Intro To Solar Thermal Lab Volt Book With Job Sheets
Intro To Solar Thermal Lab Volt Book With Job Sheets
Job Sheet 1
Thermal Energy Fundamentals
More than 2,000 years ago, the Romans used south-facing windows to capture warmth
generated by sunlight. Since 1767, many famous discoveries and inventions helped to define
how we use solar thermal energy today to heat and cool our homes and businesses.
Equilibrium Effect
Heat continually travels to cooler regions until thermal equilibrium is achieved. Thermal
equilibrium is reached when two systems in thermal contact with each other are balanced,
and cease to exchange heat, because their temperatures remain identical. A heated object
ultimately returns to thermal equilibrium within its environment, due to heat loss by conduction,
convection, and radiation.
Delta-T Effect
The difference in temperature between two systems is commonly represented by the Greek
letter delta (Δ). Large temperature differentials cause an increase in flow rate during the
transfer of heat between two substances. Thermal energy is lost or gained more rapidly with
significant thermal gradients.
The total energy of a system includes its potential and kinetic energy (E), the work (W) done
by the system, and the flow or transfer of heat (Q) through the system. Temperature (T),
pressure (p), and volume (V) are properties that determine the state of matter and the total
energy in mass (m). Mass is simply a body of material such as a gas, liquid, or solid that is
required to store thermal energy (heat).
Fluid dynamics (the motion of fluid) can be described by the conservation of mass, momentum,
and energy. Thermal energy can travel by means of conduction, convection, or radiation.
Natural convection (sometimes called the chimney effect) occurs as thermal energy rises
in a material, due to differences in density. Stratification is a term used to describe a material
that has developed a hot area within its upper portion and a cold area within its lower portion,
usually due to natural convection. Forced convection often involves the use of a pump or
blower to control the flow of fluids. During natural and forced convection, the pattern of fluid flow
can be laminar (straight and consistent) or turbulent (containing disturbances). Transitional
flow is a combination of laminar and turbulent flow.
Units of Measure
The basic units of measure often used when working with thermal energy are listed below.
Flow Rate—measured in gallons per minute (gpm) or liters per minute (lpm) for water, and
cubic feet per minute (cfm) or cubic meters per hour (m3/h) for air.
1 gpm = 3.785 liters per minute (lpm)
1 cfm = 1.699 cubic meters per hour (m3/h)
Pressure—measured in pounds per square inch (psi), pascals (Pa), or bars (bar).
1 psi = 6,894.8 pascals (Pa) = 68.948 millibars (mbar)
1,000 psi = 1 kilopound per square inch (ksi)
1,000 Pa = 1 kilopascal (kPa)
1 bar = 14.504 pounds per square inch (psi)
0.001 bar = 1 millibar (mbar)
1 mbar = 100 pascal (Pa) = 1 hectopascal (hPa)
Volume—measured in cubic feet (ft3), cubic meters (m3), gallons (gal), or liters (L).
1 gal = 3.7854 liters (L)
1 ft3 = 28.3169 liters (L)
1 L = 1,000 cubic meters (m3)
Instrumentation Types
There are many different types of devices available commercially for measuring parameters
such as flow rate, temperature, pressure, and volume of mass (dimensionally or by weight).
Flow Rate—The simplest method to measure liquid flow rate is to time the filling of a bucket
that has a known capacity. However, there are many different types of flow meters available for
fluids. Many of them use a rotating mechanical part, such as a paddle wheel, turbine, propeller,
disk, or piston to determine fluid velocity through a known area. The float-style variable area
flow meter, called a rotameter, is shown in Figure 1-2. This type of flow meter is commonly used
for air or water. It consists of a floating indicator inside a clear tapered tube. Digital versions of
flow meters are also available.
Pressure—Various types of pressure gauges (also called manometers) exist for measuring
the static (non-flowing) pressure or the dynamic (flowing) pressure of fluids, such as air or
water. Many of them are constructed using an aneroid (void of liquid) flexing element, such
as a bourdon tube, diaphragm, capsule, or bellows. Pressure gauges can be referenced to
atmospheric or ambient air pressures. Digital pressure gauges are available as well.
L
H
Material Properties
Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in volume as temperature changes.
When a substance is heated, its particles begin moving, and the average separation (of its
particles) changes. Most materials expand (increase in volume) as they are heated, while
some (rare) materials can contract (decrease in volume) as they heat up. Inversely, thermal
contraction occurs as most materials dissipate or lose thermal energy and cool down to a
lower temperature. When water is heated, its density decreases and its volume expands. For
example, water heated from 90°F to 140°F inside a 40-gallon domestic hot-water (DHW) heater
will expand by almost one half of a gallon. Density increases and volume contracts as water
begins to freeze. However, as ice continues to get colder (below 32°F), it actually expands as
the density decreases again. Assuming pressure is constant, the volumetric thermal expansion
coefficient (beta or β) relates a change in volume (delta-V or ΔV) to a change in temperature
(delta-T or ΔT) for a given material. Coefficients of some common materials are listed in Table 1-1.
