their strength scores (table8) in the rowing phases .
(Vv. SS. Egorov, 1966), as a result of the short experiment with
this sort of information.
The samples presented are indicative of the effectiveness of
instruction if it is based on the correct dynamic structure of
the movement. These examples also point to the necessity of
taking into consideration the qualification of the sportsman:
the effect of instruction decreases with the increase in
qualification (for what we spoke of), since a master of sport to
a large degree, learns to mobilize his potential to a greater
extent. Instructions should always be within the framework of a
clear-cut motor aim, in accordance with the meaning of the struc-
tural action. Instructional directions should be divided into
two types: heuristic (what needs to be done) and concrete (how
it is done), In other words, heuristic instruction is the pre-
cise meaning of the movement's structure. The sportsman is
assigned the task of finding the most favorable (for him) details
of the act in order to execute if effectively.
The second type of instruction concentrates on the advisable
(from the teacher's point of view) method of executing the
concrete details of the action. The combination of these types
of instruction by the experienced coach, invariably raises the

101.
 Influence of Different Motor Aims
on Height of Jump (h) and Take-off Time

TABLE 7

Take-off Motor Aim

Characteristic
- Take-off Take-off
Usual Take-off Slowly Fast

h(cm) 68 69 69 73 70 73 57 67 68

t(sec) 0.240 0.260 0.245 0.310 0.315 0.310 0.160 0.220 0.230

Mean Stroking Force after

Instructing to Redistribute Effort

TABLE 8

Classification
Stroke Phase tlt tI I MS

Beginning 6.3 10.2 8.8 3.8

Middle 19.4 10.7 12.5 17.5

End 19.3 13.8 21.3 15.0

102,
effectiveness of the execution of the strength exercises.
The force displayed by man is to a significant degree
determined by his emotional state. Strong positive emotions can
instantaneously increase the energy of muscular contraction 4
times (M. I. Vinogradov, 1966). In athletics, observations have
shown that group activities produce greater results than indivi-
dual activities (H. Gurnee, 1937; Th. Abel, 1938; N. Weyner, D.
Zeaman, 1956; I. Beasley, 1958; B. Cratty, 1965). The presence
of spectators increases the effectiveness of the motor operation
(G. Gates, 1924; R. Lazaruc, et. al., 1952; B. Cratty, R. Hutten,
1964); the reason being that non-sportsmen demonstrate a signifi-
cantly higher level of achievement than sportsmen (R. Singer,
1965). Thus, carefully directed training creates a specific
emotional background; making strength work more productive.

103.
 Chapter III
The Means of Special Strength
Training for Athletes

The evolution of opinion concerning the means and methods of

strength training is a periodic repetitive cycle, entirely deter-
mined by the movement of creative ideas. The beginning of such a
cycle provided the usual success in the cognition of the motor
mechanisms of athletic technique. This helped determine the
means of strength-training more precisely. However, with the
growth in athletic achievements, the effect of these means,
became less noticeable. The volume of these exercises was
increased, but it was discovered that this has its limitations.
Once again, they turned to analysis of the sportsman's movements;
armed with better measuring techniques. Thus, the beginning of a
new cycle of searches leads to new progress in training methodo-
logy. This was the cause for example, when information concern-
ing the significance of strength in athletic exercises emerged
from the laboratory and trainers looked hopefully to barbells.
Something similar is observed now, when studies indicate that the
strength necessary for the successful realization of one move-
ment, has little affect on another. Such a specificity of
strength turned attention, in the new fashion, to the principle
of selectivity in the means of special preparation.
Thus, the progress of strength preparation methods foregoes
penetration to the motor mechanisms of the athletic exercises.
This leads to open (formed in place of already universally ac-
cepted) assertions, which in solving the problems of | strength
preparation should originate, first of all, from the sportsman's
real movements and the concrete level of his physical prepared-
ness. Thus, one can understand why it is necessary to devise new
means that are not always easily rejected in favor of those
achievements resulting from the painstaking labor of many genera~
tions of enthusiasts to please some new fashion; but are
sometimes of no substance besides sensation.
Thus, the necessity of selecting the training means (par-

104.
ticularly for the development of strength) based on the motor
specifics of a concrete athletic exercises, is one of the most
valuable methodological ideas in sport. This was a turning
point, and was justified, but it quickly experienced a progres-
sive phase, the course to general physical preparation. The
change lead to assertions about the pre-eminence of specialized
training, based on the fundation of general preparation; for
which it is proper to consider the specific character of the
athletic activity. As a result of the practice of selecting the
means. of strength preparation, based upon the specifics of the
athlete's movements, one leaves the realm of intuition to find a
specific objective foundation. This foundation finds its general
theoretical expression further, in the statement of the principle
of dynamic correspondence; which formulates the extent and the

eriteria of correspondence of the means of special-strength-

preparation; and the character and regime of work of the neuro-
muscular apparatus in the specialized exercises.
3.1 The Problem of the Means
The physiological: basis for adaptive reconstruction in
living tissue is the irritation coming from the external or
internal environment; and as a result of this irritation, certain
traces are left within the organism. With repetitive irritation
the traces accumulate, leading to adequate qualitative altera-
tions of an organ, such that the ranges of its functional

potential are broadened in accordance with morphological recon-

struction. A specific peculiarity of a living substrata is the
relative speed with which it adapts to repetitive irritation.
The irritation soon becomes habitual and does not render any
additional accommodative displacements; but only maintains them.
Excluding a given irritant from the complex of external
influences causes an organ to return the initial functional
level, because previous accommodative reconstruction has lost its
life-preserving role.
This, in general terms and greatly simplified, is the physi-
ological essence of training. It is in reality.a very complex
picture, in so far as systematic exercise, as a means of struc-

105.
tural-functional perfectioning, is made-up of a complex of dif-
ferent irritational influences, affecting all the organs and
systems of the organism. For example,
to successfully train for
strength, the amount of weight, the number of repetitions, the
tempo of execution and the place in the workout all affect the
effectiveness of the training. These conditions could be listed
ad-infinitum since the development of strength is not the only
goal of training. However, besides this, it is quite clear, in-
spite of the difficulty of organizing training; the coach in all
probability will select, from the limitless number of variants,
the combination of means which will lead to success.
3.1.1 Peculiarities of the Growth of Strength
Strength as an external expression of the accommodative
reconstruction of the organism is associated with the intensity
and repetitiveness of the irritant; which the organism sustains
during the working of the motor apparatus. Only the optimal
strength of muscular contraction, which can be achieved in
different ways (isometric tension, heavy loads and small
velocities and vice-versa), acts as a training irritant.
Research on the threshold of the training irritant necessary for
increasing muscular strength showed that it should be no less
than 1/3 the maximal strength (T. Hettinger, E. Muller, 1953).
The threshold of the irritant capable of rendering a training
effect should be increased; and comprise 80-95% of the sports-
man's maximum, as strength increases. It was considered appro-
priate that the strength of the training irritant equal that of
the competition irritant of the specialized exercise, or exceed
it (R. P. Moroz, 1962; I. P. Ratov, 1962; Y. V. Verkhoshansky,
1963).
Thus, the development of strength requires that the strength
of the irritant be gradually increased. Any irritant has a spe-
cific "limit of strength" (EF. Muller, 1962) the achievement of
which, causes the cesation of growth in muscular strength.
, The less trained the muscles, the further the "limit
strength" from the initial. The speed. with which strength
increases from the initial level to the "limit strength",

106.
expressed as a percentage of the limit magnitude, is independent
of sex, age, muscle group and the level of the "limit strength"
(E. Muller, 1962). Strength can be increased after attaining the
"limit strength" only by intensifying training (substituting
stronger means, determining their combinations, increasing the
volume of work).
These were early attempts at general principles, although
they needed to be more precise relative to the means and methods
of strength development. According to A. V. Korobkov (1953), V.
S. Gerasimov (1953), I. G. Vasiliev (1954), strength increases
relatively uniformly in the initial stages of training, indepen-—
dent of how the load is applied in training -- large or small.
Approximately equivalent increases in strength were obtained with
loads 20, 40, 60 and 80% of maximum. An increase in the physio-
logical tension of training in the initial stages (large load,
fast tempo of movement, short intervals between sessions) does
not always lead to a rise in the effectiveness of strength devel-
opment; this is only effective later on as trainability
increases. This principle can be illustrated by the training
results of weightlifters. Exercises with 45-60% in the first 8
sessions were slightly more effective than exercises with 60-75%
and 75-90% loads. After 16 sessions, the most effective load was

75-90%; the least effective was 45-60% (N. V. Zimkin, 1961). A

noticeable training effect occurred in the beginning stages of
training 30-46% of maximum, while at the same time strength
increased, for ‘more experienced athletes, with 60% weights (E.
Muller, T. Hettinger, 1957).
In order to interpret these factors one must bear “in mind
the phasic character of the influence of intense strength loads;
expressed by the temporary decrease in strength and speed of
movement, and after the intensity of the strength loads has
decreased -- the subsequent, significant increase in strength and
speed. Therefore, the effectiveness of heavy weights does not
occur immediately, but some time later. Thus, strength increased
after sessions of isometric tension ceased (H. Clarke, A.O.,
1954); an intense increase in strength and speed of movement from

107.
the use of significant resistance, occurred only after 20
training sessions (D. A. Chernyavsky, 1966). An increase in
speed-strength (for a controlled movement), averaging 18-25% (V.
N. Nyeniskin, 1974), was noted after a 10-day rest from intense
specialized-strength-training. It can be assumed that this phe-
nomenon is connected with the known inertness of the organism and
a super-compensatory restoration after strength work.
As strength and the level of physical preparedness of the
athlete increase, the dependence of the increase in strength and
its specific affect on the character of training (in connection
with the specific influence of the applied means and methods on
the development of the qualitative characteristics of movements)
becomes all the more lucid. In those cases where training is
conducted with small loads there is a simultaneous increase in
endurance and speed of movement along with the increase in
strength -- executed with and without loads. If large loads are
used in training, strength grows to a significant degree as does
the speed of execution of an instantaneous movement; however,
endurance without loads begins to diminish and can even drop
below initial levels.
The magnitude of a strength increase as well as its specific
character is also determined by the combination of the training
means used. Thus, the increase in strength and speed of movement
after 20 training sessions in which weights of 10 and 40% of
maximum were utilized (in different volumes) were as follows: in
the group executing 20% of the special loads with the first
weight and 80% with the second, there was an increase
in strength
of 44.88 and an increase of 35.2% in the speed of movement from
the initial levels; the corresponding figures for the ‘second
group doing just the reverse were 31.6% and 18.3% respectively
(D. A. Chernyavsky, 1966).
The increase in strength is also dependent upon the sports-
man's level of preparedness. In principle, the lower the train-
ee's level of preparedness the greater the increase in strength.
All the means are good in this case. However, with the rise in
mastery the tempo of strength increases diminish and can be

108.
provoked only through appropriate special means.
Developing rational methods of strength training is associ-
ated with the preservation of the strength acquired. , In so far
as the main goal in the preparation period is the development of
strength, then naturally, it is important that as much strength
as possible survives into the competition period. In other
words, some of the training intensity should be directed to
preserving the level of strength attained. This is better than
having to restore the strength, after it has faded away. Unfor-
tunately, there are very few special studies in this area. After
1$-2 months without systematic strength work the strength of the
extensor muscles decreased 5-6% and the flexors by 15-20% in
skiers. This is especially true of sportsmen who possess a high
level of strength development (A. A. Chistyakov, 1965). Muscles
can lose up to 30% of their strength after a period of total rest
for one week (E. Muller, 1966). The loss of strength occurs at
approximately the same rate as it increased (T. Hettinger, E.
Muller, 1955; G. Ravick, G. Larsen, 1959).
The total loss of strength acquired as a result of 20 ses-
sions of speed-strength exercises was: noted 5 months after the
special training had ceased (8.8% after the first, 33.8% after
the second, 60.2% after the third, 81.5% after the fourth and
88.8% after the fifth month). The greatest loss was between the
second and fourth months (D. A. Chenyavsky, 1966). However, ac-
cording to other data, strength acquired in a period of 40 ses-
sions does not decrease to initial levels even a year after
training has ceased (I. G. Vasiliev, 1954; R. McMorris, E.
Eklins, 1954). The increase in strength achieved as a result of
10 electro-stimulation sessions was maintained for a period of 5
months (V. A. Khvilon, 1974). It has been noted that increased
strength is maintained for a longer period of time when it is
accompanied by an increase in muscle mass (DeLorme, A.O., 1950;
V. A. Khrolon, 1974).
Thus, although this material gives one an idea of the most
general tendencies _for the growth and preservation of muscular
strength there are obvious contradictions. Devising methods of

109.
special strength-preparation requires the resolution of the
following problem on a strictly scientific basis: first, study
the training effect of the means used for this or that type of
sport and from the determined level of the athlete's prepared-
ness; second, determine a rational sequence, interdependence and
continuity of training means for the yearly and multi-year
training periods. In other words, the combination of teaching
efforts and special-practice should be directed to introducing
the quantitative contents under the following principle scheme of
the organization of special strength training (figure 46): the
contribution of different training means ‘(conditionally designa~
ted a, b, c, in the figure) to the development of the key motor
abilities diminishes according to the calculated growth of athle-
tic results; at the same time these means are different in terms
of their training effect and the use of each of them is ‘justified
only when the athlete's level of preparedness is taken into con-
sideration. In other words, with the growth of athletic mastery,
it is necessary to determine the sequence for the introduction of
means in the training process by calculating the growth and con-
tinuity of their training effect -- this is the basis for the
steady rise in the level of the organism's special work-capacity.
3.1.2 The Training Effect of the Strength-Training Means
In recent years scientific research and many years of prac-
tical experience have yielded a wealth of factual material on
which contemporary methods of special strength-training are
based. However, it is necessary to note that this material is
generalized and the analysis and the interpretation of it is
theoretical. And, although today's athletes attain a high level
of sport mastery there is still no basis to say it is because of
the detailed methodical systems of special strength-training. To
a great extent they attain mastery through a large volume of
strength work and a colossal expenditure of energy. The selec-
tion and utilization of means in the organization of special
strength-training has a number of weaknesses.
In spite of the apparent diversity, the range of special
strength-training means is rather limited. In effect, beginners

110.
and qualified sportsmen use the same means, the difference being
only in the volume and intensity of their loads. This first of
all leads to training monotony and second, the organism adapts to
a habitual irritant and does not reciprocate with the accommoda-
tive reconstruction the sportsman expects. Qualified sportsmen
therefore spend a lot of time utilizing ineffective means; none
of which augment their level of strength preparedness. Beginners
on the other hand utilize virulent means for which they are not
yet prepared and have done nothing to justify the premise of
over-loading the organism; and therefore disrupt the natural pro-
cess of attaining sport mastery.
“An essential shortcoming in the organization of strength-
training is that sportsmen give little consideration to the phe-
nomenon of the qualitative specificity of the training effect of
strength exercises. Therefore, very often they utilize means
whose specific training influence only slightly conforms to the
demands placed upon the organism during the execution of the
fundamental athletic exercises. Exercises that are selected for
strength have a general-developmental character. We have to take
note of the fact that on the other extreme there is the effort to
select exercises which are structurally similar to the fundamen-
tal exercises. This is justified and correct in principle, but
it is sometimes carried to absurdity and sportsmen devise such
intricate exercises that they are even less effective than the
traditional general-developmental movements. All of this indi-
cates that a scientifically sound, methodical system of special
training in which general-developmental as well as special-
strength exercises are included, is lacking. ;
In order to devise such a system it is necessary to objec-
tively evaluate the training effect of the strength means. The
training effect -- is the measured influence of a means or a com-
plex of means on the organism as reflected by the magnitude,
quality and stability of its accommodative reconstruction. A
number of specific indicators, characteristic of the training
effect (which are mnecessary to take. into consideration for
selecting the means and for devising a methodical system of

lil.
special strength preparation) would be chosen.
It is first of all necessary to distinguish between the
immediate and the delayed training effect. An organism's immedi-
ate reaction to the application of a strength means is expressed
in a short-term improvement or deterioration of the sportsman's
current functional state. Deterioration or improvement is depen-
dent upon the cost of the task, which determines the rest inter-
val prior to the execution of the next exercise: it can be
increased if the organism requires more rest or optimally short-
ened if the superimposed "one upon the other traces" phenomenon
effect is utilized by the organism. The reaction of the organism
is removed, as expressed by its relatively stablé functional
reconstruction, which can be substantial only in that instance if
the volume of the training influence was sufficient. ,
The particular and commulative effects respectively are the
result of the affect of one or several unidirectional or a com-
plex of qualitatively different-directional means. In the first
case, the accommodative reconstruction to the organism is a
reflection of that qualitative specificity of the regime which is
peculiar to the means applied. In the second case, the accommo-
dative reconstruction bears an integral géneralized character.
However, this is not simply the sum of the organism's functional
acquisitions,
but are qualitatively new forms of its motor poten-
tial, containing those specific traits which are inherent to the
use of the training means. Since training consists of a complex -
of different influences (according to the qualitative specifics
of the means), the cummulative training effect is in essence the
basic product of the sportsman's preparation determining the
developmental level of his abilities. Therefore, to a signifi-
cant degree the sportsman's success depends upon the skill to
select a diverse (according to the training effect) spectrum of
means. which will secure the requirements of the cummulative
training effect.
One should also take into consideration such indicators that
are characteristic of.the training effect as absolute and rela-
tive strength, qualitative and quantitative, stability and tempo-

112.
ral characteristics.
It is necessary to evaluate the effectiveness of two or more
means (with regards to the absolute strength of the training
effect) in order to select the best one. The relative strength
of the training effect is the same as the evaluation of the
effectiveness of the means, but the athlete's real level of

special preparation is taken into consideration. The qualitative

and quantitative characteristics of the training effect are an
appraisal of its specific expression and the magnitude of the
growth in the level of the organism's functional indicators. And
finally, the stability and temporal characteristics of the train-
ing effect are evaluated by the length of time it is maintained.
An examination of the specific indicators and some of the
peculiarities of the training effect of the strength means is
unequivocably indicative of the complexity the coach encounters
in planning the content and emphasis of the sportsman's strength
training. Although the basis for selecting a strength means by
taking into account these indicators and their peculiarities is
very convincing, it is unfortunate that this is still very little
and the probability that the sportsman will attain the desired
level of strength preparation is also very small. In order to
eliminate this obvious problem, it is necessary first of all to
pay serious attention to an objective evaluation of the training
effect of the strength exercises currently practiced today and
second, organize a scientific search oriented to devising
theoretical tenéts and methodological solutions connected with
the realization of the cummulative effect of a complex of
strength’ means. It is more to the point to say that in this
regard, very little has been done. True, some generalizations
are already possible:
1- The training effect of any means diminishes as the
sportsman's special physical-preparedness increases.
2- The means used should secure the optimal training effect
relative to the current functional state of the sportsman's
organism.

113.
 3~- The 'vestiges' of previous work alters the training ef-
fect of any means.
4~ The training effect of a complex of means is determined
not only and not so much as the sum of the irritants but their
combination, order of succession and intervals of separation.
5- The content . of special strength-training as a whole
should include a complex of specific irritants and secure the
formation of the structure of strength preparedness required for
the given type of sport and be based upon the concrete level of:
the athlete's sport mastery. :
One question is still very important for devising methods of
strength-training.
A training effect comes about through frequent and systema-
tic repetition of a complex of means. The training load is
understood as the sum of all the specific influences on the
Sportsman's organism. The essential characteristics of the
training load are: its resulting effect (the qualitative and
quantitative assessment of the special work-capacity the sports-
man achieves), composition or contents (the complex of means
applied), structure (correlation of means), volume (the quantita-
tive aspect of the training work) and intensity (the difficulty
or tension of the training work). It is appropriate to examine
the composition and structure, the volume and intensity further
aS parameters of the management of the training load; the result-
ing effect as the special purpose of the management; the emphasis
of the load and the relationship of the volume of the load to the
training effect achieved -- as the criteria of the effectiveness
of the management of the training process. The purpose of
managing the training load is to obtain a high training effect
through the rational organization of the composition and struc-
ture of the load, with an optimal volume and intensity.
A load will lead to success if its means create an adequate
training effect, i.e., provoke a specific accommodative reaction
within the organism. This is especially important for highly
qualified sportsmen..in so.far as the means they have utilized in
previous stages of preparation do not have the ability to provoke

114.
a sufficient training effect for further improvement. Therefore,
the search for highly-effective means and methods of special
strength-training are always found to be at the centerof atten-
tion in our country and abroad. Recently isometric and isokin-
etic exercises have been incorporated in practice as well as the
"shock" method of developing explosive-strength, the electro-
stimulation method and others. And, although not all of them
have been studied sufficiently and detailed methods of their use
have not been worked-out, nonetheless they bring appreciable suc-
cess, corroborating their fruitfullness and the viewpoint of the
research in this area.
In recent years the volume of the load has grown noticeably.
However, it is impossible to accept the tenet where increasing
the volume of the training work is considered as the only or as
the best possibility for raising the effectiveness of the sports-
man's preparation. ,
Elementary logic and practical experience clearly indicates
that it is impossible for the quantitative criterion of work to
compensate for the low training effect of the means utilized.
However, there is no assurance that highly-effective specialized
means, rationally organized within the limits of a specific stage
or training cycle, can achieve a high level of special | work-
capacity at a significantly lesser volume of work and within a
shorter period of time. Nonetheless, it should be pointed out
that the volume of the load is undoubtedly one of the conditions
for raising the special work-capacity in many types of sport
(chiefly cyclic) in specific stages of preparation. In order not
to create the wrong impression about the volume of the load we
must point out that it resolves two basic tasks in the training
process. First, it is connected with the creation of a function-
al base for the further development of the sportsman's specific
work-capacity.. And, second, it is associated with raising the
level of his special preparedness, primarily by developing endur-
ance. If the first task has significance as a universal methodo-
logical principle, ..then the second
is. correct.only- for certain
types of sports. We should add that the volume of the training

115.
work is an important condition for the success of the sportsman's
technical preparation. Besides this, available data indicates
there is a direct correlation between the volume of the load and
the length of time a training effect is maintained.
In contrast to the volume of the training load, its rational
structure is very important in any type of sport. From practical
experience it is known that no one means or method of special
preparation can be considered universal or absolutely effective.
Each of them can (and should) have their own special place ina
particular training stage depending upon the motor specificity of
the sport, the sportsman's level of preparation, the character of
the previous training loads, the concrete aims of the current
training stage and others: With respect to this, research (v. V.
Verkhoshansky, 1966, 1970; Vv. V. Tatyan, 1974; A. V. Khodykin,

1975) has — clearly shown that the absolute effect of special

strength-training, making use of a specific system of different
means and methods is significantly greater both qualitatively and
quantitatively than the separate unorganized utilization of dif-
ferent means and methods; and is achieved at a lesser volume of

the training load. .

There is still one more circumstance. to be noted. If the
means applied do not provoke a sufficient training effect, then
stimulation .-of further growth of the special-work-capacity be-
comes not so much a factor of the volume of the training load as
it is a factor of a specialized exercise and only in that
instance if it is executed in training at record levels (for the
given athlete). It is necessary to point out that the execution
of specialized exercises in training at near maximal ‘intensity
should be considered a progressive tendency in the methodological
idea determined by the strategy of the sportsman's preparation
and is impossible to acknowledge as correct. This would mean not
only a rejection of the principles of the rational construction
of training which were developed in the course of the evolution
of training methods, but is a return to the original primitive
notions from which it began.
Thus, the problem of means in the theory and methodology of

116.
sport training is far from being solved and the tendency to

inerease the volume of the training load (in vogue at the present
time) should not detract from its significance and turn the at~
tention of specialists away from its in-depth study.
If a logical can
sequence be seen aS a practical resolution
to the problem of raising the effectiveness of the special

strength-training methods, (with the selection of a strategy, a

scientific search is necessary) then it is layed down in the

following principle scheme:
regime -- means ~- methods -- system -~ volume.

; From this scheme it follows that the means of special

strength-training should be selected on the basis of objective

quantitative notions about the motor specificity of the specific

sport and be an adequate regimen of work for the organism. The

basic criterion for this is a guarantee of the training effect

for the given level of the organism's special work-capacity. The
next step is to determine an adequate method, i.e., a way of

utilizing the means based not only on the specific motor regimes
inherent to the given sport but on the level of the sportsman's

preparedness, the tasks of the current stage.of training and

others. Of great potential for the perfectioning the methods of

special strength-training, is the realization of the principle of

systematic application of the means based upon the task of

obtaining the necessary cummulative training effect. And,

finally, attaining the necessary level of special strength-train-

ing is the volume of the special work; the optimal magnitude of

which should be determined by the stage and current tasks of the

sportsman's preparation, the competition calendar _ and the

intensity of the load.
The scheme emphasizes that to pin one's hopes on any one

parameter of the load for the realization of potentials is appro-

priate only after the potential of the previous parameter has

been "inhereted". For example, it is not wise to increase the

volume of the load without having fully utilized the possibility

of raising the training effect of the individual strength train-
ing means and their systematic use. True, the realization of

117.
this requires a certain amount of courage from the specialists,
because it necessitates serious investigative effort. Since in-

creasing the volume of the training work is easier and simpler

than finding a really effective means of special preparation,

then such a course is very easy to follow in practice.

3.2 Principles of Stimulating Neuro-Muscular Tension to Develop

Strength
The external force muscles generate is a result of volition-

al effort. However, under normal everyday conditions, working

tension from volitional effort has certain limitations. In order

to increase the external muscular force it is necessary to

stimulaté them from without -~ for example by means of mechanical
irritation. Afferent impulses signal the central nervous system

(because of mechanical irritation) concerning the degree of

external influence (say the resistance of a moving load) provok-—

ing a corresponding muscular tension. The more optimum the

strength and intensity of the external irritant the greater the

muscle effector impulsation, the larger the external work. Thus,

afferent signals to the neuro-motor mechanism play an important

role in the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the

display of man's muscular strength. Therefore, the stimulation

of muscular tension (for the purpose of developing strength) -is

of great significance.
So, in all cases the magnitude of working muscular tension
is determined by volitional effort and external mechanical

causes. The stimulation of working force can be divided into

three basic types:
-- The. stimulation of resistance when muscular tension is
provoked by volitional effort, and the resistance of the moving

load raises and regulates the effector impulsation of the mus-

cles;
-- The stimulation due to the kinetic energy of a falling
training apparatus (body), when the volitional effort is primar-
ily a component of the motive aim;
-- The stimulation is primarily volitional effort (addition-~

al mechanical stimulation from without is lacking or limited).

118.
 The first two cases are associated with dynamic work and the

third with isometric. An increase in the stimulatory influence

is realized in the first case by increasing the velocity of the
preliminary fall of the body or load, and by mobilizing the

sportsman's volitional resources in the third. It should also be

pointed out that volitional effort plays an important role in the
magnitude of the muscles' effector impulsation in the first in-
stance and its influence in the second is insignificant. The

mechanism chiefly responsible for the braking-amortization work

of the muscles causes a protective effector impulsation sooner

than a purposeful sequence. _ Therefore, such a compulsary stimu-

lent is able to provoke an extraordinary mobilization of latent

functional reserves of the neuro-muscular apparatus which is

impossible where there is a reliance on only volitional effort.
As has already been stated, there is now an intense search for

original highly-effective. means of special strength-training.

For ‘example, domestic studies have established that electro-

stimulation of muscular contraction is an adequate training irri-

tant which provokes effective development of muscular strength

(¥. M. Kots, 1971; Y. M. Kots, V. A. Khvilon, 1971; V. A.

Khvilon, 1974). Practical utilization of electro-stimulation in

the preparation of highly-qualified sportsmen (mainly those in

speed-strength type of sports) is very effective and there are a

number of advantages associated with this method of developing

strength; although it cannot be considered absolute. Tt should

have a specific place in the yearly training cycle; be used in

combination with other methods of developing muscular strength

and chiefly utilized in the preapration of highly-qualified

sportsmen. However, it is not appropriate to consider it in

detail here in so far as the methodological fundamentals for

electro-stimulation have still not been worked-out. Use of

electro-stimulation is applicable only under appropriate condi-

tions and requires qualified personnel.

3.2.1 Resistance
In the. heavier
principle, the lift
weight-muscles the larger

the tension they develop. The latter is achieved by the effec-

119.
tive stimulation and inclusion into the work of a large quantity
of the muscles' functional elements. “Strength development
through the use of resistance movements was demonstrated in 500
B.C. by the legendary Milo of Crotona. According to legend, he
increased his strength enormously by daily lifting a young bull
onto his shoulders. As the bull grew in size so did Milo's
strength. : *
In our own era Milo's idea is personified by the DeLorme
method of progressive resistance exercise (T. DeLorme, 1945; T.
DeLorme, A. Watkins, 1948, 1951; T. DeLorme, et. al., 1952). Es-
sentially, this method consists of developing strength through
repetitively lifting a weight which is gradually increased in the
workout, as well from workout to workout, as strength increases.
However, in that instance when the display of great force
was required, resistance was a natural and without.a doubt a
Means of training, but where speed of movement plays a decisive
role, resistance was used initially, with great care. True, cer-
tain authors have noted that strength-training makes it possible
to increase results in speed type exercises (G. A. Dupperon,
1926; A. D. Lubimov, 1927; A. Curie, 1937; D. P. Markov, 1938, N.
G. Ozolin, 1939; E. Chui, 1950; W. Gullwer, 1955; D. Pennybaker,
1961). However, a long period of experimental and practical ver-
ification was required before this supposition gained acceptance.
At the present time with regards to the use of resistance for
developing speed, this supposition is correct only in connection
to the amount of weight, the coordination structure of the move-
ment, the tempo, the number of repetitions, etc.
When resistance is utilized for stimulating muscular tension
it is necessary to consider the following basic premise. First
of all, strength can be displayed in resistance exercises in the
form of maximal tension or the largest speed of contraction by
the working muscles. One can then talk about strictly strength
exercises in which force is displayed primarily by increasing the
amount of weight and speed-strength exercises in which the dis-
play of force is associated with increasing the speed of movement
(U. S. Farfel, 1940). In the first case, one tries to work with

120.
the largest resistance possible and in the second with resis-

tance, the optimal magnitude of which is determined by the

required speed of movement.

It ought to be pointed out that the work regimes of strength

(primarily slowly) and spéed-strength exercises, (inherently fast

movements ) are essentially different with respect to the physio-

logical mechanisms and the manner in which energy resources are

utilized. It is believed that the execution of quick explosive

movements requires a sufficient level of liveliness from the

basic neural processes, with a high concentration of them at one

time; whereas for the execution of slow movements the basic role

of the nervous system is to create a sufficient output of excita-

tion and maintain it for a relatively long period of time (V. L.
Fedorov, 1957).
In the interests of a more detailed account it is opportune

to look more closely at the dynamic characteristics of movements

(of limit effort) in connection with the magnitude of the resis-

tance d
displaceand the regime of muscular work.
The amount of work increases, naturally, as the weight a

weightlifter raises increases. However, the changes in the power

output of the work are not unidirectional. Initially power out-

put increases, but after the weight of the barbell exceeds 66% of

maximum it begins to decrease (G. B. Chikvadze, 1961). A similar

picture can be observed in the jump with a barbell on the shoul-

ders (figure 47). Maximal dynamic force grows as the weight of

the apparatus increases during the rapid increase in the length

of the movement -- mainly through the active thrust phase. Maxi-

mum power output is. achieved with weights 30-40% of maximum and

the maximal coefficient of reactivity with 30-33% of maximum.

The fact that power and the reactivity coefficient increase
as movement time increases is due to the additional potential
tension accumulated in the muscles from the absorption of the

kinetic energy of the body and the apparatus in the amortization

phase.
Observations of the movement characteristics of lifting

increasingly heavier weights (20, 40, 60, 80% of maximum) in leg

121.
extensions in the sitting position (from an initial angle of 110°
in the knee joint and only in the overcoming regime) (figure 48).
favor such conclusions. It is obvious from the graph that maxi-
mum dynamic force and movement time increase with the increase in
resistance in an analagous fashion to the jumps with a barbell.
However, the surplus potential tension is lacking in this in-
stance, causing a progressive decrease in power output.
Other factors have an influence on the working-effect of a
movement with resistance. Variations in the amount of weight,
the regime of muscular work, the speed and tempo of the movement,
the number of repetitions per set and the duration of the rest
interval between sets significantly change the biomechanical
characteristics of the movement and consequently the training ef-
fect as a whole. Therefore, in each concrete case the selection
of this or that work condition with resistance is of necessity
based upon the specific character of strength displayed in the
specialized exercises.
It should be also added that the resistance, its speed of
movement and the duration of the work with it determines the man-
ner in which it influences which muscles participate in executing
the movement, the coordination of their activities and the
instant the work ceases. The most stable indicator of the co-
ordination structure of muscular activity during the repetitive
lifting of a barbell is the sequential inclusion of the funda~
mental muscles, essential to the given movement, into the work.
With 60% of maximum the muscles taking part in the work remained
constant during experimental observations -- 82% of the time in
all sportsmen. With 80% weights the degree of stereotypicity was
less (bearing an individual character) and was higher for quali-
fied sportsmen. The coordination structure of muscular activity
is disrupted by fatigue (V. G. Pakhomov, 1967).
The composition of the participating muscles can change dur-
ing repetitive work (A.M. Lazareva, 1966, I. M. Kozlov, 1966).
The number of muscle groups participating in a movement can

either decrease (Y. V. Moikin, 1964) or increase .(V. S. Averya~

nov, 1963). In movements executed with little effort or small

122.
 velocity a large part of work is taken up by the muscles of the
body's distal links (K. S. Tochilov, 1946; 5. A. Kosilov, 1948;
M. IL. Vinogradov, 1951). For movements connected with overcoming
significant resistance or executed with large velocity the acti-
vity characteristically shifts to the muscles of the proximal
links.
Thus, the factors just discussed are extraordinarily impor-
tant in so far as their influence on the working-effect of the
movement and the specificity of the strength developed. There-
fore, these factors ought to be considered in accordance with the
peculiarities of the concrete athletic activity when selecting
strength exercises with resistance.
It is necessary to bear in mind the distinctive traits asso-
ciated with the moment force in resistance exercises. For exam-
ple, in the starting position for squat and squat jumps (before
beginning the active working effort) the muscles of the legs and
torso have already developed tension equal to the weight of the
apparatus being held. On the other hand, with the snatch or
clean and jerk the fundamental working force (which accelerates
the apparatus) is developed practically from zero. Thus, we can
divide resistance exercises into two groups: exercises in which
the working force is developed after preliminary muscular tension
. (equal to the weight of the apparatus), and exercises in which
this force is developed from zero (without appreciable prelimin-
ary muscular tension).
The main difference between these groups of exercises is
that the exercises in the first group do not provoke an appreci-
able influence on the processes connected with chemical and phys-
ical transformations in the muscles, the excitation -- tension
link. Consequently depending upon the amount of weight used,
conditions are created chiefly for the development of muscular
strength or the speed of muscular contraction but not the speed
with which muscles switch to the active state. The conditions of
muscular work in the second group of exercises have the
simultaneous potential to develop dynamic-strength, speed of

movement and chiefly starting-strength. It is not difficult to

123.
see that this is not simply a nuance of movement biodynamics. It
has great significance for the perfectioning of strength-training
methods.
Finally, based upon the conditions under which force is
applied, exercises ought to be distinguished by force directed
against the weight of a load and by force directed against the
inertia of a load. In the first instance, lifting a barbell for
example, the working force of the movement is quantitatively
equal to F = m(atg), i.e., determined by the mass of the load and
the acceleration of the force gravity. In the second instance,
the force of the movement is equal to F = ma, i.e., dependent
only upon the load's force of intertia, moving with a certain
acceleration. Examples of such conditions are throwing, jumping
out of the starting blocks, punching, i.e., those situations when
strength operates ina direction perpendicular to the load's
gravitational force.
The differences in the biomechanics of the movements exam-
ined are quite significant. In the first, muscular force ini-
tially becomes equal to the amount of weight to be lifted
(developed practically under isometric conditions) then exceeds
it (beginning of the movement), accelerates the. apparatus and
then the muscular force becomes larger the more it exceeds the
weight of the apparatus. The preliminary isometric muscular ten-
sion causes a large gradient of acceleration-strength, In the
second case, if friction and the resistance of the surroundings
are excluded then the movement of the load begins (in principle)
with the most insignificant external strength. Further changes
in the latter are caused wholly by the speed of muscular contrac-
tion or more precisely the muscles’ ability to "raise" the load
by displaying simultaneously maximal strength and speed of con-
traction. Consequently, conditions where strength resists the
weight of a load stimulate primarily the strength component and
conditions in which strength is directed against a load's force
of inertia to a large degree stimulate the speed of muscular con-
traction.
Thus, in the second case, it is not difficult to see the

124,
possibility for overcoming the dialectical contradiction between

the weight of the burdon and the speed of muscular contraction.

Unfortunately, the necessary special equipment for muscular work

at overcoming the inertia of a load are as yet still not being

utilized in training. However, in one's effort to rationalize

the methods of special strength-training one is ultimately com-

pelled to think about this seriously. The practical possibility

exists for two solutions: the application of force (for example,

the thrust) through a horizontal wheel or suspension (the- same

principle as a pendulum) of the load or untwining a flywheel

(figure 49). In the first example, one can vary the amount of

weight and in the second -- alter the moment of inertia of the

flywheel to affect speed of contraction.

Work with weights should be examined as a special case.
Weights are utilized extensively as-a means of increasing ‘the

difficulty of movement in order to develop various qualitative

motor abilities. Elastic bands (bands, tubes, plaits) are fre-

guently utilized as a means of resistive movement although the

character of the force displayed is dependent upon the elastic

qualities of material; limiting the usefulness of these means.
Therefore, elastic materials should not be utilized for the de-
velopment of starting-strength in ballistic movementsor for

developing explosive-strength. Now this is another matter if one

is speaking of strength-endurance. In this instance, one can se-

lect the length and the elasticity of the band so that its resis~
tance will change insiginificantly within the working amplitude
of the movement. This method is utilized by swimmers for devel-

oping strength endurance in the "pulling" movements (figure 50).

The methods of resistive movement are extraordinarily di-

verse. In each concrete case they are determined by the athletic

exercise and the resolution of two tasks: the stimulation of
muscular contraction and the creation of a facillatory effect for
transference to the natural conditions of the movement (for exam-
ple, putting a regulation shot after training with an overweight

one). Movements can be .made more difficult with small weights,

insignificantly increasing the bodyweight as a whole or its

125.
 Ro fte
© Fa) Py
2 FIGURE 47 - Changes in maximal 200 rang 143
s force (Fmax), movement time aw p:
"a0 x 1 | N gery
(t), coefficient of reactive- .
ra, 160 50
Z3 ness (R) and work power (N) 0,50) 4D
volte Lh 40
Brier
q
for leaping (barbell on the
+ . .
shoulders) with increasing
0,40 i = AeS) 130
<Vv
weight. 0,30 tao] Nos feo
a oF 8
Results 4 32 GD 68 86 P(e %orP.)
FIGURE 46 - Introduction of
means with higher training Fen Nore)
effect. ral 0 4(c)
@ 7 al 06
FIGURE 4B - Changes in maximal imo WA wa 60
force (Fmax), work power (N) 80] 03
and movement time (t) for a 60] NI Be
leg-press with increasing re- 40 N 40 40
sistance. 0 20 40 BO
Lin
80 P(e
% 07 Pp}
5
FIGURE 51 - Pressing @ barbell
after it has fallen from some
height.