Gasoline 950
Rubber 231
Water 207
Mercury 182
Oak
162
(across grain)
PVC 156
Pine
102
(across grain)
Aluminum 69
Brass 57
Silver 54
Copper 51
Gold 42
Nickel 39
Concrete 36
Iron 33.3
Steel 33-39
Platinum 27
Glass 25.5
Glass
9.9
(borosilicate)
Silicon 9
Diamond 3
The coefficient of volumetric thermal expansion (β) for a material listed in Table 1-1 can be
used to determine the change in volume (ΔV) for a given change in temperature (ΔT). See the
formula below.
ΔV = β x V0 x ΔT
Where:
V0 is the material’s volume at room temperature (20°C), ΔT is the temperature difference in °C,
and pressure is constant.
NOTE: Use this equation only for a solid or liquid (as listed in Table 1-1), not for a gas.
For example, 40 gallons of water rising 30°C above room temperature (to 50°C) will increase in
volume by 0.2484 gallons (or about one quart).
Sensible heat is defined as the amount of energy that results in a temperature change only
when a heat transfer takes place.
Latent heat (L) is defined as the amount of energy (in BTU) [or in kJ] released or absorbed
by a substance during a change of state (phase transition) that occurs without changing its
temperature. Both, the latent heat of fusion (or melting), and the latent heat of vaporization
(or boiling), define the direction of energy flow when changing phases, such as the transitions
between solid, liquid, and gas. The process absorbs energy (is endothermic) when going from
solid to liquid to gas, and releases energy (is exothermic) when going from gas to liquid to solid.
Latent heat is typically specified in BTU/lb [or kJ/kg].
Specific heat (c) is defined as the amount of energy (in BTU) [or in kJ] that is required to raise
the temperature of one pound (lb) [or one kilogram (kg)] of a material (mass) by one degree
Fahrenheit (°F) [or Celsius (°C)]. As a measure of thermal (heating or cooling) capacity, specific
heat is typically specified in BTU/lb·°F [or kJ/kg·°C]. BTU/lb·°F is equal to cal/g·°C. kWh/g·°C is
also used.
When two bodies not in thermal equilibrium are thermally connected, heat transfer will take
place from one body to the other until thermal equilibrium is established. The thermal energy
that is transferred can be calculated, by using the equation Q = mcΔT, re-written as:
Q = c x m x (T2 – T1)
Where:
Q is the amount of heat transfer, c is the specific heat (at constant pressure), m is the mass of
the body, and T2 and T1 are the final and initial temperatures of the body, respectively.
For example, if you want to determine the amount of heat transfer required to raise the
temperature of water from 68°F to 118°F, while flowing at 20 gpm, simply calculate the
following.
Q = 1 BTU/lb·°F x (20 gal/min x 60 min/hr x 8.34 lb/gal) x (118°F – 68°F)
Q = 500,400 BTU/hr
NOTE: The weight of water is about 8.34 lb/gal under typical temperature and atmospheric
conditions.
PROCEDURE
Use calculations and/or conversions to answer the following questions.
২ 1. Determine the amount of heat transfer required (in BTU/hr) to raise the
temperature of water from 68°F to 140°F (20°C to 60°C), while flowing
at 10 gpm.
_____BTU/hr
২ 2. Determine the amount of heat transfer required (in BTU/hr) to raise the
temperature of water from 68°F to 176°F (20°C to 80°C), while flowing
at 20 gpm.
_____BTU/hr
২ 3. What is the amount of heat transfer required (in therms) for questions 1
and 2? (HINT: 100,000 BTU = 1 therm)
_____therms and _____therms
NOTE: For heating power values, BTU implies BTU/hr, so therm also implies
therms/hr.
২ 8. What is the volume (in cubic feet, ft3) of a thermal storage mass
consisting of a concrete slab that measures 20'L x 10'W x 0.5'H?
_____ ft3
২ 9. What is the volume (in cubic feet, ft3) of a thermal storage mass
containing air in an enclosure that measures 30'L x 15'W x 8'H?
_____ ft3
২ 10. What is the volume (in cubic meters, m3) for questions 8 and 9?
(HINT: 35.314667 m3 = 1 ft3)
_____m3 and _____m3
Instructor approval:____________________________________________________