- Turning a flywheel FIGURE - Cable exercise for

50
FIGURE 49
by flexing the forearm. developing strength endurance
in the swimming strokes.

: pe Eee
Pricey 2 eeety NUH Fe
Hf) etary 0 02 a4 a6 O8
ye 0.5 (O28 Pt
We i
Nae ' anu (73d 1

+" Sd he Ws L
FIGURE 52 - Development of
force for various vertical
MW jumps: leaping from a low
a ‘ | t-
squat (1), the usual jump with
a 0 403 O23" 300)
1 hb 0 amortization (2), after a
a x tT rr a TY
P PHD P20 Ped Pea depth-jump from 0.4 M (3).
FIGURE 55 - Take-off charac- The heights of the jump were
FIGURE 54 - Take-off teristics after depth jumping 0.67, 0.74 and 0.80 M respec~
characteristics after an tively. The subject's weight
from gradually greater heights
unloaded depth-jump (P) and is an the ordinate.
(h); t-time, Fmax-maximal
with 10, 20, 30 and 40 kg; t- force, N- work power, R-
time, h2-height of the jump, coefficient of reactivity.
f-mean of total force, R-co-
efficient af reactiveness.
BO ?
PH33%
" in height {201 a ! &
FIGURE 53 - Changes
— mo 5
(h2) of thrown objects of dif- Peper ‘
= im/t bo"
ferent weight (P) after having ;
Ps {
fallen from different heights
“ ar
(hl) and the coefficient of paiva 2
reactivity (R), depending upon n
n PHI3% |
the kinetic energy of the
€0 EB bE eH) 0
ig
fallin j
object (Wk). OE

12
Loa)
links. This is accomplished with belts, weights, cuffs, sand-

bags, boots and others. This effect can also be obtained by

running ‘in water, deep snow, up a hill, or rowing against a

hydro-resistor. Based on a review of the principles of neuro-

muscular stimulation with weights and supported by the facts

stated in the preceding chapters an orthodox conclusion should be

formulated. Exercises with weights are not adequate means for

the development of speed of movement (the speed of unloaded move-

ment or movement against a relatively small external resistance),

especially for highly-qualified sportsmen. Careful analysis of

experimental and empirical data indicates that increasing speed

of movement through resistive exercises (i.e., through absolute

muscular strength) is primarily for novice sportsmen. This is

completely justified for augmenting muscular strength; and froma

physiological standpoint promotes a quicker realization of move-

ment. However, this factor quickly exhausts itself and at first

a positive influence, it becomes negative, because resistive

exercises not only improve the physiological mechanisms essential

for the rapid realization of movement but also have a negative

influence on them.
If one speaks of speed-strength movements (characterized by

explosive force) associated with overcoming significant resis-

tance, then resistive exercises are definitely useful but only in

those cases when they are executed in certain (specific to the

special exercise) regimes of muscular work, at a reasonable vol-

ume, at specific stages of training.

3.2.2 Kinetic Energy
Let's consider the instance where a training apparatus, say

a barbell, has some velocity obtained as a result of falling from

some height and the sportsman's task consists of first actively

stopping it then quickly thrusting it in the opposite direction,

i.e., upward (figure 51). Under similar circumstances the mean

sum of the muscles' working force developed by yielding amorti-

zation then active overcoming work is:

Vy2 V52
Fem (‘1% +g) +m (2° +49Q).
2s
nN
wn
uw

127.
 Principally, as regards to muscle dynamics, a pecularity of
such a movement is that in the amortization phase the kinetic
energy of the apparatus is transformed into some potential muscu-
lar tension which is then utilized in the overcoming work. In
principle, the magnitude of this potential is equal to the
kinetic energy of the apparatus at the end of its fall (depending
upon the weight and the height of the fall). The absolute
muscular force developed at the instant of switching from
yielding work to overcoming will be greater the shorter the amor-
tization path and shorter the braking time. Naturally, this
applies to those conditions when the action as a whole is ori-
ented to thrusting the apparatus with maximum speed immediately
after it has been stopped. Thus, what we are talking about is
completely different from the traditional stimulation of muscular
tension. The external mechanical irritant is not so much the
weight (and its force of inertia) as the energy accummulated
after its free-fall.
If one considers dynamics of muscular work with different
variations of the take-off in the vertical jump for example (fig-
ure 52), ait is not difficult to see that such a means of
stimulating muscular tension has significant advantages. First
-- it secures a very quick development of maximal dynamic force.
Second -- the magnitude of this maximum is significantly larger
than in the other cases. Third -- a large (and this should be
emphasized) magnitude of maximal force is achieved without util-
izing additional resistance. Fourth -- switching from yielding
to overcoming work occurs far faster than in the other cases.
Fifth and lastly -- the significant potential muscular tension
accumulated in the amortization phase (without additional resis-
tance) secures muscular work of greater power in the thrust phase
and faster muscular contraction; which can be adduced from the
greater height. the body attains in the subsequent jump upward.
Thus, stimulation of muscular tension by means of absorbing
the energy of the sportsman's falling body or a training appara-
tus can secure a significant force of muscular contraction (which
is impossible with other means of mechanical stimulation) without

128.
using weight or with a small burdon; and not only without slowing

the speed of muscular contraction, but even increasing it in com-

parison to the usual conditions. It is not difficult to see the

even greater possibility of overcoming the fatal contradiction

between external resistance and the speed of movement than in the

aforementioned case where muscular strength is acting against the

force of inertia in overcoming a weight.

The first experimental steps taken to study the features of

this principle of muscular stimulation revealed its exclusive

effectiveness for developing explosive-strength and principally

its components, such as starting-strength. The potential to

develop starting-strength is limited because it is dependent upon

man's ability to concentrate to this or that degree ona voli-

tional effort. This strength is acquired very slowly in train-

ing. Particularly stressful conditions are required -- an irri-~

tant of such strength that it provokes the appropriate adaptive

reaction. Even the variety of strength exercises (with resis—

tance) in practice does not fulfill these requirements although

the element which includes muscles in the active state (i.e., the

emphasis is on the phase where force is developed from zero) is

lacking in the majority of them.

A number of studies suggest that such exercises can have a

place if, for example muscular tension is achieved through an

abrupt stretch (R. Ramsey, 1944; A. Hill, 1955; A. Tweit, et.al.,

1963) which occurs at the instant a falling body or apparatus is

stopped. It should be emphasized that significant and instantan-

eous development of muscular tension in this instance is due to

the extraneous mobilization of the latent motor resources of the

motor apparatus which creates the conditions for the development

of starting-strength and the explosive-abilities of the muscles.

Thus, we are speaking of a specific work regime which no

resistance exercise can imitate. Stimulation of muscular

activity with resistance slows the movement from yielding to

overcoming work. The utilization of energy of a falling body or

apparatus for mechanical stimulation requires the muscles to

develop significant potential tension, utilize it in

initially

129.
overcoming the inertia of a relatively small weight, then quickly
switch to overcoming work and display a high speed of contrac-
tion.
2
Kinetic energy (Wk = ) is determined by the weight of the

body and the height of its fall. Therefore, in the interests of

methodology it is important to know how the stimmulatory
influence of energy changes. In order to do this in the labora-
tory we constructed a special experimental stand to measure the
height a load attains when a subject throwsit upward after it
has first fallen from some height (from 0.5 to 3.0 meters). The
kinetic energy utilized for muscle stimulation varied according
to the weight (3.3; 6.6; 9.9; 13.6% of the maximum isometric
strength) and the height of the fall. The experiment showed that
an increase in kinetic energy due to an increase in the amount of
weight causes the height to which a load is thrown to decrease,
but an increase in the distance a load falls increases the height
to which it is thrown. An analogous picture emerges from re-
search on reactive ability (figure 53). This tendency in
general, is peculiar to movements executed under other conditions
although there, they have their own peculiarities (figures 54
and 55). These examples show that it is clearly not advantageous
to increase kinetic energy by means of the amount of weight. It
is therefore necessary to examine a better means of increasing
height. The depth-jump (figure 55), which has immediate practi-
cal significance for developing jumping ability is an example.
Thus, maximum force increases up to a height of 1.5 meters then
diminishes sharply; movement time begins by changing insignifi-
cantly, then it increases sharply. Maximum power and reactivity
are achieved at a height of 0.75 meters. Thus, the optimal range
of depth jumping for the stimulation of muscular activity is
0.75-1.15 meters because at the onset of work the muscles are
working at maximal power and at the end at maximal dynamic force.
This data is the basis for the recommendations to utilize depth-
jumps for qualified jumpers (Y¥. V. Verkhoshansky, 1963, 1964,
1966).

130.
 Apparently, this fact merits attention -- subsequent | in-
creases in the height of the depth-jump significantly lessens the
dynamic parameters of the take-off. The support time increases
quickly, primarily because the instant of switching from yielding
to overcoming work is lengthened. The maximum dynamic force and
the speed of muscular contraction stablize. There is a clear
division of the take-off into two actions -- the amortization --
where the kinetic energy of the fall is absorbed and the thrust
proper. The amortization is characterized by the increasing
depth of the squat and the thrust proper by a constant speed of
muscular contraction.
Thus, the positive effect of muscular stimualtion by absorp-
tion of kinetic energy from a fall can be utilized successfully
only under certain conditions, taking into consideration the
optimal heights of the fall, bodyweight,or weight of the appara-
tus; as well as in that instance if the action as a whole is
oriented to a quick take-off. However, the working conditions of
the neuro-muscular apparatus at the instant of the amortization
of the falling body from a significant height can have indepen-
dent training significance. Tension developed instantaneously
during this perfects the ability of the muscles to quickly switch
to the active state. At any rate experience indicates that this
is of no detriment to speed-strength preparation and the support
apparatus. Although additional research is required in order to
seriously speak of practical recommendations in this area.
Well then, muscle stimulation through the absorption of
energy of a falling body or apparatus is a very effective method.
The basis for it lies in the ability of the muscles to contract
with more power after a sharp preliminary stretch. Nature cre-
ated this mechanism in order for man to successfully struggle
with the force of his body's inertia in extreme situations; it is
preserved well.by utilization in the practice of sport.
Preliminary stretching of muscle has a place in a number of
strength exercises such as squats and jumps with a barbell on the
shoulders. However, it is not as intense as braking the velocity
of a preliminary fall which is characteristically sharp, anda

131.
_ shock. Therefore, the method of muscle stimulation by means of

absorbing the kinetic energy of a fall was called the "shock

method" (¥. V. Verkhoshansky, 1966, 1968). Our research (1958-
1976) has taken only the first steps in studying and formulating
this method. A lot of research (V. V. Kuznetsov, 1966; V. N. Pa-

pysheva, 1966; V. I. Chudinov, 1966; L. ¥. Chernesheva, 1967; V.

G. Semenov, 1967; V. P. Savin, 1974; V. V. Tatian, 1974; A. V.
Khodykin, 1975) has corroborated the effectiveness of this
method. However, more work is needed in the laboratory and under
natural training conditions before its uses are exhausted.
3.2.3 Volitional Effort
Situations are possible where external factors are indis~-
pensable conditions to the display of muscular strength but do
not have essential significance for its magnitude. Isometric
tension (the magnitude of which is determined primarily by voli-
tional effort) is utilized extensively for strength development.
The idea is to create tension in a muscle group by applying force
to an immovable object and hold this tension for some time per-
iod. The length of the muscle does not change and the muscular
force remains relatively constant.
In athletics, isometric exercises were very popular abroad
in the mid-fifties as a result of the search for economical and
at the same time effective methods of developing strength. T.
Hettinger and E. Mueller (1953, 1955) established that one daily
effort 2/3 maximum for a period of six seconds over a period of
10 weeks will increase strength about 5% per week; H. Clark, et.
al. (1954) found that static strength continues to increase even
after the conclusion of a four-week program of exercises.
The success of isometric training provoked a chain reaction
of research. Naturally for the most part, much of it was con-

cerned with the question: which is more effective -- isometric

or dynamic training. This research produced rather contradictory

data (for a detailed review and analysis of the works see Y. V.

Verkhoshansky, 1970). However, the general conclusions which are

drawn from an analysis of the factual material are as follows:

isometric training can be more effective than dynamic in those

132.
cases where the special exercise requires a muscular contraction

of large magnitude. If the special exercise is of necessity a

high-speed movement, then isometric training is less effective.

Research indicates there is need for discretion in similar dis-
criminations between the training-effect of static and dynamic

exercises. The fact is, muscular tension should increase slowly

and be held for a relatively long time when executing isometric

exercises because the purpose of isometric training is to develop

absolute-strength. Maintenance of muscular tension for a long

time requires a corresponding energy expenditure which stimulates

an adequate adaptive displacement in the neuro-muscular appara-

tus; determining its strength potential. This .can

displacement

be more than
significant momentary dynamic tension. If one takes

into account the fact that a number of authors have not

discovered an essential difference in the growth of strength

utilizing tension of various intensities, then it is obvious that

the fundamental training factor is not so much the magnitude of

the isometric tension as it is its duration.

If isometric exercises are executed with the accent on the
speed of developing force, then they can be as effective for the

development of explosive-strength as dynamic exercises. The

steepness of the force-time curve (see figure 29) and larger

(than dynamic) maximum force is the basis for this assertion.

Therefore, it is doubtful whether it is worthwhile to place a

border between dynamic and isometric exericse. In general, the

more the muscles work (in raising large loads) the closer the
work is to isometric tension; and even greater explosive-force
can be displayed isometrically than with the dynamic regime.

In connection with this, it makes sense to distinguish iso-

metric training to develop absolute-strength and isometric train-

ing to develop explosive-strength and utilize one or the other in

appropriate circumstances. However this still requires experi-

mental corroboration. At any rate, isometrics ought not be

neglected for strength development and the negative expression of

the inappropriateness .of this method which can be found in the

methodical literature is very premature.

133.
 It is necessary to bear in mind the following advantages of
isometric training, as demonstrated by its adherents:
l- The popularity of isometrics lies in the simplicity of
the equipment.
2- The possibility to locally influence any muscle group at
a specific joint angle. During dynamic work the display of maxi-
mal effort at the necessary joint angle can be achieved only for
a fraction of a second. In some cases, this is generally not
possible since the movement's inertia quickly moves the apparatus
through that position at which the muscular tension would yield
the greatest effect. Such a joint angle can be fixed precisely
during isometric training.
3- Taking into consideration the time expended; the training
is very productive. Each 6-second isometric contraction is in-
its effect equal to many dynamic contractions (ballistic type) in
which maximal force is of a duration no more than 0.1 seconds.
From a practical standpoint this means that 10-minutes of
isometric tension in specially selected exercises replaces a
fatiguing hour of training with weights.
4- There is an insignificant increase in muscle mass and
body weight in comparison with dynamic strength work -- particu-
larly with pressing exercises.
5- There is by far a lesser expenditure of time and energy
than dynamic training with weights. It is possible to preserve a
high level of speed-strength in the period of crucial competi-
tions. ‘
6- There is a greater potential for visual and kinesthetic
retention of the position needed-than in the dynamic regime.
This gives isometrics a decisive advantage for studying and cor-
recting errors.
Isometrics have the following negative aspects: they fa-
tigue the nervous system and have a harmful influence on the
cardio-vascular system, decrease coordination and speed of move-
ment; and worsen the elasticity of the muscles. However, with
the proper uniform breathing, sequence of work and rest, pauses
between exercises for relaxation, and limiting the length of

134.
contraction to no more than six seconds (some authors recommend

10 the
seconds) harmful after-effects of isometric exercises are
eliminated.
The following methods of execution are recommended for the
development of absolute-strength with isometric exercises:
1- Tension is executed against an immovable solid structure
or against the resistance of a partner. The shortcoming of this
type of exercise is that the increase in tension resulting from
training can only be determined subjectively.
2- Tension utilizing a weight which is raised and held for a
specified period of time. A variation of this method is the in-
terval of tension when the load is slowly shifted through a wide
working amplitude with stops. This enables one to work the mus-
cle's entire amplitude and assess the growth of strength by the
increase in weight.
3- Tension through a preliminary lifting of a weight to a
support (Hoffman method). This method begins with a short dyna-
mic phase and gives the sportsman a specific idea of the magni-
tude of the. tension. He can lift the weight several times
between the stops then execute an isometric contraction for the
necessary duration.
4- Tension utilizing a dynamometer or other resistance per-.
mitting control of the strength of muscular tension.
In all cases it is necessary to 1) apply force gradually to
the immovable object; 2) hold the maximal tension no longer than
6-seconds; 3) limit the duration of isometric tension to 10-min-
utes; 4) finish off the training session with relaxation exer-
cises.
It should be added that if the purpose is to develop explo-
sive-strength then the isometric tension should be generated with
the maximum speed possible to a magnitude of 70-80% of maximum.
Isometric.exercises can be extraordinarily diverse depending

upon the purposes for their use. It is impossible to recommend

exercises for each case. Athletes who are aware of the basic

methodological tenets of. isometric training (with some creativity

and based upon the known principle of dynamic correspondence) are

135.
able to select the necessary exercises.
3.2.4 Some Additions
It has already been stated that the interest in studying the
peculiarities of muscular work in athletic activities is associ-
ated with the determination of those regimes which during the
execution of the special exercise would ensure that the
sportsman's motor potential will be utilized to the fullest and
the training conditions yield the highest effect from the special
strength training. In the latter case, research has been done in
basically two directions. The purpose of one (with a basic com-
parative experiment) was to determine the most effective regime.
The purpose of the second was to determine the most effective
combination of the various regimes of muscular work or combina-
tion in one exercise or the application of a complex within a
specified period of time.
It should be asserted, however, that research projects of
this sort are not very numerous and have a number of deficien-
cies. Pirst, they are carried out with sportsmen of low quali-
fication; second, in many cases there is a distinct tendency to
deliberately show a preference to that regime which is fashion-
able -~ for example with isometrics and then with eccentrics.
Therefore, to speak of anything definitive in terms of effectness
(more so in absolute terms) of this or any regime or combination
of them is premature. One can only closely represent the state
of this problem and draw preliminary conclusions.
From the “new", if you can call it that, regimes of muscular
work utilized for strength development, we should consider two:
isokinetic and static-dynamic. ,
The isokinetic method was very popular in the latter part of
the 60's and early 70's particularly in the U.S.A. Essentially
this method involves the use of a special apparatus which auto-
matically changes the external resistance to the movement, limits
its speed and ensures a maximum load on the muscles throughout
the entire working amplitude. In other words, the limiting fac-
tor is the speed with which the exercise is executed not the
magnitude of the resistance as it is in weightlifting exercises.

136.
The resistance increases as the speed increases.
In isokinetics, the resistance is a function of the force
applied. The isokinetic trainer slows the velocity of the move-
ment so that the sportsman can fully utilize the working ampli-
tude of the movement for muscular tension. The trainer is con-
structed so as to permit loads of various magnitude: from the
force of finger pressure to hundreds of pounds. The sportsman
applies maximum force and the apparatus automatically varies the
resistance. Because muscular force and work-capacity vary in the
course of executing a concrete movement the resistance automatic-
ally accommodates to the muscles' ability at each point in the
working amplitude. The isokinetic device provides the muscles
with a near-maximal load on each repetition of the exercise inde-
pendent of mechanical advantage. This, accommodating resistance
spontaneously correlates with the specific work-capacity of the
sportsman's muscles. ,
The basic advantage of the isokinetic method over others (as
considered by one of the pioneers and one who popularized its
utilization in training sportsmen, James Counsilman 1971, 1972)
is that this method forces the muscles to work with maximal
effort all the time and renders a larger, faster. increase in
strength; even for very strong sportsmen. Even allowing for the
commercial motives of the trainer's authorities it is noteworthy
that their claims have been already corroborated by considerable
research (D. Chu, G. Smith, 1971; I Rosentswieg, M. Hinson, 1972;
M. Hinson, I. Rosentswieg, 1972; I. Wilson, 1972). The results
of these studies tell of the following advantages of the isokin-
etic method of strength-training.
l- The isokinetic device accommodates to the sportsman's
capabilities throughout the range of motion (not the sportsman
accommodating to the resistance). It is due this that the
sportsman is .unable to do more than he is capable under these
conditions. The trainer automatically accommodates to muscular
fatigue or pain as well as the increase in strength resulting
from the training. Such a method eliminates the possibility of
injury.

137.
 (for weightlifting exercises)
2- The necessity of a warm-up
minutes one can get a
isokinetics; and in five
is eliminated with
sportsmen may train as
Despite the fact that
very good workout.
capabilities, it's not neces—
and have different strength
a team
sportsman, thereby saving
to adjust the trainer to each
sary
:
time.
which automatically accommodates
3- By utilizing resistance
can be achieved with a
applied significant strength
to the force
exercise since each repetition
number of repetitions per
lesser
the entire range of motion.
"loads" the muscle throughout
his results displayed on a
The sportsman is able to see
4-
is available on some isokin-
meter or on 4 graph (which
special
thus is able to compete with
while exercising and
etic trainers)
himself or with other sportsmen.
isometric, dynamic and
number of studies have compared
A
strength development (H.
for effectiveness of
isokinetic regimes
M. H. Hinson, 1972).
et.al-, 1967; I. Rosentswieg,
“G. Thistle,
isokinetic exercise is characterized
Tt has been established that
the muscles, the best growth,
electrical activity in
by a larger
strength indices. More signifi-
maintenance and loss of muscular
shorter period of time as
in muscular strength in a
cant gains
to strength training are
a shorter period of time devoted
well as
this, it ensures the
isokinetic training. Besides
possible with
strength because of
specificity of trained
necessary qualitative
and dose the speed of muscular
the trainer's ability to control

contraction. .
of developing muscular strength
The static-dynamic method
(in one exercise) of two
the sequential combination
involves
and dynamic (aukso-
muscular activity —- isometric
regimes of
distinct quantitative charac~
can express their own
tonic) which
these variations of static-dynamic exer
teristics. For example,
-- a 2-3 second isometric
have been shown to be effective
cise
by dynamic work of an explosive
(808 of maximum) followed
tension and
maximum or in both the isometric
with a load 30% of
character
load of. 75-80% of maximumis util-
dynamic components, a-.constant
lowers into the half-
the latter case the sportsman
ized. In

138.
squat position with a barbell on his shoulders, holds this posi-
tion for 2~seconds then with maximal speed, jumps upward. After

landing he repeats the exercise. It has been established exper-

imentally that the first variant of static-dynamic exercise is

better for developing speed-strength than only dynamic exercise.

The second variant has an equivalent affect on the improvement of

speed-strength and absolute-strength (I. M. Dobrovolsky, 19372,

1973).
Of all these regimes, which is the most effective?

It is difficult to answer this question for a number of

reasons. First, all encompassing research which could evaluate

the effectiveness of all the diversity of regimes has not been

conducted. An attempt for example,to study the effectiveness of

yielding, overcoming, holding and combined regimes revealed some

advantages of the overcoming over the yielding and holding but

the main method -- the combined regimes had the obvious advan-

tage (B. A. Pletnev, 1975). Second, similar research is diffi-

cult with respect to controlling the training loads of the dif-

ferent regimes (without which the research loses its meaning).

And finally, it is not right to raise the question of the abso-

lute effectiveness of this or that regime. Each of them can be

the most effective depending upon the stage of the yearly cycle,

qualification of the sportsman, the primary regime of muscular

work in the special exercise, that qualitative specificity of the

strength ability which one must acquire as a result of training,

and others. :
Today it can be ascertained with reasonable certainty that
the most rational means.of raising the effectiveness of special

strength preparation is to combine the various regimes of muscu-

lar work. This has been corroborated by a number of studies (A.

N. Vorobyev, 1966; V. A. Andrianov, A. N. Vorobyev, 1969; V. V.

Kuznetsov, 1970; Y¥. V. Verkhoshansky, 1970, 1972; A. P. Slobod-

yan, 1972; V. V. Tatyan, 1974; B. A. Pletnev, 1975; A. V Khody-

kin, 1975; V. P. Savin, 1974 and others). Such a combination is

selected by taking into consideration the .cummulative effect

inherent to it and the correspondance of the qualitative speci-

139.
fics of those requirements of the concrete conditions of the

athletic activity.
Recently training devices for strength development have

become very popular. They are specially constructed to provide

resistance to various movements. Depending on the setting they

are suppose to imitate the athletic exercise or certain elements

in order to provide the necessary specific loads in the

of it
different regimes of muscular work (I. P. Ratov, 1976). Research

on the utilization of training devices in the practice of athle-

tics (G. P. Semenov, 1970; V. V. Petrova, G. D. Gorbunov, 1970;

V. Verkhoshansky, 1970; D. N. Deniskin, V. V. Kuznetsov, 1972;

Yv.
I. M. Dobrovolski, 1972, 1973; V. V. Kuanetsov, I. P. Aiunts,

Vv. P. Savin, 1974; and others) has shown them to be highly

1974:
effective for the special strength-training of sportsmen. This

can be explained by the fact that they permit the strict regula-

of the spatial characteristics of the movement and dosage of

tion
the load in order to utilize extensively, the effective regimes

of muscular work and to program the character of the displayed

force over time. They reproduce stereotypical training movements

and are economical for the athlete in terms of time and energy.

enormous advantage of training devices consists of the fact

One
it is possible to secure crucial visual information about
that
the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the movement

as well as to control the sportsman's special strength-training.

All of these advantages create significant potential for perfect-

ing the system of the sportsman's special strength-training.

Therefore, the introduction of various types of training devices

important task. ,
is a very
The Principle of "Dynamic Correspondence" as a Means of
3.3
Strength-Training for the Special Exercise 7

Devising methods of special strength-training is associated

of all with the selection of the means and methods for the
First
development of muscular strength.
of man's movements are concrete and purposeful. There-
Each
strength. displayed.in the execution of each movement is
fore, the
purposeful. One shouldn't speak of strength in
also concrete and

140.
general but only in the context of the movement task and the

character of the realization of this movement task. In other

words, the means and methods of strength-training should provide
an adequate work regime for the motor apparatus in the special
exercises and further qualitative improvement.
The methodological essence of this assertion is formulated

in the so-called principle of dynamic (strength) correspondence

which includes a number of theoretical and experimentally based

criteria; that should be a guide in the selection of the means

and methods strength development in conformity to concrete athle-

tic activities. Such criteria take into consideration the bio-

mechanical peculiarities of muscular work. during the execution of

the sport movements and are naturally, of a general character.

One of them can be of large, another of lesser importance in

carrying-out the demands of the special strength-training; de-

pending on ‘the athletic activity. Therefore, the coach and

athlete should always take a creative approach to the realization

of these demands. .
3.3.1 The Amplitude and Direction of Movements
The criteria of correspondence with respect to the amplitude

and direction originates from the spatial characteristics of the

movement relative to the adjacent body part. It determines which

muscles are involved in the work and allows for anatomical pecu-

liarities and the external conditions of work; especially the

direction of the external counteraction to the muscles’ pull, the

movement of the system's links. Thus, the movement of the shoul-

der girdle of a rower or a shot putter is about the same in amp-

litude but the direction of the working force is different (fig-

ure 56). In the first case the pulling of the oars involves
shoulder extension and in the second -- shoulder flexion acting

in opposition to the shot's force of inertia.

The importance of the correspondence of muscular work, in

terms of the criteria examined can be illustrated by the follow-

ing example. In track and field, jumpers and sprinters do exer-

cises to develop the hip flexor muscles such as hip.flexion with

a barbell plate on the thigh in a standing position. However,

141.
the amplitude of the thigh's movement in running and jumping

(moving the legs forward) is significantly greater than the amp-

litude of this exercise and begins at an angle of about 210° in

the iliofemoral joint, relative to the torso (figure 57). There-

fore, the execution of this exercise in the standing position

does not duplicate the mechanism of the movement in the special

exercise (jumping, sprinting, Ed.). If the sportsman's position

is changed (figure 58) the criterion of the correspondence is met

not only with respect to the amplitude of the movement but also

the criteria of correspondence of the external opposition of mus-

cular force, since the resistance (in the movement with resis-
tance) will imitate the inertial resistance of the mass of the
leg rotating at the iliofemoral joint in the special exercise.

By altering the amount of weight, the number of repetitions and

the tempo of movement the task of educating the strength to

display the force required and also the strength endurance, will

be solved. Thus, in order to realize the criteria of correspon-

dence with respect to the amplitude and direction of movement it

is advisable to select the exact initial position and posture of

the sportsman as well as calculate the direction of the action of

the force of gravity of the system's working links and the addi-
tional load. ; ,
It is necessary to take into consideration that the direc-

tion of the external resistance of the movement is important and

also the loaded movement as a whole. For example, in middle dis-

tance running, skiing and skating .a knapsack full of sand or a

weight belt is utilized for resistance. However, the muscles

which bear the load are those resisting the weight of the body.

This can increasethe

: vertical makeup of the dynamic interaction
with the support and develop general strength-endurance but does

not strengthen those muscles which move the body. In an analo-

gous position a skater executes jumps on one leg on the floor or

from a bench. These exercises strengthen the leg muscles sup-

porting the body and the static-endurance of the back muscles but

do not fully imitate the working of the muscles for.the push-off

where the force is directed backward. Skaters should utilize

142.
another method of resistive movement by means of changing the

direction in which the force of resistance is acting (figure 59).

These methods, to the greatest extent, conform the training exer-

cise to the dynamics of the special exercise.

In athletics, the working-force is developed by the simul-

taneous coordinated tension of the muscle groups which move the

various segments of the body. The most characteristic example of

such cooperation of the working muscles is the simultaneous

flexion and extension at the iliofemoral joints (running, jump-

ing, fencing, figure skating, basketball, tennis and others)

where the angular movement of one leg furthers the push-off move-

ment of the other. It is useful to imitate this combination with

a special strength-exercise which takes into account the working

amplitude of the movement and the direction of the opposing force

(figure 60).
3.3.2 The Accentuated Part of the Working Amplitude of Movement

Muscular effort changes in the course of movements and

maximum force is developed at the necessary instant. In ballis-

tic movements this instant corresponds to the beginning part of
the working amplitude and in movements of mixed regimes of muscu-

lar work -- at the instant of switching from one regime to

another. Thus, the working amplitude always has an accentuated

part at which the maximum dynamic force occurs and which |

corresponds to a specific joint angle. Based on this, the cri-

teria of correspondence anticipates the necessity to display the

required force at a specific joint angle.

Looking back to the previous example it should be noted that

the accentuated part of the working amplitude of the leg movement

is the beginning (see figure 57), as indicated in the graph of

the rotation moment; during the rotational hip flexion in the air

(figure 61). Consequently, the sportsmen of whom we spoke not

only do not .maintain the requirement of reproducing the full

amplitude of the movement but lose the potential to train the

muscles to generate the necessary force at the necessary angle in

the iliofemoral joint.

This example vividly depicts the importance of the starting

143.
FIGURE 56 - Amplitude of FIGURE 59 ~ Means of increas~
shoulder movement of a rower ing the skating resistance.
and shot-putter.

FIGURE 5B ~ Exercise for

FIGURE 57 - The most common
developing hip flexion
working amplitude of movement
strength by taking into
for flexion (A), extension
consideration the accentuated
(B), at the iliofemoral joint
part of the amplitude and the
and extension at the knee
resistance to the force of
joint (C) in sport exercises.
muscle pull.
The amplitude js shaded.

44 (xia)
BO
in the
wolf» FIGURE 61 - Change

\ rotary moment force during

repetitive flexjon-extensio
n
mit NX
of the leg duri ng the take -off
jump.
for the triple
c)
0,032 0.064 0,096 0,128 160

FIGURE 462 - Special strength

exercise imitating flexion-
extension at the hip joint.

FIGURE 60 - Complex strength

exercise for the simultaneous
strengthening of the hip
flexors and extensors and knee
extensors.

144
position for the execution of the special strength exercises that
have a local affect on the motor apparatus. The strength exer-
cise should not only reproduce the full amplitude of the movement
but also the specific direction of the opposition to the pull of
the muscles. Following these requirements can sometimes lead to

such initial positions which are incongruous and artificial

(figure 62), however this only occurs when an exercise is at-
tempted without taking into consideration the criteria examined.
It is possible to develop force at the required joint angles
with isometric exercises and they have particular value in this

regard. With isometrics one can locally influence certain muscle

groups by taking into consideration the accentuated parts of. the

amplitude of the movements they are involved in. Therefore the

selection of these exercises should be based on the joint angle

at which maximal motor force is developed in the special exer~

cise.
3.3.3 Dynamic Effort
The criterion of dynamic effort is the correspondence of the

dynamics of the training means of the special exercise from the

standpoint of its quantitative characteristics. This criterion

expresses and specifies the known methodical principle that

according to the magnitude of the training irritant it should not
be inferior to the conditions of the execution of the exercise at
the corresponding level of mastery, but in principle exceed it.

In other words the effort generated in training should not be

inferior to the effort generated in the special exercise.

What characteristic of force should be considered the’ cri-
terion of correspondence of strength: it's maximum ox mean mag~

nitude?
Depending upon external conditions man can display Limit

strength in two forms: in moving significant or light loads.

The maximum force can be larger in the second case than in the

first, however it is not necessary to select only the second ex~

ercise even if the maximum achieved corresponds to the dynamics

of the special exercise. At this point it is important to

proceed first of all from the duration and character of the

145.
effort. The fact is that the external force (according to its
qualitative characteristics) displayed in these two cases is dif-
ferent: in the first, maximum force is achieved by the absolute-
strength of the muscles; and by the speed of contraction in the
second. Therefore, the working potential of the strength and
training effects of the respective movements are also different.
From this it follows that in striving for a high maximal effort
in training the sportsman should accurately acquaint himself with
what sort of strength he needs and realize the criteria of cor-
respondence according to the amount of effort and be sure to take
into consideration the movement time in the special exercise. In
other words, correspondence with respect to the maximum and mean

magnitude of strength can be determined only by calculating the

speed of movement. If the sportsman finds the means for securing
this possibility he can be confident that he is on the right
track in the organization of the special strength-training.
The following can be ascertained from a general examination
of conditions. If in the special exercise the sportsman is to
overcome a large resistance, for example a load of constant mag-
nitude moved with a relatively low speed or active resistance
created in opposition, then training primarily should be oriented
to developing maximal effort. If the sportsman has to deal with
a small resistance in the special exercise and must execute the
movement with maximal speed then as the criterion of correspon-
dence he should apply a moderate amount of effort, taking into
account the movement time.
3.3.4 The Speed of Displaying of Maximum Effort
The criterion of correspondence as regards to the speed of
developing maximum effort compliments the criterion of force and
is particularly important in those athletic activities requiring
explosive-strength. We have already said that the strength dis-
played in training should be examined by taking into account the
speed with which it is displayed, which is the same as the time
taken to execute the movement. In this case it is of necessity
oriented to a moderate amount of force which includes such char-
acteristics as impulse force (Ft), power of work

146.
 and the coefficient of reactivity (R= £E ).

'd
These methods are more than adequate for evaluating explo-

sive-strength although depending on conditions the significance

of each of them can be different. Thus, evaluation with the

impulse-force, objectively characterizing the working potential-

force, is acceptable only in that instance where it is not neces-

sary to compare different movements. If such a necessity arises

then the objectivity of the given evaluation is preserved only if

the time is constant. However, the latter does not correspond to

_the biomechanical specifics of man's movements. Therefore

impulse-force as a practical measurement loses (in this concrete

case) its universalness.
There is a specific tendency in the quantitative perfection-
ing of movement that is expressed by. the constant shortening of

movement time by the action of increasing muscular force. It is

therefore methodologically more correct to base power of work (N)

or the magnitude of dynamic overload of a working organ on unit

of time (R). Such an evaluation to a large degree expresses the

essence of the quantitative additions to the movement and conse~

quently is a more objective criterion of comparison.
in those cases where the working-effort is displayed ina
limited amount of time a necessary condition of the movement's
effectiveness is the speed with which maximum effort is devel-

oped. In other words, if it is necessary for the sportsman to

display a large force within some time limit; he should do it

quickly. Such a necessity is dictated by the conditions of the

activity and by the anatomical peculiarites of man's motor appar—

atus, especially the limited working amplitude of movement.

Thus, the speed with which the required maximum effort is

developed (assessed by the gradient-force) is an important eri-

terion of correspondence for the resolution of the task of

special strength-training. This qualitative characteristic is

directly connected with the specific peculiarities of the neuro-

147.
motor mechanisms of movement and requires their direct perfec-
tioning.
It should be pointed out that the realization of the cri-

terion of correspondence in regards to the strength and the speed

with which it achieves maximum creates its own intricate problem,

the successful resolution of which is primarily dependent upon
the efficiency of the training process.
3.3.5 Regimes of Muscular Work
The criterion of correspondence with respect to the regime,

presupposes the necessity to determine the character of muscular

work in athletic activities. The regime of muscular work should

be taken into consideration for the selection of the means of

special strength-training. However, this criterion has great

significance for determining the method of developing strength.

The fact is, depending upon the character of its execution, one

and the same means can resolve different tasks. For example,

boxers and shot putters can execute the same exercise (say, doing
a thrusting movement with the arm, against the resistance of a

pulley device) with different weights, tempos, number of sets and

repetitions; because one of them requires primarily quick

unloaded movement and the ability to repeat it many times without

decrease in quality while the other a quick movement and a speci-
fic resistance.
The selection of a regime of muscular work is difficult

where a concrete motor act is concerned. However, it is even

more @ifficult in all around sports like the decathlon in track

and field, gymnastics and modern pentathlon. Therefore, the pro-

blem of selecting a regime of muscular work involves “two very

obvious questions: selection of the regime for a concrete motor

action (for example -- the key elements in an athletic exercise)

and the selection of the main regime which will best perfect all

of the diverse muscular activities in training for the "all-

around". The last question is still far from being answered and

is apparently, foremost, although the evolution of training

methods in sport indicates there is some hope that it will be

correctly illuminated.

148.
 Almost one-hundred years of experience in training "all-
around" track athletes indicates that the fundamental training
regime is the speed-cyclic regime with dynamic tension, primarily
of the explosive type. This was corroborated by isolating the
key exercises in the "all-around" complex with a special statis-
tical analysis (V. M. Zatsiorsky, 1966; R. I. Lukauskas, 1967; V.
Mamdzhanyan, 1976). Toa corroborate this idea one should look at
the preparation of gymnasts. For a long time they adhered to
primarily static training and with respect to this many included
dynamic elements, particularly jumping. The progress of mastery
and the necessity to master such complex elements of jumping as a
longitudinal rotation from 540 to 720° compelled them to appraise
the worth of the cyclic work regime and reconsider in favor of
the dynamic type of muscular tension.
Thus, perhaps it can be asserted that cyclic and phaso-tonic
regimes, should be the most important in training for the "“all-
around". It is necessary to add other regimes, determined by the
motor specifics of the concrete type of sport. However, this
idea needs serious experimental substantiation.
In conjunction with perfectioning the motor potential ina
specific regime, one should bear in mind the importance of
‘switching from one regime to another in those exercises where
this is necessary. Thus, an athlete's results in the long jump
are for the most part determined by the sportsman's ability to
switch from the cyclic regime of muscular work in running, to
explosive-effort
in the "take-off"; good gymnasts are capable of
switching from dynamic-explosive-effort to isometric-tension,
etc. It is true for the present, that the methodical aspect of
this principle is the destiny of technical preparation in sport,
however it is logical that its resolution is the goal of special
strength-training.
3.3.6 Determining the Criteria of Correspondence of the Strength
Means to the Special Exercise
The most common notions about the strength moving the body
or its links and the character of. muscular work are obtained
through observations and analysis of the sportsman's movement

149.
systems, i.e., the entire complex of motor acts, united on the

basis of the expediency of their interaction, which secure the

resolution of motor tasks in the best way. The simplest way to

this is to cyclograph movement based on a movie camera at a

do
constant film and shutter speed.
The movie analyzer is a sequential series of positions de-

picting to scale the time and spatial (the more experienced the

trainer the better) organization of the motor complex, its kine-

and dynamic structure and the executional peculiarities of

matic
individual movements.
The kinematic-stricture characterizes the interrelationship
movement in time and space, helps enhance the meaning of
of the

the interaction of separate movements and aids in singling out

those which have the fundamental role in the resolution of motor

tasks and those which contribute to its resolution. From here it

is easy to take one more step to determine the means of

perfectioning movement and especially the means and methods of

developing strength. Naturally, knowledge of the movement will

be more precise if it is based on objective quantitative charac- -

teristics which can be obtained only from special methods of

movie analysis.
The ahalysis of the kinematic integrity of a motor act in

order to construct a representation of its mechanims can be based

on the phasic structure of the movement {according to D. D.

Donskoi). The act as a whole or its elements can always be di-

vided into separate phases in which the of

direction movement,

the application of force and character of muscular work are dis-

The phases are divided between their moments (bor-

tinguished.
dering positions of the links or poses of the body) and can be

combined in periods according to some general (for separate

phases) characteristics. The interrelationship between separate

enables one to get some idea of the muscular work and the
phases
act as a whole, particularly in those phases in which the meaning

task is resolved. Such a representation will be more com-

of the
plete if force is simultaneously recorded along with the pictures

thus the total interaction of the person with the external

and

150.
objects is expressed.
As has already been stated, full reproduction of the complex
and constantly changing interaction of the strengths and the cor-

responding quantity of their expression is not always possible in

training. The necessity arises to locally influence the working

muscle groups, crucial for this or any movement in the whole

motor complex, which suggests that their load in training be in-

creased. Such an influence should be based on the peculiarities

of the formation and development of the biodynamic structure of

the motor act. It has been established, that in the course of

mastering a motor act the elements of the biodynamic structure

develop in a quantitatively expressed heterochronicalness depend-

ing upon their origin and manner of interdependence. The devel-

opment of some elements is determined by the direct interaction

with external objects, others with the indirect interaction with

these objects; therefore they have a slower rate of development.

An “indispensible condition for the formation and development of

the biodynamic structure is the relatively harmonious development

of its elements. This task can be successfully resolved only

with a corresponding organized system of special strength-train-

ing.
Thus, once more this assertion must be emphasized: success

in the selection of the means of special strength training is

determined by knowledge of the biomechanics of the movement.

15l.
 Chapter IV
Fundamentals of Modern Strength
Training Methods

. The correct selection of the means for the development of

strength is based upon the criterion of correspondence of the

special exercise (covered in the preceeding chapter), which is

already a significant guarantee for successful training. How-
ever, this is only half of it. The final word in the realization

of the principle of dynamic correspondence lies in the means and

methods of strength development.
Unfortunately, the problem of the methods of strength devel-

opment (inspite of the significant advances in science and prac-

tice) is far from being solved. The higher the curtain to this

unknown region is raised the larger the horizon that is opened to

researchers. Newer facts are uncovered, . particularly of late,

which are in conflict with established ideas they one day threat-

en to destroy: therefore, an enormous purposeful, and primarily,

a combination of creative study and practice is necessary in

order to generalize, to analyze in depth and correctly raise

pertinent facts (often contradictory), to organize new research

and create a strictly methodological system of information that

formulates a scientific basis for methods of strength develop-

ment.
4,1 The Problem of Methods
First of all we must point out a number of methodological

errors that are associated with attempts to devise methods of de-

veloping muscular stréngth and direct one's thinking to the wrong

track. ;
Muscular contraction is the foremost cause (in the
mechanical sense of course) of any volitional movement ;
determining, in particular, its speed and the working-effect as a

whole. However, this idea originated with the Archemedes

postulate that the initial prerequisites for development of speed

of movement are only possible by. taking into account the muscles'

ability to acquire this or that qualitative form in the display

152.
of strength.
In physics, force and speed are connected as cause and

The mechanical velocity moving the body is dependent

effect.
full impulse force, i.e., from the integral ef forces
upon the

F(t) dt, but.not upon the detailed type of function P(t).

I=

words, the equivalent final velocity equal to the ordi-

tn other

nate V =t can be obtained with any form of the function F(t)

m

squares under the force-time curve (figure 63).

with -equal
undoubtedly man's mechanical position during move-
Nevertheless,
ment is preserved only within a known range since the shape of

F(t) curve is determined by the characteristics of the neuro-

the
apparatus; concretely conveying to it the ability to
muscular
the muscular force with the speed necessary for the re-
develop
effect of the speed of movement. This ability is a speci-
quired
fic acquisition of the neuro-muscular apparatus and is distinct

among the means utilized in training. A lack of this in training

to errors and costs the sportsman many years of hard and

leads
fruitless work.
The ’ subsequent errors are caused by the first. The motor

of the neuro-muscular apparatus, at a high ievel of

qualities
are connected by an inversely proportional depen-
development,
Tt can be stated with slight exaggeration that over
dence.
of both is not required in athletics because they are
development
not realized in isolation but are only aspects of characteristics
to any motor activity. Depending upon’ the character and
inherent
objective of the movement one of these qualities obtains a
the
potential development but to a greater or lesser extent
greater
is very much like the other.
Thus, it can be said that speed-strength, strength-endurance

are not derivatives of strength, speed and

and speed~endurance
are totally independent qualities which should be
endurance but
the latter in a group, which require adequate. and
placed with

153.
specific to them, means and methods of development (Y. V. Verkho-
shansky, 1963). However, the first attempts to devise methods
for developing these "new" qualities were based mainly ona
logical approach which lead to a Solomonic resolution as express-
ed by the analytical-synthetic method: the qualities should be
developed separately with the appropriate means and then they
should be integrated into the special exercises.
| With respect to the analytical-synthetic method, it is con-
sidered appropriate for gymnasts and weightlifters to do sprints
and other track and field exercises for developing speed; and for
track athletes, barbell exercises are recommended for strength.
Furthermore, cross-country, swimming, cross-country skiing and
other cyclic exercises are considered good for developing endur-
ance. Although it is impossible to deny the convincingly demon-
strated recommendations; they are appropriate only for the ini-
tial stages of training and it would be a serious mistake for
highly-qualified athletes to utilize them.
A purely practical consequence of looking at this position
is the assertion that the so-called "multi-sided" preparation in
athletics should be the leading training principle. However,
such an assertion can only be partly true and only for certain
circumstances. The appropriateness of multi-sided preparation is
based on visual observation of unidirectional functional dis-
placements to the body without the necessary quantitative
analysis of their interrelationship. However, a number of recent
works indicate that unidirectional functional displacement does
not mean interconditionality. This concerns the synthesis of
motor qualities and the transferance of them from one movement to
another and that such a phenomenon is possible to a certain de-
gree, primarily in the initial stages of sport ontogenesis (see
N. N. Yakovlev's review, 1968: N. V. Zimkin, 1965; V. M. Zatsior-
sky, 1965, and .others). This is not the basis to consider muiti-
sided preparations as the leading methodical principle of
universal significance. With the growth in athletic achieve-
ments, multi-sided preparation inevitably operates in opposition
to the law of gradual development (in the process of attaining

154.
sport mastery) and can be a hinderance to the body's structural-

functional specialization. ; :

The danger of still one more mistake in devising and sub-

stantiating methods of strength development should be pointed out

-- the danger of an excessive passion for structural correspon-

dence of the training means to the special exercises. A formal

understanding of the principle of dynamic correspondence can

unjustifiably limit the arsenal of training means; and the very

misinterpretation of the idea of this principle, which consists

not of literally copying the special exercise in training move-

ments but the selection of a specific arsenal of means corre-

sponding to the latter's most important motor characteristics;

and the control of their perfectioning by creating such condi-

tions under which they receive steady development.

4.2 General Tenets of Modern Strength-Training Methods

The problem of rationalization of the methods of strength-
training inevitably leads to the necessity of classifying the

means of developing muscular strength. :

The basic prerequisite for classification is associated

first of all with the general traits in the motor regimes of the

various athletic exercises. Four-types of sports are grouped ac-—

cording to these traits. Physical and especially strength-train-

ing methods should be examined in the context of these groups:

1) types of sports, characterized by Maximal intensity of the

working effort; 2) types of sports characterized primarily by the

display of endurance with optimal efforts of various intensities;

3) types of sports characterized by a high level of dexterity and

movement precision; 4) types of sports characterized by a complex

display of motor qualities at different (relative) levels of

development (V. M. Diachkov, 1961).

This grouping of the athletic exercises determines the pri-

mary emphasis. of the strength-training, which determines the

appropriate methods. The necessity to develop explosive-

strength, strength-endurance and strength-dexterity (V. M. Diach-

kov, 1961; V. V. Kuznetsov, 1970) relative or absolute-strength

and strength-endruance (V. I. Chudinov, 1961) comes from this

155.
grouping. The classification can also be the basis for these

tenets: the magnitude of the main load used (see V. M. Diach-

kov's review, 1961;'V. I. Chudinov, 1961; V. M. Zatsiorsky, 1966;

A. N. Vorobyev, 1971), the specific tendency to change the train-

ing weight (F. DeLorme, 1945, 1946; A. Zinovieff, 1951), and the

method of combining in a complex, means for making use of the

“after effect" of previous work (Y. V. Verkhoshansky, 1970), and

others.
Maximal-tension, speed-strength loads and strength-endurance

loads (S. P. Letunov, R. E. Motylyanskaya, 1955: M. Y. Nabatniko—

va, 1972; V.N. Platonov, 1974; V. M. Mikhailov, G. M. Panov,

1975) are differentiated. An outcome of the creating maximal

tension (repetitively lifting a certain weight to the point of

fatigue or until failure, lifting a limit weight with maximal

velocity) is. that three methods for developing strength can be

distinguished: repetitive, maximal and dynamic effort (V. M.

Zatsiorsky, 1966). ;
Apparently it is expeditious to systematize the methods of

developing special-strength, according to the specific type of

strength they develop and to divide these into four basic groups

of methods which are designed to develop: absolute-strength,

speed-strength, explosive~strength, reactive-ability and strength

~endurance. Within each group it is possible (and necessary) to

differentiate methods with respect to the type of muscular ten-

sion in the athletic exercises.

4.2.1 The Development of Absolute-Strength
Absolute-strength is the maximal tension aman can dvelop,

as measured on a dynamometer or the heaviest weight that is

lifted. In other words, absolute-strength igs the maximal force

displayed under isometric conditions or in a slow movement with a

load. There are two basic methods of developing absolute-

strength: the method of repetitive effort and the method of

brief maximal tension.

The method of repetitive effort consists of repetitively
lifting a weight the amount of which is increased in conjunction

with the growth of muscular-strength. The effect this type of

156.
 produces is dependent upon the proprioceptive sensations
training
accompany the slow lifting of weights; the corresponding
which
in the body which takes place is a
accommodative reconstruction
strong excitation of the neural pathways from the
result of the
to the muscles and the increase in the number of motor
cortex
(H. Kabat, 1947; F. Hellebrant, S. Houtz, 1956).
units recruited
variable method of repetitive effort is the "progressive
A
Initially, the weight which can be lifted 10
resistance method".
(it is designated the 10 RM, i.e., the repe-
times is determined
*[According to R. Berger's data (1961) the
tition maximum*).
to the 5 RM and the 10 RM are, for any mus-_
weights corresponding
roughly 89.8 and 78.9% of the 1-RM weights respectively.].
cles,
sessions consist of three sets of 10 slowly executed
Training
each. A weight which is equal to one-half the 10 RM
repetitions
10 times -- for the first set; 3/4 of the 10 RM is used
is lifted
second set and the 10 RM weight is used for the third
for the
increasing the resistance has practical value
set. Progressively
of strength and endurance (BE. Faulkner, 1950;
for the development

A. Lindervold, 1952; A. Montgomery, 1954).

of the DeLorme method (D. Hoog, 1946; S.
Other modifications
1946; A. Zinovieff, 1951; A. Watkins, 1952; R.
Houtz, et.al.,
H. Luscombe, 1953; I. McQueen, 1954) are associated
McGovern,
the number of repetitions, increasing the amount
with decreasing
and different variations including sets and the
of weight
in the training cycle. Thus, execution of
sequence of weights
in the reverse order is called the Oxford or
the exercise
(A. Zinovieff, 1951), and the 1/2 10 RM, 10 RM,
Zinovieff Method
RM sequence is called the McCloy Method (C. McCloy, 1954).
3/4 10
these modifications indicates they add nothing new
Comparison of
method although the strength developed is slightly
to the DeLorme
DeLorme system produces a larger increase in
different: the
McCloy system (154% versus 142%). However, the
strength than the
increases endurance more (212.8% versus 186%) than
McCloy system
(E. Faulkner, 1950). Training first with
the DeLorme system
lighter. weights provokes a larger increase (5.5%)
heavy then with
in comparison to first training with light then
in muscle size

157.
switching to heavier weights; although the statistical reliabil-
ity of these differences was not corroborated (R. MeMorris, E.
Elkins, 1954). Training with a weight equal to 25% of the 5 RM
for the first set, 50% in the second and 75% for the third (5
repetitions per set) was just as effective for increasing
strength as training with the 5 RM for the first set, 125% of the
5 RM in the second and 150% in the third (BE. Krusen, 1949).
A. N. Vorobyev (1971) showed that the fundamental portion of
the training load of today's weightlifters is with weights of 70%
(of maximum) and higher. The portion of the load devoted to
lighter weights is about 10% of the entire load. :
It is natural that in perfectioning the methods of develop-
ing absolute-strength, consideration is given to such questions
as the number of sets with a given weight, the number of repeti-
tions per set and the tempo of the movement. Thus, an experiment
was conducted on the training effect of nine different programs
with the bench press. It was discovered that three sets of six
repetitions (with the 6 RM weight) was the most effective (R.
Berger, 1962). This actually corroborated an earlier work by E.
Keipen (1956) who demonstrated the effectiveness of three sets of
5 repetitions with a maximal weight. Later on, R. Berger (1963)
studied the question as to why six repetitions per set is more
effective than either 2 or 10 repetitions. He came to the con-
clusion that training with a heavy weight does not ensure the
optimal number of repetitions necessary for increasing strength
and just the réverse, training with light weights and a large
number of repetitions is too weak of an irritant. A significant
difference in the growth of strength was not discovered as a
result of training with weights of the 2, 5 and 10 RM; training
with maximal (10 RM for one set three times per week) and sub-
maximal (90% of 10 RM twice a week and the 10 RM three times)
weights as well as a difference in the effectiveness of two and
three training sessions per week.
It is known that in all instances training with a rest-
interval of two days between sessions is ..significantly more
effective than a rest~interval of one day (I. G. Vasiliev, 1954).

158.
 Five training programs were compared. They were distin-

guished from each other primarily by the maximum weight used in

one set: 1) 2/3 of the 1 RM twice a week and the 1 RM the third

time; 2) 2/3 of the 1 RM twice a week and 80% of the 1 RM the

third time; 3) 2/3 of the 1 RM twice a week and 90% of the 1 RM

the third time; 4) the 1 RM once a week; 5) 2/3 of the 1 RM three

times a week. The only program which did not produce an increase

in strength was the fifth. The increases in strength from the

other programs were approximately equal (R. Berger, 1965).

Thus, the following conclusions can be drawn:

1) Training with submaximal weights (2/3 and more of maxi-

mum) twice a week and with maximal weights once a week is as

effective for developing strength as training with maximal

weights three times per week.

2) The increase in strength resulting from training with

2/3 of the RM twice a week and with the 1 RM the third workout is

due mainly to the training with the 1 RM.

3) To obtain the optimal increase in strength with three

workouts per week the amount of weight per set should be between

the 3 and the 10 RM.

4) Training once a week with the 1 RM for one set will in-

crease strength significantly for up to 6-weeks.

5) .Training twice a week with 3 sets of the 10 RM is as

effective as training in the same manner three times a week.

6) If the 10 RM is used for one set subsequent lifts with

less weight have no significance.

It should be emphasized that these conclusions were based on

research with untrained or subjects who had very little training

experience prior to the experiments. ‘Significant increases in

strength have been observed in novices training one and five

times per week. The recuperative powers of the body deteriorate

under the influence of a large number of workouts per week.

Since the optimal number of training sessions per week is depen-

‘dent upon the body's capacity to recuperate no recommendations

with respect to. the number of sets and repetitions can

whatsoever
be made, and no program can be ideal for everyone (R. Berger,

159.
1962, 1963).
According to A. N. Vorobyev (1971), variation in the number

of lifts from 1 to 6 is the optimum for the training of highly-

qualified weightlifters. Decreasing or increasing this number

has a negative affect on the development of strength.

The movement tempo of resistance exercises has great signi-
ficance for the development of muscular strength (see A. N. Voro-

byev, 1971). Recently it has been established that the largest

inereases in muscular strength are obtained by the execution of

resistance movements with a moderate tempo: strength increases
occur over a period of 30 training sessions; strength increases

over a period of 15 sessions with other tempos. It has been

established that the most effective variant is a combination of

different movement tempos. Thus, the increase in strength with

this type of training over a period of 10-weeks was 22.6 t+ 0.6

kg; and 16.3 + 0.5 kg for the execution of movements with a mod-
erate tempo (S. I. Lelikov, 1975).
It is interesting that under certain conditions the amount

of strength developed by the repetition method is not determined

by the amount of weight lifted but the quantity of work executed.
Thus, according to I. G. Vasiliev's (1954) data; after 40 train-
ing sessions of equivalent work (in kilogram-meters) with all
loads (20, 40, 60, 80% of maximum strength) at a tempo of 45
(lifts per minute and with different muscle groups, ‘the results
obtained were almost indistinguishable. The 80% load produced a
slightly larger training-effect, but not for all of the muscle ©

groups exercised. Similar training at a maximal tempo was less

effective, the heavier the weight. A high tempo of movement was

not very good for the development of strength and only with a

load of 20% in some muscle groups was the increase in strength

approximately the same as it was the training at a tempo of 45

lifts per minute.
Experiments with frogs as well as pedagogical observations

using ergographic methods have revealed that up until the onset

of fatigue, muscles the

execute. same number of contractions with
a load of constant magnitude as in the case when the load was

160.
 gradually to this level. And, since the larger the
increased
the faster the onset of fatigue (and fatigue changes the in-
load
of the training work significantly) it is expedient to
fluence
the period of gradual increase in the amount of weight so
shorten
as to switch to the optimal loads early and work with them

the entire training session (S. P. Narikashvili, et.

throughout
al., 1960).
If the quick display of absolute-strength is required, then

the Brief—-Maximal-Tension Method is given priority in training.

distinguished from the progressive resistance method in

It is
that significant weights (85-95% of maximum, i.e., 3-5 RM) are

primarily utilized and are combined with the lifting of lighter

(in one training session) and larger, i.e., limit (one repetition

or twice a week) weights. However, the number of sets

once
should be increased to more than three (R. Berger, 1962). Thus,

is recommended that weightlifters execute 5-6 exercises for 6-

it
10 sets of 1-3 repetitions in one training session (A. S. Medve-

dev, A. N. Vorobyev, 1967; 1971). The brief-maximal-tension

method develops the ability to concentrate neuro-muscular effort

and yields a larger training-effect than the progressive resis-

tance method for the development of absolute-strength; and asso-

ciated with it, the necessity to display it quickly (V. M. Diach-

1961; V. I. Chudinov, 1961). It produces an increase in

kov,
without an accompanying increase in muscle mass which is
strength
important for those sports which primarily require the develop-

ment of relative-strength (V. I. Chudinov, 1961).

The brief-maximal-tension method has another important fea-

ture. Lifting limit and near-limit weights improves the

mobilization ability and leads to an increase in

sportsman's
work-capacity as expressed by the skill to develop a
special
brief concentrated effort of large power.

Isometrics can be useful to develop absolute-strength which

require "rapid display", although it has not been suffi-

does not
established which type of training -- dynamic or static
ciently
quickest or steadiest increases in strength. Iso-
renders the
consisting of 2-15 tensions in one minute
metric training

161.
executed four times a week does not increase strength signifi-
cantly more than lifting weights with the same frequency (N. Sal-
ter, 1955); the same can be said of 5-10 stretches and 6-second
isometric tensions (T. Denison, et. al, 1961). Similar conclu-
sions were obtained in other studies (E. Asmussen, 1949; 4H.
Darcus, ‘1955; D. Rose, et, al., 1951; R. Berger, 1962). It has
been shown that dynamic work executed for 3 sets of 5 or 6 repe-
titions is more effective than the corresponding amount isometric
work (P. Rasch, L. Morehaus, 1957; R. Berger, 1962).
There has been considerable interest recently in studying
the potential of the yielding regime (eccentric exercise, Ed.)
with weights for the development of strength (Y. Verkhoshansky,
1961; G. P. Semyonov, V. I. Chudinov, 1963; Y. N. Ivanov, 1966;
G. P. Semyonov, 1968). The first positive results in this direc-
tion were supported by specialists and served as the basis for
their recommendations of yielding work for the development of
strength (A. S. Medvedev, A. N. Vorobyev, 1967). However, until
more reliable results are obtained the evaluation of this
method's effectiveness should be guarded. The results of a three
month experiment in which the effectiveness of overcoming,
yielding and static work were compared showed that the largest
increase in squating with limit weights was obtained with yield-
ing work (average 15 kg), and the smallest was obtained with
static tension (9.2 kg). The largest increase in static-strength
(as it would be expected) was obtained with static tension (30.2
kg), and the smallest increase was obtained with overcoming work
(14.6 kg). An increase in the vertical jump was obtained only
with the overcoming regime (3.7 cm). The vertical jump heights
decreased by: 1.6 cm for the yielding regime and by 5.4 em for
static tension (Y. N. Ivanov, 1966). Thus, the data presented is
not so much indicative of the effectiveness of yielding work as
it is a yrather vivid corroboration of the hypothesis of the
neuro-motor specificity of strength; which stipulates the method
of its development.
So, significant increases in absolute-strength can be ob-
tained to an equal measure by the repetitive effort and brief-

162.
maximal-tension methods as well as with isometric tension. How-
ever, ‘the strength acquired from each of these methods has its

own "coloring" (specificity, Ed. note).

The repetitive effort method is appropriate in the initial
stages of strength development and when strength and the speed of

its display are not important. Repetitive work with moderate

weights (50-60% of maximum) and a large number of repetitions

produces an increase in muscle mass. - Strength increases faster

with large weights (90-95% of maximum) and a limited number of

repetitions with an accompanying lesser increase in muscle mass.

The training-effect is enhanced by increasing the amount of

weight and the volume of work.

The brief-maximal-tension method increases absolute-strength

without appreciably increasing muscle mass and simultaneously

improves the ability to display strength relatively quickly. It

is appropriate to use this method when the repetitive effort

method has become ineffective for strength development and when

it is necessary to increase strength quickly in a relatively

short. period of time with a small volume of work. The brief-

maximal-tension method is effective for maintaining the achieved

level of strength, general tonus of the neuro-muscular apparatus

and the acquisition of sporting-form. The training-effect is

enhanced by increasing the maximal weight as well as the average

weight lifted per session; with some reduction in the number of

sets and repetitions.

Isometric tension. (by slowly increasing the effort) is good

for developing absolute-strength without an accompanying increase

in muscle mass and it secures the general tonus of the neuro-

muscular apparatus. This method can be utilized for maintaining

the achieved level of strength development, is appropriate in

those instances where speed of movement is not important and in

the prepatory. training of athletes. A rise in the training-

effect is achieved primarily through maximal tension; by increas-

ing it as muscular strength increases.

4.2.2 The Development of. Speed-Strength
The notion of speed~strength is highly generalized and con-

163.
ditional. The strength displayed in quick movements has many

qualitative nuances and it is rather difficult to make distinc-

tions between them. With a rough differentiation, movements

requiring speed-strength can be divided into two fundamental

groups: 1) movements, in which speed of movement plays a funda-

mental role in overcoming a relatively small resistance, and 2)

movements, in which the working-effect is associated with the

quick development of motive effort in overcoming significant re-

sistance. Absolute-strength is for the most part unimportant for

the first type of movement, but it plays a decisive role in the

_working-effect of the second type of movement. In the first

group one can differentiate movements associated with a fast re-

action to some external signal or situation as a whole, with

rapid, brief tensions and finally with frequent repetitive ten-

sion. In the second group it makes sense to divide the movements

according to the type of muscular tension: explosive-isometric

tension (associated with overcoming a relatively large load and

of necessity the quick development of maximum force); explosive-

ballistic tension (the rapid overcoming of insignificant resis-~-

tance) and explosive-reactive-ballistic tension (the fundamental

working-effect is generated immediately after a preliminary mus-

cular stretch).* *[It is necessary to deal with such questions

that have been unanswered concerning the development of starting-

strength and the reactive-ability of muscles. Therefore it is

appropriate that recommendations for this method are presented in

a separate section (see 4.2.3)].

Thus, the display of speed-strength is extraordinarily di-

verse; . it has by nature a high degree of specificity; its trans-

ference from one movement to another is relatively poor and it is

developed relatively slowly. The method of perfectioning speed-

strength is very specific and theoretically is far from being

substantiated.. The method of developing speed-strength is appli-

cable to the types of movements mentioned and has its own pecu-

liarities.
Practice and specially organized. research indicates that the

development of speed-strength is more effective the more speed

164.
loads there are in training and the lesser the time spent with

movements (N. N. Yakovlev, et. al., 1960). Exercises with

slow

small .weights, approximately 20% of maximun, is the principal

method of developing speed-strength (A. V. Korobkov, 1953; I. G.

Vasiliev, 1954; V. S. Gerasimov, V. N. Yakhontov, 1954; N. V.

Zimkin, 1956; N. G. Agdgomelashvili, 1964; B. I. Butenko, 1967).

with this method speed of movement increases with and without

loads and the general increase in speed can reach 146% of the

beginning level. Movements should be executed with maximal

effort; the apparatus should be accelerated as soon as possible.

direct the influence to the muscule recruiting mechanism in

To
active state, exercises with light and heavier weights (up to
the
40% of maximum) should be combined (the variable method) and the

load should be lifted with the emphasis on acceleration at the

beginning portion of the movement. "Shock" types of exercises

should also be included (see the next section) as well as exer—

cises where isometric tension is generated quickly in the range

of 60-80% of maximum. The optimal combination of the volume of

exercises with small and significant weights can be expressed by

this ratio 5:1. As regards to the sequence of execution of this

or that exercise, the best variant is an alternation of exer-

cises.
To develop speed-strength in acyclic movements "shock" loads

or projectile types of weights should be selected based on their

affect on the execution of the exercise. For example, to develop

strength for the water-polo throw, better results are obtained by

throwing a medicine ball weighing 2 kg than with a 4 kg ball.

The increases in throwing distance were 13.6 and 8.98 respec-

tively; throwing the 4 kg ball also had a negative influence on

technique (G. Rogener, 1961). Training with a light (2 ounces)

and a heavy (6.5 ounces) ball for throwing resulted in improve-

both, however the transfer of trainability was non-

ments for

uniform; throwing the light ball improved the precision for

throwing the heavier but the reverse did not occur (G. Egstrom,

al., 1960). The optimal weight..for javelin training, which

et.
did not disrupt technique, was 3 kg (E. N. Matveyev, 1967).

165.
 Methodical ways of developing speed-strength are an outcome
of the search for specific combinations of means for the utiliza-
tion of the traces phenomenon of previous work to increase the
effectiveness of the subsequent work.
Results of model experiments show that the working-effect of
an explosive movement, as measured by the height to which a load
was tossed (figure 64), increased an average of 38-40% after exe-
cuting barbell presses 3 sets of 3 repetitions with 80% of maxi-
mum (there was a rest interval of 10 minutes between the pressing
and the throwing); movement time decreased, the “working path”
increased, speed increased significantly, and the acceleration-
force and power-output increased (table 9). Thus, the repetitive
action of the same irritant leads to a more expressive reaction
by the body and yields a larger effect in the development of
strength and speed of movement.
Available data shows that speed of movement is enhanced to a
large degree by the variable method (for example, putting the
shot "fresh" from the muscular sensation obtained from putting a
lighter apparatus). The differences between the mean results of
isolated putting of shots of various weights are significant and
statistically reliable. Lighter and heavier shots differing in
weight by 250 grams are thrown with different velocities. A
statistically significant difference was not discovered in the
average results of alternately putting different weighted shots.
However, distances close to the average were obtained only with a
difference in weight of 250 grams; with a difference of 500 grams
the nearness to the mean was not observed (L. S. Ivanova, 1964;
L. A. Vasiliev, 1975). ,
Thus, the transfer of throwing speeds from a lighter to a
heavier (normal weight) is apparently only possible by alternat-
ing throwing different weighted shots.
The effectiveness of the variable method of developing speed
of movement was established in the training of hockey players
(successively hitting a normal and heavier puck). The optimal
weight of the heavier puck is between 0.6-0.8 kg. However, it is
necessary to select a weight for each player individually. This

166.
 TABLE 9

Arm Movement Characteristics

for throwing a weight before and after
Tonic Work

Arm Movement First Second Difference

Effort Effort (3)
‘Characteristics

Height of the Throw, M 0.440 0.610 . +38.8

Movement Time (Sec.) 0.266 0.250 - 6.8

Working path (M) 0.620 0.650 + 4.8

Average Speed of the +11.7

M/Sec 2.330 2.600
Movement,
:
Average Acceleration +33.8
5.550 7.430
Force (Kg)
Work Power (Kg M/S) 1.310 1.930 | 447.3

167.
should be based on the sportsman's potential to hit the heavier
puck (V. P. Savin, 1974).
Considering the conflict between the weight of the load and
speed of movement in the development of speed-strength; possible

elimination of these contradictions should be sought. In this

instance such a possibility exists if the display of strength is

in opposition not to the weight, but to its inertia. Unfortu-

nately this method is still not used in practice therefore, it is

difficult to give concrete recommendations. For the present this

is a hypothesis; but the hopes it raises are unsupported.

This brings us to the rest interval between sets of exer-

cises. The rest interval is determined by the level of train-

ability, the special-endurance to repeat maximal tensions and the

intensity of the strength displayed. Model experiments show. that

with an optimal pause in the range of 0.5 to 1 minute the quali-

tative characteristics of strength can be maintained at a high

level for a rather long period of time without significant

changes. The possible gradual decrease of these characteristics

with fatiguing, monotonous work can be eliminated with a favor-
able emotional state.
Speed-strength as displayed in speed-cyclic movements is
characterized by repetitive tensions which are separated by

relaxation phases. Depending on the special exercise the effect

of speed-strength in this case, can be determined by the ability

of the neuro-muscular apparatus to maintain the qualitative char-

acteristics of strength for a long period of time at a specific

work-tempo. Thus, to develop speed-strength in speed-cyclic

exercises the optimal resistance, the movement-tempo ~ and the

duration of work are of great significance. There is an inverse-

ly proportional dependence between the resistance and the move-

ment-tempo. In other words, an increase in the resistance

decreases the. movement-tempo and causes the rapid onset of

fatigue. Therefore, the optimal ‘combination (resistance and

tempo) should be selected in each concrete case, based on the co-

ordination structure of the special exercise. It is necessary to

bear in mind that speed of movement decreases over a long period

168.
of training at a slow tempo and increases through training at the
optimal speed (A. V. Korobkov, 1953; V. D. Monogarov, 1958). The

ability to correctly execute the full movement cycle including

the required tension and muscular relaxation should serve as a

criterion. The movement-tempo should increase gradually, close

to the tempo of the special exercise and even exceed it (V. M.
Diachkov, 1961); and time of work should lengthen.
All that has been said concerning the development of speed-

strength is related first and foremost to directing the influence

to the working muscle groups outside the integrity of the special

exercise. However, good results are achieved by making the exe-

cution of the special exercise as a whole, more difficult. Thus,

the use of hydro-resistance in rowing, insignificant loads on the

limbs of track and field athletes and gymnasts promote the devel-

opment of speed-strength under conditions as close as possible to

those of the special exercise. In certain cases power can be in-

creased without additional loads. For example, when jumping from

one leg to the other the dynamic characteristics of the push-off
are greater than in running. Therefore, these jumps are excel-
lent for the special strength-training of sprinters. It is only

necessary to execute them correctly by: not accentuating the

push-off of the body (which doesn't happen in sprinting) but the

active gathering-in of the planted leg (hip flexion, Ed.). These

jumps should be executed repetitively in segments from 50 to 100

meters for a time at maximum speed. The addition of small cuffs
weighing from 100-150 grams on each thigh makes such exercises

more effective.* -*[This is based on the author's practical ex-

perience with sprinters and in particular on the preparation of
U.S.S.R. Champion, B. Zubov].
Thus, in view of contemporary ideas concerning methods of

developing speed-strength; exercises, primarily with small resis-—

tance (20% of.maximum) and the combination of them (for acyclic

exercises of brief duration) with weights up to 40% of maximum in

a ratio of 5:1 are recommended. The work regimen should corres-

pond to the special exercise (cyclic, acyclic) and take into

account the initial conditions from which force is developed

169.
(with the muscles relaxed, in a state of preliminary tension or
stretched).
Ways of the perfectioning methods of developing speed-
strength are an outcome of the search for a specific combination
of means, taking into account the positive after-effect of the
preceding work on the subsequent and the utilization of exercises
in which muscular force acts in opposition to the inertia of the
load and not in opposition to its weight.
There should be no place for fatigue when one is trying to
develop speed-strength for acyclic movements. However, fatigue
is a necessary component of training for speed-strength in cyclic
movements which require speed-endurance. A detailed realization
of these tenets is possible only under concrete training condi-
tions; for the present an empiricist has the final say.
4.2.3 The Development of Explosive-Strength and Reactive Ability
Before speaking about effective methods to develop explo-
sive-strength and reactive ability we ought to examine how they
are perfected with traditional speed-strength methods.
Let us assume athletes develop explosive-strength in the
legs with heavy barbell-squats. In this case the athlete's mus-
cles are working slowly with a constant tension equal to the
weight of the barbell. Consequently, the muscles primarily
develop isometric-strength, but it is by no means impossible for
them to execute fast dynamic contractions. It should be added
that in striving to increase the weight of the barbell (which is
frequently considered a basic indicator of special-strength pre-
paredness) an extraordinary and mainly unjustified load is placed
on the vertebral. column from squating. ,
However, to solve the task of speed-strength preparation
athletes use smaller weights. Jumping for example, with a 60 kg
barbell on the shoulders involves large dynamic-maximum-force.
Therefore, we-.believe that exercises with heavy weights increase
the strength potential of the muscles while exercises with small
weights improves quickness. Nevertheless, these means are not
the last word in the development of explosive-strength. Explo-
sive-strength is a motor quality requiring specific moments and

170.
 training means. The aforementioned means of strength-training do
not secure to the necessary degree the perfectioning of such spe-
cific components of explosive movements as the rapid switching of
muscles to the active state and the rapid switching from yielding
“to overcoming work. These skills and others require a specific
training regime which is impossible to imitate in one resistance
exercise. Indeed, striving to stimulate muscular activity with
slow resistance movements, and lifting a barbell in preparation
for squating or jumping with it, excludes the possibility to con-
trol the influence on the mechanisms crucial to the rapid switch-
ing of muscles to the active state. At the same time, a decrease
in the resistance results ina loss of dynamic effort. This
creates a vicious cycle from which there is no apparent exit.
Thus, if a sportsman develops a high level of explosive-
strength, then it can be said it is due to those means "spontan-
eously" inherent to his training. Consequently, the problem
amounts to this: single out these means and methodically organ-
ize them in order to rationalize the special strength-training.
A multi-year search in this direction lead to the develop-
ment of the so-called "shock" method of developing explosive-
strength and reactive ability. Basically it consists of stimu-
lating the muscles by means of a sudden stretch preceding the
active effort. Kinetic energy should be utilized for this (not
weights). The kinetic energy is accumulated by means of dropping.
down from a certain height (see section 3.2.2). Practical appli-
cation of the "shock" method to different muscle groups is
illustrated in the following exercises (figure 65). The range of
motion should be greater than the required coordination structure
of the exercise in order to avoid injury. With the examples pre-
sented as a guideline a sportsman of any specialization requiring
explosive-strength can select the necessary complex of exercises
himself.
It is necessary to take into account the following for the
execution of "shock" type exercises:
1l- The magnitude of the "shock" load is determined by the
weight and the height of its "free fall". The optimal combina-

171.
tion is determined empirically in each concrete case, however
preference should be given to a large height over a large weight.
2- The amortization segment should be minimal but still suf-
ficient to create a "shock" tension in the muscles. Therefore,
the initial posture (with respect to the joint angles) should
correspond to the same position in which the working movement
begins in the special-exercise.
3- The "shock" training should be preceded by a good warmup
of the intensely "studied" working group of muscles.
4- The dosage of "shock" exercises should not exceed 5-8
movements (as a guideline) in one series. A more precise way of
determining this is to calculate the load utilized and the
athlete's level of preparedness.
in those cases where the "shock" method is used for the
development of jumping power (i.e., explosive-strength and the
reactive ability of the extensors of the torso and legs) one can
do without additional weight and utilize only body weight for the
"shock" stimulation. For example, energetically jumping upward
or upward and forward after a depth-jump from some height (figure
66). The optimal depth of the jump is determined by the sports-
man's preparedness and should ensure that significant dynamic
force is developed without slowing the switching from yielding to
evercoming work by the muscles involved. One should land with
the legs almost straight, slightly tensed and on the balls of the
feet in order to avoid an excessive shock. The depth of the
amortization should not be significant and the subsequent take-
off needs to be executed quickly with an energetic throwing up of
the arms. In order to stimulate a powerful take-off itis neces-
sary to strive with the hands or head to reach some height
oriented by a ball, flag, etc.; if the take-off is executed up-
ward or to land at some point if it is directed upward and for-
ward. An increase in height or distance of the jump is a grahic
reflection of improvement in special preparedness which always
has a positive affect on the sportsman's emotional state.
Our experience with depth-jumps for the development of jump-
ing power enables us to make the following recommendations:

172.
 l- Depth-jumps require special preliminary preparation such

as a significant volume of jumping and barbell exercises. One

should begin at a relatively low height and increase it gradually
to the optimal. It makes sense to start out by jumping upward

and forward and only after sufficient training, jump strictly up-

ward. Good results are obtained with depth-jumps by making use

of a complex of vertical jumps (figure 67). Each exercise is

executed in series of 10 repetitions, with 1 to 15 minutes of

rest between series. Fatigued or painful muscles as well as

incompletely healed injuries are contraindications to depth jump-

ing.
_ 2- The optimal dosage of depth-jumps (with an energetic ver-

tical take-off) should not exceed 4 series of 10 jumps for well

conditioned athletes and 2-3 series of 5-8 jumps for lesser con-

ditioned athletes. Easy running and relaxation exercises for a

period of ten to fifteen minutes should be done between series.
3- Depth-jumps executed in the volume indicated should be
done once or twice a week in training sessions devoted to special

strength~-training. These sessions can include (besides the jump-

ing) localized exercises for other muscle groups and general-

developmental exercises executed in a small volume. Well condi-

tioned athletes can execute depth-jumps three times per week for

2 series of 10 jumps at the completion of technical training in

the particular type of sport.
4- Depth-jumps render a strong tonic influence on the ner-
vous system, therefore they should be executed no less than 3-4

days before a training session on technique; and sessions devoted

to general-physical preparation with a small volume of work
should be done following depth-jump workouts.
5- Depth-jumps have a fundamental place in the second half

of the prepatory period of the yearly cycle. However, they can

function as a means of maintaining the achieved level of speciai-

strength preparedness in the competition period. During the
competition period they should be included once every 10-14 days;
but no later than 10 days .before competition.
The training-effect of depth-jumps (for the development of

173.
explosive-strength) is exceptionally high. They have no equal in
comparison to the other means of strength-training. This has
been corroborated by a number of studies (V. G. Semyenov, 1971;
v. V. Tatyan, 1974; I. M. Dobrovolsky, 1972; V. P. Savin, 1974;

A. V. Khodykin, 1974; V. N. Deniskin, 1976) the results of which

are spoken of further in a whole series of works (V. N. Papyshe-

va,, 1967; S. G. Kharabuga, 1967; L. ¥. Cheryeshneva, 1967; V. V.

Kuznetsov, 1970; A. M. Burla, 1973; K. I. Makhkamdzhanov, 1973;

T, N. Press, 1974, and others). The "shock" method of developing

explosive-strength already occupies a firm place in athletics.

Many distinguished athletes utilize it.
The ."shock" method of developing explosive-strength and

reactive-ability solves to a significant degree the ‘problem of

economization of training since it ensures that a high level of

special conditioning is attained in the minimum amount of time.

Thus, a comparative experiment revealed that a group of track and

field jumpers executing primarily depth-jumps (all of them did

475 jumps) over a 12 week period (in the preparation period)

showed greater improvement in reactive-ability then the group

which trained with traditional methods and executed 1,472 general

push-offs (squats, jumping and hopping with a barbell weighing

90-95, 70-80 and 30-40% of maximum) and lifted 93 tons!

Thus, specially organized studies and first hand practical

experience are convincing evidence that the "shock" method should

have a primary place in the training program for the development

of explosive-strength and the reactive abilities of the neuro-

muscular apparatus. However, it is necessary to construct the

method of developing explosive~strength as a whole by taking into

account the sportsman's level of preparedness, the stage in the

yearly and multi-yearly training cycle and stipulate the specific

combination as well as the sequence and continuity of the means
and methods used. Although it should occupy a prominent place in

the training program the "shock" method should not be combined

with resistance exercises like the brief-maximal-tension method

in the beginning stages. In those cases where explosive-force is

associated with the overcoming of large resistance preference

174.
 The same final speed
FIGURE 63-
different
of body movement. for

Oa
forms of function.

FIGURE 65- "Shock" exercises

for strength development.

Second Wovk

First Work

FIGURE 64- The after-effect of

FIGURE 66- Depth- jumping.
prior tonie work on the height
(h) of a thrown object.

FIGURE 67- Two jumping exer-

cises for developing reactive
ability.

04 .
FIGURE 68- Sprint times (L/S-
03
low start, 5/S-standing start)

‘i
Dab" of various distances (a-short,
b-long jumping exercises,

[AJEyB] FAL BUS A} BLB AE c-combined).

. AL BYR]
30m We =3Dm cx «60m We 60m OK WDM We

175
should be given to the brief-maximal-tension method; and in those
instances where the resistance is small and the working-effect
dependent upon the reactive-ability of the muscles, the "shock"
method should be given preference. In subsequent stages, the
"shock" method should be the main method in the training of
highly qualified sportsmen for the development of explosive-
strength and reactive-ability.
_Means directed to affecting and perfectioning the ability to
quickly develop significant effort from zero as well as to switch
from yielding to overcoming work under conditions of great
dynamic effort deserve a place in works on the development of

explosive~strength. Thus, effective use of the overcoming regime

to develop explosive-strength involves exercises with maximum
effort and weights equal to 40% of maximum (or 30% of maximum
with mixed regimes) (Y. V. Verkhoshansky, 1963; V. N. Papysheva,
1966). Explosive-isometric tension up to 80% of maximum should
be utilized in conjunction with this.
4.2.4 The Development of Strength-Endurance
Strength-endurance involves muscular tension without a de-
crease in working effectiveness over a long period of time.
Strength-endurance like explosive-strength has several forms

depending upon the coordination structure of the athletic

activity. Strength-endurance should be divided into dynamic and
static endurance. Dynamic-strength-endurance is typical of exer-
cises with repetitive and significant muscular tension ata
relatively slow speed of movement as well as cyclic or acyclic
exercises requiring speed-strength. In the latter case we are
speaking of the specific endurance to execute special " speed-
strength and explosive work without a decrease in effectiveness
for a relatively long period of time. Static-strength-endurance
is typical. of activities associated with the maintenance of limit
and near-limit. tension as well as the moderate tension necessary
for holding a specific posture (in shooting for example or speed-
skating, etc.). ;
The development of strength-endurance is an inherent peculi-~
arity, and consequently, a fundamental methodical principle of

176.
 of general endurance. Training for
training for the development
basically is determined by: 1) the magnitude
strength-endurance
the tempo of movement, 3) the duration of the
of the load, 2)
structure, 4) the rest interval between
work and its coordination
5) the length of the training period, 6) the
training sessions,
initial levels of strength-endurance.
Repetition work with weights 25-50% of maximum at a moderate

120 times/minute) is utilized for the develop-

tempo (from 60 to
strength-endurance. The effectiveness of strength-endur-
ment of
utilizing equivalent weights and movement
ance development,
be higher if the work is executed to absolute
tempos, will
work of shorter duration (60% of the work-
fatigue; although,
yields sufficiently good results (Y. A. Agolinsky,
capacity time)
1953; V. D. Monogarov, 1958; V. M. Diach-
1953; A. V. Korobkov,
,
kov, 1961 and others).
as are the other qualitative character-
Strength-endurance,
of muscular activity, is specific. However, the specifi-
istics
is expressed to a lesser degree than
city of strength-endurance
of speed; and its carry-over from one
say the specificity
to another is greater. When the fundamental activity
activity
repetitively overcoming significant resistance (more
involves
of the maximal strength), one cannot train endurance;
than 75-80%
only to the development of strength (V. M. Zatsi-
one is limited
Isometric-endurance increased 84% as a result of
orsky, 1966).
a day for Eive weeks by holding a 60%
exercising ten times
as long as possible with the elbow flexors.
maximal contraction
increased 93% as a result of doing arm curls
Dynamic-endurance
60% at a rate of 28 repetitions per minute until
with a weight of
to increase the tempo. At the same time the
it was impossible
to execute repetitive isometric-tension (60% of maximal
‘ability
5-seconds of tension and 2~-seconds of rest) till
strength for
by 219%. A similar experiment with 10 dynamic
failure increased
daily with maximal resistance for 5 weeks
exercises executed
in both dynamic and static-strength, but
resulted in increases
remained aimost unchanged (1.
dynamic and static~endurance
that it is necessary to determine >
Hansen, 1963). This indicates

177.
the volume of work for the development of strength-endurance.

It has been established that an increase in strength-

endurance contributes to the improvement of endurance in distance

runners, skiers and skaters (Y¥. A. Popov, 1968; M. ¥. Nabatni-

1972; V. V. Mikhailov, G. M. Panov, 1975). However, it

kova,
ought to be emphasized that the size of the strength loads are

different when on the one hand the key quality is general~endur-

ance and on the other strength-endurance. These options never-

are not corroborated by subsequent research that show

theless
strength exercises (running with a sack of sand weighing 25% of

the subject's bodyweight, barbell pressing, squats, bend overs

and twisting with a barbell) not only do not further but toa

certain degree will even hinder the development of endurance in

type exercises (M. I. Maisuradze, 1960). However, it is

cyclic
possible in this instance that the increase in strength is asso-

ciated with excessive muscle hypertrophy which is a by-product of

strength training. Endurance and hypertrophy do not increase

simultaneously and there is no correlation between them (G. Mai-

son, A. Broeker, 1941; R. McMorris, E. Elkins, 1954).

The lack of a clear-cut correlation between muscular.

strength and muscle mass in representatives of different types of

sports where the key quality is endurance, has been observed by a

number of authors (A. A. Chistyakov, 1965; G. I. Chernyaev, 1965;

Y¥. Nabatnikova, 1972). This concerns primarily cyclic sports

M.
(middle distance runners, skating and skiing). In other cases,

with gymnasts for example, a positive linear correlation on the

order of r=0.77 is noticed between strength-endurance and rela-

tive-strength (A. A. Zhalei, 1964). Therefore, in those in-

stances where endurance is associated with the display of signi-

strength some muscular hypertrophy does not have a

ficant
negative influence on training results. ;
. The general methodological principles concerning the devel-

opment of strength-endurance, which were discussed earlier, are

differently in each concrete case, depending on the

carried-out
fundamental athletic activity. Thus, in the preparation-period

skiers should exercise with weights that are up to 65% of maximum

178.
in combination with imitation exercises on a flat surface; lifts

up to 10-12 kg and movements on roller-skis (A. A.

with
Chistyakov, 1965), Middle and long distance runners obtain good

from lifting a 40 kg barbell up to head level 8-10 times

results
rhythmically, clean and jerks with various weights (40-60 kg);

jumps with kettlebells (32 kg) from a squat position (18-20 repe-

titions) and squats with a 40 kg barbell until complete fatigue

(EB. FPF. Likachyevskaya, T. P. Kovalchuk, 1963). Exercises with

weights 60-80% of maximum for multiple repetitions, jumping and

running are also recommended (Y¥. A. Popov, 1966). Exercises

hard
with large (80-85% of maximum) as well as medium and small

weights are recommended for developing strength-endurance in

skaters. Exercises with large weights are executed for several

sets at a moderate tempo for 4-12 repetitions per set until com-

plete fatigue; with 2-4 minutes of rest between series. Exer-

cises with small and moderate weights are executed at maximum

speed for 15-25 repetitions per set, in several series with rest

intervals of 5-8 minutes (v. Vv. Mikhailov, G. M. Panov, 1975).

Male rowers obtain good results with weights of 50-808 of

maximum and female rowers with weights 30-40% of maximum (E. S.

Ulrich, et. al., 1966). Significant improvement (up to 40% from

initial levels) in strength-endurance has been noted in women

working with small weights (18-20 kg) and many repetitions (R. S.

Chumakova, 1964). Improvement is greater with these loads (by

20%) then is recorded with larger weights (35-50 kg) executed in

series of 2-3 repetitions and even greater than a combination of

both methods (by 88).

It is necessary to increase the amount of weight and the

of repetitions as strength-endurance increases. The fol-

number
lowing method is recommended for skaters to develop strength-

endurance in the legs: increase the number of barbell squats

20-30 kg.each week (begin with 50 squats per set and over a
with
period of 2-3 months push this up to 200-300); then increase the

of weight and begin a new cycle of strength-training but

amount
begin with a lesser number of squats (Vv. V. Mikhailov, G. M.

Panov, 1975).

179.
 It is appropriate for the development of strength-endurance
to always strive to execute the work under difficult conditions
but with movements whose coordination and structure are close to
the special exercise. For instance, a runner would carry a sack
of sand or pull a sled loaded with weights (¥. A. Popov, 1966);
gymnasts would use a heavy belt and vest (A. A. Zhilei, 1964);
and rowers a special water-resistance device (A. K. Chuprun,

1966). Thus, in the case of the rowers, strength-endurance as

measured by the number of pull-ups, the number of arm flexions in
the prone position and the number of barbell presses in 30
seconds increased 57.1; 27.8; 9.1% respectively.
Thus, multiple repetition exercises with various weights
should be considered the fundamental method for the development
of strength-endurance. The amount of weight is determined by the
dynamics inherent to the special exercise. In those instances
requiring significant effort the optimal large weight should be
utilized in combination with light weights or with exercises imi-
tating the regime of the fundamental sport activity. In those
instances where the special exercise is associated with the pro-
longed display of moderate force then it is expeditious to work
with light weights in repetitive series until fatigue or failure.
Strength-training should not result in increased muscle mass
in those types of sport where the key quality is endurance, with
work of a moderate intensity. If strength-endurance is required,
especially in those cases where it is necessary to overcome a

large resistancé, an insignificant increase in muscle mass is

permissable.
4.3 Systematic Application of the Means of Special Strength-
Training .
The expeditiousness of a systematic, chiefly sequential ap-

plication of the training means has been examined repeatedly in

the scientific-methodical literature, however the preliminary
studies on the question should be put in order. Thus, there have

been attempts to reveal a rational combination of exercises for

strength, speed and endurance to raise the body's general work—

capacity (N. V. Zimkin, WN. N. Yakovlev, A. V. Korobkov, V. M.

180.
Zatsiorsky and others); to investigate the effectiveness of
sequential (in stages) and parallel (complex) utilization of the
means for the development of endurance and speed-strength (N. G.
Ozolin, V. M. Diachkov, V. V. Mikhailov, M. Y. Nabatnikova, N. I.
Volkov, et. al., and others); to study the affect of the sequen-
tial use of aerobic and anaerobic loads on the crucial training-
effect -- the development of endurance (N. I. Volkov, et. al., S.
M. Gordon, et. al.); to reveal the appropriateness of the sequen-
tial use of strength and speed-strength exercises as one of the
conditions for the systematic development of explosive-strength
(N. G. Ozolin, V. M. Diachkov, A. N. Vorobyev, V. P. Filin, Y. V.
Verkhoshansky, and others). However, research in the area of the
systematic use of means is limited and there are no really con-
vincing, practical recommendations given.
The systematic use of the means of special strength-training
signifies such a combination that in time results in a cumvlative
effect which is significantly greater both quantitatively and
qualitatively than the separate non-sequential application of
these same means. In principle, there are two possible variants
for the systematic application of means —- sequential and simul-
taneous (complex). ;
The first variant involves a strictly determined, sequential
introduction (in the yearly or multi-yearly cycle) of means with
a higher training-effect. The logical-theoretical basis for this
variant is based upon two indisputable facts: the training-
effect of any means inevitably diminishes according to the degree
to which the body adapts to its systematic influence; and the
necessity for the constant presence of a training-effect in the
complex of means utilized, as a condition for the steady rise of
the organism's special work-capacity.
Besides this, experience and experimental observations indi-
cate that the ultimate training-effect designed to develop this
or that motor ability is to a significant degree determined by
the factor of continuity in the sequential changing of means with
different training-effects; because of which functional changes
to the organism acquired as a result of the use of some means

181.
create favorable conditions for the realization of the training~
effect of the other, subsequent means. ,
Necessary conditions for the construction of a systematic

sequence of the means of special strength-training are: assess-

ment of the quantitative and qualitative components of the train-

ing-effect and the categorization of the means in accordance with

the specific level of the sportsman's preparedness. This in

effect, is the subject of research, the aim of which is to

establish scientifically, theoretical and methodical principles

for the construction of rational systems for the sequential use

of the means of special-strength training.
The second variant of systematic use Of means involves the

simultaneous utilization of means close to the organism's work

regime but producing chiefly a different training-effect. “The

logical-theoretical premise for this method consists of the

assumption (which has already been sufficiently corroborated

experimentally) that the accommodative displacement to the orga-
nism rendered by the separate components of the complex of

training work is not simply summed in the form of an additive

effect, but the functional interaction secures a new qualitative

state of the organism; which then has a significantly higher and

"richer" work-potential than would result from the separate non-

systematic use of these same means, even at an increased volume.

Experimental assessment of the cumulative effects of different

variations of the combination of means is necessary (and conse-

quently the aim of research) for making use of the complex system
of utilizing the special strength-training means.
A number of researchers (FE. V. Purvin, A. V. Khodykin, Vv. Nz

Deniskin, V. V. Tatian, G. V. Chernousov, and others) studied the

systematic use of special strength means in speed-strength

sports.

It has been established that the sequence of means in the

preparation period (beginning with strength then speed-strength

or vice-versa) has no real significance for novice athletes.

Consequently, in principle the same effect can be obtained (with
equal probability) by utilizing these means in any order.

182.
 A relatively larger effect than the aforementioned variants

(same volume of training load) occurred in groups who utilized

strength and speed-strength means simultaneously by alternating

them in "mixed" training sessions. This alternation sequence

creates the optimal conditions for functional accommodative-

reconstruction. This does not rule~out the fact that this work
regimen, with a rest interval between sessions on the same day,
secured a positive inter-influence of traces phenomena from the
strength and speed-strength exercises. On the whole this pro-

voked more intense and stabile accommodative processes. One

should bear in mind that the contrasting of irritants; by alter-

nating (in mixed workouts) means primarily of strength and speed-

strength character undoubtedly has a positive influence.

In another experiment one group of novice athletes utilized
barbell exercises in the first stage; ‘then depth-jumpsin the
next. A second group did the same exercises in the reverse order

and a third group did these same exercises simultaneously. It

was established that the first variant was more effective for the
development of speed-strength. The simultaneous utilization of

exercises (the third variant) caused significant improvement in

speed-strength in the first stage but the rate of improvement in

speed-strength decreased noticeably in the second stage. This

was due to the monotonous use of means. The second variant of

sequential use of these same means produced significant (accord~-

ing to a number of parameters larger than the first and third

variants) improvement after the first stage. This was due to the

larger training-effect of the "shock" method. However, the

acquired speed-strength qualities were the lowest at the end of

the second stage.
A special experiment studied this question: will the execu-

tion of speed-strength exercises in one workout against the back-

ground of the positive after-effect rendered by previous tonic~

strength work influence the effectiveness of speed-strength pre-

paration of novice athletes? One group of sportsmen executed (in

the fundamental part of their workouts) exercises in such a

sequence; another group did the reverse. The pauses between

183.
 were increased slightly in order to keep to the minimum
exercises
of the positive after-effect of the preceding work on
the affect
work. A third group executed depth-jumps. The
the subsequent
of this group in the experiment served two purposes:
presence
study the effectiveness of the "shock" method and
first, to
this effect with the results obtained with a
second to compare
complex of lesser effective means.
There was no statistically significant difference in speed-

strength of the subjects in the first two groups. The largest

all the parameters of the control movement was dis-

increase in
group. :
covered in the third
Thus, a rise in the training-effect of speed-strength exer-

executed against the background of the positive after-

cises
work (in the training of novice athletes) has
effect of strength
not been corroborated. The means with a higher training-effect

(depth-jumps) produced significantly larger improvement in speed~

preparedness; achieved at a smaller volume of training

' strength
In explaining these results one should take into account
work.
any training influence will leave significant traces in an
that
untrained athlete. The organism is unable to selectively react

to a chiefly strength or speed-strength means (in one workout);

the length of time the traces of the training influence are

and
is apparently longer than the after-effect of prior
maintained
work. Within the confines of one workout, the traces of
tonic
influences are summed, which leads to the same
all the training
regardless of the fact that there is a succession of these
effect
influences.
appropriateness of utilizing a complex of ‘means in
The
affects the positive after-effect of the
training, which
strength work .and is used for raising the training-
preceding
the subsequent speed-strength and especially the speed
effect of
.not be considered repudiated once and for all.
work, should
the experiment was conducted on a contingent of novice
Since
is very likely that their lower level of special
athletes it
excluded the possibility of realizing this pheno-
trainability
A well-trained athlete can anticipate that the preceding
menon.

184.
strength will have a positive effect on the training-effect of

speed-strength and speed-work, in training. However, this as-

sumption ought to be understood only aS a more precise examina-

tion of the hypothesis, the correctness of which can be conclu-

sively established only in a specially organized experiment.

In an experiment with junior class sprinters the specific

influence of short (with different variations of repeated jumps

on one and two legs as well as variations of triple and quintuple

standing broad jumps) and long (multiple jumps on one leg or from

leg to leg over distances of 30-100 M) jumping exercises were

tested as well as their systematic use. One group of sprinters

executed primarily short jumps, a second group did primarily long

jumping exercises and a third group did both for a period of

eight months. The results of the experiment are presented in

figure 68. The short jumping exercises primarily develop length

and speed of the running stride. The long jumping exercises toa

large degree increase maximum running speed and speed-strength

endurance, The combination of short and long jumping exercises

leads to a summation of their training-effect and the development

of speed-strength abilities -- specific to sprinters.

Under natural training conditions, three equivalent groups

of track and field athletes (jumpers of average qualification)

compared the effectiveness of a sequential system of strength-

training means. All of the groups utilized special jumping exer-

cises in the first stage of the preparation period. Groups two

and three switched to barbell exercises in the second stage;

group-one continued to do the jumping exercises. Group-three

began to utilize depth-jumps in the third stage while group-one

continued to do the jumping exercises and group-two, the barbell

exercises. The general tendencies are schematically represented

in figure 69. It is obvious the special strength-training indi-

cators had a.clear-cut tendency to stabilize in groups one and

two after the first and second stages respectively; and for

group-one, to even decrease in the third stage. Thus, the se-

quential use of means with higher, specific training-effects has

an obvious positive result. At the same time, the use of the

185.
same means even with an increase in volume not only do not render

a positive displacement, but lead to a decrease in the attained

level of special strength-preparedness (Y. V. Verkhoshansky, V.

G. Aganin, 1970).
Research with novice and athletes of average qualification
enables us to make the following conclusions about the effective-

ness of the variants studied for these categories of athletes:

-~- the best results are obtained from the use of those means
with the optimal, high training-effect;
-- a slightly lesser, but nevertheless significant effect is

obtained through the complex use of strength and spéed-strength

means in one training session or their sequence in mixed

sessions;

-- the least effective variant is the sequence of strength

and then speed-strength means or vice-versa;

It is necessary to be guided by the following principles for

the sequential use of means: strength exercises should be done

after speed-strength exercises in training; strong-acting "shock"

methods) are done after strength exercises, but not before.

Qualified-sportsmen modeled different variants of weight-

lifting pre-competition training under laboratory conditions (V.

N. Deniskin, 1976). A leg extension movement (the initial knee

angle was 90°) lifting a limit weight was utilized as a model.

The controls executed this same movement with standard loads at

maximum speed. The training-effect of the "shock" method (depth-

jumps) was investigated after a stage of intensive work with

resistance; the task of which was to increase explosive-strength.

Only depth-jumps were utilized in the second and third stages.

The necessity of two such stages was dictated by the results of a

preliminary investigation which showed that the rise in function-

al state achieved at one stage is unstable. The fourth stage was

a control and consisted only of testing. They were given a com-

plete rest between stages in order to observe the super-restora-

tion phenomenon. Presented in figure 70 are the results of con-

trol competitions (the maximum weight lifted is represented by

the dotted curves) and load (maximal dynamic force -- F max, time

186.
of its achievement -- T-max, Q and I gradients).

experiment showed the "shock" method produced an

The
additional, significant increase in the level of explosive~

strength; attained through resistance exercises. This demon-

strates the appropriateness utilizing these means in two stages:

stage improves explosive-strength and the second --

the first
stabilizes the attained level of special-preparedness.

There was a significant increase in all the control indica-

after a period of complete rest; following the first and

tors
second stages. This is an indication that rest can be utilized

(and this is not paradoxical) as a training means.

A number of researches have studied the systematic use * of

special strength-training under natural training conditions; with

highly qualified sportsmen (E. V. Purvin, V. N. Deniskin, A. V.

Khodykin) . It was established that utilizing electro-myo-stimu-

lation (EMS) first and then the "shock" method, yielded a larger

training-effect than the use of these means in the reverse order.

a significantly larger training-effect was obtained by

However,
using them simultaneously when, for example, EMS and the "shock"

method are combined with heavy resistance exercises. When the

training is not chiefly for strength EMS and the "shock" method

observed to have the lowest effect during periods of

were
complete or partial rest.
In general, an appropriate and advantageous system of using
means of special strength-training can be characterized in
the
the following way. ,
A Sequential System of Means

One can assume that the development of specific motor abili-

ties from that level which is inherent to a normal functioning

of a healthy person to a high degree of perfection

organism
(which is indicative ef the sportsman's distinguished prepara-

occurs with a specific regularity. Because of this regu-

tion)
there is an objective necessity for sequential perfec-
larity,
tioning of the functioning of the systems and the physiological

crucial for the development of this or that specific

mechanisms
ability. Progressive functional changes in some systems
motor

187.
and mechanism act as favorable prerequisites for the perfection-

ing of other systems and mechanisms which are limiting the

further development of motor abilities. It is easy to understand

the realization of the given regularity is possible only if

that
training process is organized so as to secure suitable con-
the
the creation of the system of sequential use of means
ditions;
with different training-effects.
It is known that in order to steadily increase the

organism's special work-capacity the means used should possess a

but its magnitude should correspond to the

training-effect,
body's current level of special-preparedness and grow in conjunc-—

tion with the latter. Despite all of the common-sense theoreti-

cal ideas embodied in this principle it is nevertheless not

always practical to realize. Very often the means are selected

on the spur of the moment without considering their training-

effect and not infrequently, influenced by what is "fashionable"

on the basis of subjective assessment. Highly-effective means

are utilized inopportunely in the early stages of the yearly

cycle or in the beginning stages of multi-year training. The

arsenal of means is extremely limited and is repeated from year

to year. This of course, is not a general tendency but a rather

occurance indicative that even well known and (not
typical
calling into question) theoretical tenets of principal signifi-

are voluntarily or involuntarily ignored. Hence; the nec-

cance
essity to construct a methodical system of sequential introduc-

tion of means with gradually greater training-effects into

training becomes extremely obvious.

Specificity acquires greater significance to the ‘athlete's

of trainability as sports mastery increases. The role of

state
means utilized to develop trainability grows at the same
the
The introduction of the means should be well-timed and the
time.
of training should be prepared entirely from the pre-
contents
stages. These should be new (unexpected by the body)
ceding
an utterly specific place in the system of means
means occupying
with a higher training-effect.
Research has dealt with changing the special training means

188.
once or twice. However, appropriate variants of the systematic

use means with greater training-effects involve multiple changes.

The basic scheme of the so-called conjugate-sequence method’ of

systematic special strength-training, is examined on this page.

Complex System of Means

The complex use of means, combined by structural develop-

ment of the specific motor abilities is the most progressive

method of organizing special strength-training. For the most

part it responds to the functional mechanism of the specific

motor ability (especially in the process of perfectioning) and at

the same time economizes time and energy.

In the training of highly-qualified sportsmen the necessity
always arises to raise the developmental level of one of the ele-

mentary qualities of the motor apparatus which is limiting the

further improvement of the specific motor abilities. A simple

logical solution is the introduction of means capable of elimi-

nating this insufficiency. However this measure, relying on a

very low probability of transference of specific motor abilities,

is not very effective. If a complex method is systematically and

regularly used in training, then the probability that such situ-

ations will arise is minimal; and the situation will rapidly be

improved.
As is known, the "contrastness" of the training influences,
i.e., an alternation of means with different advantageous train-

ing-effects, within the range of some optimal segments of time is

a factor which strengthens the functional receptivity of the

body. This factor secures, to the fullest measure, (with the

‘complex use of means) the special strength-training. ,

One should take into account some of the methodical péculi-

arities of the systematic construction of special strength-train-

ing which yield a sufficiently high training-effect. Therefore,

it is appropriate to construct their training chiefly on the

basis of a system of sequential utilization of means which should

achieve the following objectives:

-- to secure, favorable conditions for the systematic devel-

opment of specific motor abilities;

189.
 -- to raise the effectiveness of the special strength-train-

ing by systematic (periodic) renewal of the means.

Within each stage, specifying the order and periodicity of

the change of means, one should use exercises with primarily

different training-effects.
It is appropriate for qualified-sportsmen (those who possess

a high level of special-strength-training) to utilize (primarily)

a complex system of means which should achieve the following ob-

jectives:
-~- to secure the specific training-effect of the complex of

means;
-- to secure the preservation of the quantitative criteria

of the training-effect. : :
The latter should be realized by the sequential replacement
of one complex combination of means with another. It should be

emphasized that the long term use of one and the same means even

if the volume is increased not only will not secure a rise in the

sportsman's level of special preparedness but will lead to a

clear decrease in the earlier achieved speed-strength and especi-

ally, strength.
4.4 Principle Aims in the Organization of the Sportsman's Spe-

cial Strength-Training
In the initial stages of training the body reacts to any

influence with the entire complex of the life-preservation

systems and the entire spectrum of the motor potentials inherent

to it. As a result of this universal reconstruction of the

organism the specific components of the training influences are

not displayed, such that they have a determining influence on the

body's working potential. Characteristically there is a rela-

tively high correlation between the internal aggregate of motor

and the development of even those of them which do not

abilities
undergo direct. influence. The transfer of trainability is very

distinct here.
In conjunction with the growth of sport mastery, the organ-

accommodative response becomes elective. Functional recon-

ism's
is localized primarily to those organs and systems
struction

190.
which are the most active and develops advantageously in those”
directions which are determined by the specific components of the
training-influence. The close connection between separate motor
abilities (particularly specific) has a tendency to diminish in

the stage of high sport mastery. The rate of development of

motor abilities which are not the object of direct influence
slows; and the "transfer" phenomenon, already is not displayed as
sharply as earlier. The situation arises where the direction of
functional progress is determined entirely by the specific compo-
nents of the training-influence. Since sport achievements at the
high mastery level are secured by a complex of specific motor
abilities, then the composition of the means used should contain
an adequate complex of specific training-influences.
It is now appropriate
and expeditious to formulate a series
‘of methodological aims which determine the most general require-
ments for the organization of the special strength-training of
athletes. These aims are based on the specific regularities of
the training of the organism and the multi-year dynamics of the
PASM; they express, in general the basic leading ideas of the
trends in the realization of these regularities. They claim the
role of a qualitatively new category of methodological theories
of sport training; although not excluding the existing, tradi-~
tional methodological principle, and its organizational rules.
4.4.1 The Aim of Converging the Partial Effects of Strength-
Training Means
This aim expresses the most general requirements for the
long-term aspects of organizing strength-training. It's realized
by the convergence of partial training-effects, i.e., the gradual
convergence of their cumulative training-effect to those impor-
tant specific characteristics which are inherent to the work
regime of the functioning of the organism in athletic activities.
In the initial stages of the PASM the tasks, determining all
the diversity of the training means are nominally, far apart.

. They are connected only by inner logic based on the perspective

development of the PASM; and expressed in that inter-conditioned

perfectioning of the motor abilities which takes into account the

191.
 of the formation of the structure of the physical
peculiarities
in the given type of sport. Specifically, this is
preparedness
the organism's adaptation to the motor regime
expressed by
activity, i.e., its specialization is
inherent to the athletic
and first of all according to ability (but not to
advantageously
is unrelated to the motor form. At the same time,
the organ) and
perfectioning of the organism involves raising its
the functional
functional abilities and expanding its working potential.
the training-effects of the means begin to
As PASM develops
the specificity of their expression; and the premise
converge by
involves this principle: the regime in which
determining them
body is functioning during the athletic activity determines
the
of the special strength-training and the level
the requirements
determines the progress of the PASM as a
of special-preparedness
whole.
in the high sport mastery stage the point of conver-
Thus,
emphasis of the special strength-training is on the
gence of the
character of the special exercise’s motor regime and its
specific
form; but the criterion of convergence -- is the
concrete motor
correspondence of the effect of the training loads originating
Reproduction of the special-exercise in
from those requirements.
the specific motor characteristics for repro-
training converges
competition: the special training means exceed this
duction in
to a greater degree than
level; the general-training-means
the specifics of the special-exercise. Now
earlier, reflect
close interrelationship between all components that
there’ is a
PASM. The correspondence between each of the com-
constitute the
is conditioned by this regularity: the growth of mastery
ponents
organism's level of special-preparedness and
is determined by the
ability to effectively realize his motor poten-
the sportsman's
tials.
expressed in the following diagram (figure 71).
This idea.is
specific characteristics of the key motor ability
In the PASM the
move closer to the work regime of the motor
"B" gradually
the athletic activity "A". At the same time the
apparatus during
abilities securing the key motor ability
complex of motor

192.
(designated on the diagram a, hb, c) correspond in their develop-

a greater extent, to the qualitative specifics of the

ment, to
key motor ability.
It should be mentioned here that this idea has already been

V. Verkhoshansky, 1963, 1972) in connection with the

studied (¥.
so-called, early-specialization. Since this question is directly

with the beginning stages of PASM constructive consid-

connected
was given to the expeditiousness of initial specializa-
eration
in the concrete type of sport (sport exercise), but in
tion, not
the specific motor regime to which the young organism gravitates.

In other words, orienting the child to the sport and the motor
of the organism with the sport means, begins not in
perfectioning
utilitarian form of specialized training aimed at the
the
achievement of classification norms and ranking (which is easily

imperceptibly transferred to forced training); but in the

and
of systematic management of the future functional perfec-
form
of the organism. This means that in the process physical
tioning
education and competition the child's body manifests a predispo-

to this or that form of athletic activity (quick reac-

sition
tions, speed of movement, capacity for speed-strength activities

or acyclic type, for long duration work at a

of the cyclic
intensity, for motor dexterity and others). The child
moderate
training in a group specializing in the appropriate motor
begins
(first stage CSS) [child sport school, Ed.]. The goal of
regime
such training is the perfectioning of the organism's functional

within the limits of the given regime on a base of

abilities
elementary in structure and additional motor forms;
diverse,
specializing in some specific type of sport. ' Competi-
without
(primarily team) are indispensible elements of such train-
tions
they consist of those same elementary motor forms.
ing since
course of training (with a gradual increase in the
During the
for the body) the teacher should determine the
requirements
to a specific sport and transfer him to
child's predisposition
appropriate sport school-group (second stage of CSS) where
the
the process of specialized-training begins.

Outstripping the Emphasis of the Training Influences

4.2.2

193.
 This aim emphasizes the key role of special strength-train-

ing as a foundation for the development of the PASM and expresses

the major requirement for the organization of special strength-

training over a long period of time. The idea is this, the spe-

cific adaptive~displacement to the body should take-place in

advance, forestalling the instant when the logical progressive

development of the PASM requires its presence. Prom a practical

standpoint, this means that the task of the functional speciali-

zation of the organism (organs and abilities) should be based on

a clear-cut representation of the motor organization of the motor

act: and the requirements of functional specialization are pre-

sented to the organism in the course of the PASM with a specific

sequence.
Thus, realization of the main idea of outstripping the

emphasis of the training influences is based on foresight of con-

ditions forestalling the subsequent course of the PASM. This

secures the steady progress of the PASM, except lagging physical

preparedness.
Practical realization of the examined aims requires statis-

tical data reflecting the basic tendencies in the dynamics of the

sportsman's specific motor abilities in the given type of sport

(see 1.2.3); and taking into account the peculiarities of the

specific athletes’ physical preparedness.

This can be illustrated with an example of a practical

experiment. Novice and qualified women sprinters utilized

different means of strength-training over a period of one and two

years (respectively). In each contingency the subjects were

divided into two equivalent groups: one (control) utilized tra-

ditional means and the other (experimental) original specialized

means. The purpose of the experiment consisted of a comparative

assessment of the training-effect of the two different means.

The study revealed that the experimental means were signi-

ficantly more advantageous in terms of economy of the training

(the experimental groups spent an average of 30% less time

loads
on special strength-training). The results of the experiment are

presented in figure 72. The displacement in relative (F rel) and

194.
 Weeks
1234656 78 9 10H i213 4 15 16 17 1 92021 22 23
Control Indicators

oe IL I.
| Farid Fistan 2-4 3Tah S-hostan” 4-H aan
o Den tpe
F max
i20 —N
bare. i a ©
0 —e—_2
8.9 —_e—
s
tmax —. oe ® ®
Os ton

FIGURE 69- Dynamics of control

os ;
indicators of the experimental Gnd oN timex
group. Explained jn text. 700

600 ——— ~ a7

. Ww :
400 ——™ . SI

a ad
SPaciat PrePated Wess

* 200

FIGURE 70- Results of an

explained in text.
experiment

Frel. b ¢ Q
PASM 20 § LAEt w
FIGURE 7i- The aim to con-
verge the partial effects
18
a a “tf
tology
l i
60
12 1} | | \
of strength-training means. | I F 40
Explained in text. batt | | ot rio.
cat | te 1

'
eS
Porod
{ Fe

eo ii pty n
(2.5 55 2.5 5c 12.5 15,5 5

beMh- Tumbine FIGURE 72- Results of experi-~

TumP w. weichtS
Training Effect

mental training of women

Barbell Exercises sprinters. Explained in text.
Means

Tum Ping Exéreises

iG Etfect
oF

feriod of Trawine -

FIGURE 74- The conjugate~

sequential method of organizing
Trai

speed-strength loads.
ist Year And year 3rd year

FIGURE 75~ Utilization of the

conjugate-sequential method of
organizing speed-strength loads
in multi-year training.

195
“starting (Q) strength of the flexors (Ft) and extensors (Et) of
“the thigh are shown against a background revealing earlier mean

‘statistical tendencies in the dynamics of these characteristics

for the PASM of sprinters. The novices' data is depicted in the

“graph on the left and the data for the qualified women sprinters

on the right. The graphs also show the improvement from

is
initial levels (a) for the experimental (c) and the control (b)

‘groups (Y. V. Verkhoshansky, V. G. Semyenov, 1971).

: Thus, the specialized means of strength-training selected by

into account the specific movements in sprinting and the

taking
- female athlete's level of preparedness secured a timely and sub~-

- stantial increase in relative and starting muscular strength;

“exceeding the average for these indices typical of the training

“of women-sprinters. It should also be pointed out that the

original means of strength-training enabled the qualified-women

to avoid the typical slow rate of increase in starting-strength.

4.4.3 Specific Correspondence of the Training-Effect

This aim points to the necessity of correspondence between

the general effect of the strength work of a specific character

of the motor regime inherent to the athletic activity. The aim

is realized on the basis of the systematic organization of means

that the resulting (cumulative) effect secures, to the

such
extent, the formation of the structure of special
fullest
logically required by the current stage of
strength-preparedness,
the PASM.
The practical realization of this aim shouldbe based upon

following. scheme of the functional specialization of the

the”
organism in the ‘PASM. (figure 73). Alon: with the body" Ss general

reaction, it ‘selectively reacts the pre minant motor

adaptive
and, movement form. This causes: ional hyper-
regime
of “Ene motor activities of the kineme hain's motor
“trophy,
‘apparatus :
are. appt
» motor ; specifics of the athletic.
2c ording to ability). . Subsequently,

ucture of © the “key muscle groups and

196.
 External Factors * : ps

Form of the Movement

Primary Motor Regime

the External Mechaical

Motor Specifics of Influences -
Sport Exercise

Internal Factors

to Specialization according to
Specialization according
organ’” -
ability

Key muscle groups

a & ma [0] Functional Muscie Complex

Yb yp PDP HY BB D
an Dn DD ox @ =}
e¢ ¢ & aA EE SB
J) y O -d oO u
ie 4 4 & Pa 3
Oa Sad Vv ca is} ue]
on wm = 5
Qo ina]
o a n > Ww
» 808 S FH O Gry)
Bo o-domn
a wv y 12] se) Dn
ie) ics] taal iss] oO q
Q uw Lie] @ ® Oo
Q o a mm Oo
ey ma ou Ww aS
o ul
is)
3)
rq

of the functional specialization of

Figure 73. Principle scheme
the organism in the (PASM) .

197.
 Bigamation occurs; as “we!

“strength- preparedness; ne plinisace

appearance of hetero-chronologigal ‘nioment
intetise functional spec key. “muscle
we V1 as liquidate. the. ‘lag in " gtrength- preparedness of

arate ‘muscle groups; intensify the development,

“should
_. Aine

einely “introduction of more effective, enlning means

based on logical continuity. a

The preservation of the training-effect ensures the realiza-

tion of the basic condition for development of the PASM -- the

uninterrupted, progressive. growth ° “in-the sportsman's special

work-capacity. The very achievement of

between the organism's special, Wi he “Steady

growth of demands, produces whidh the

special exercises are executed.
. The>.practical” » realization. °. “> aSsociated

wit 2 ‘sequential introduction, or training: theans with larger

training-effects, based upon ‘the so-called conjugate- sequence
method (see 4.3). The idea of this method (see figure 46)

.in: turn “are

y, for practical
method, an ob} simental. assessment
“effect, and based ° “ @ategorization of
An example of the
of. explosive-leg-
a jumper is pre-

198.
 es
The long term useof the conjugate-sequence method involves
3 af Yelpetitive cyclic, Greproduction of the system of sequential
utilization of means; but these means are - exécuted with
increasing intensity. neh this method itvis possible and expe-
diticus ‘to renovate the” “complex of means (figure 75), replacing
hose which played a progressive role in raising the sportsman's
rainability (means and
BY with newer, more effective (means D
‘and E).
Coficlusion
-~- So, the sontours _ of futute systems, of. the sportsman "
_ special strength- training; age. as if, visible.
“However, there..are.still Many vague questions. Therefore,
the ‘author is prepared to understand the. displeasure of the
reader who anticipated. finding the answer to this question in the
book: for all that, how do I develop strength? But, ‘hopefully
this reader understands the unjustness of his pretensions and the
“uselessness of attempts to give a prescription in each concrete
case if it is represented by allot the infinit iversity of its
nuanaes which: determine the training method in’ its individual
expressions _ on. ‘a similar occasion Dial. ‘Mendeleyev said: "To
ae
(medial) and to do

scription
best way, sOey (adcording to (the
expenditure of time,"ineans ‘and effort) practical pursuits happen
only . with “of the abstract. . .the direct use” of
which is? a, ic. idea of the
attengt. to answer the _auestion

reative;® utiliza-
tion in concre e. and ideas already
ge
t gone through hype : esis stage and
nthe book)’ ‘will quickly lead to uccess. At any
of: greater benefit than submissively ‘following
“recipes which do not live long. ; :

It is necesdary to mention yet one .more task confronting the

199.
author -- to emphasize the unsettled probl ‘ms in the area of,
strength-training and to outline; if only @peral,y the paths,.
along -which the reader's personnal. interes
to be directed. Such problems are stild ‘numerdus: and the résolu
tion of any of them, ‘even the smallest, bring! “as tlearer to the.
moment, when we can “speak: about an authentically ‘scientific and
consequently, practical, etfective system Of-Speéial strength- . -
training for athletes. ; re : a - POS ae |

200.
“arg
 RAY
eee Lee Meer - a a wee