Class 12 Maths Lab Manual Complete - Removed

Activities for
Class XII
Activity 2
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To verify that the relation R in the set A piece of plywood, some pieces of
L of all lines in a plane, defined by wire (8), plywood, nails, white paper,
R = {( l, m) : l || m} is an equivalence glue.
relation.
METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
Take a piece of plywood of convenient size and paste a white paper on it. Fix
the wires randomly on the plywood with the help of nails such that some of
them are parallel, some are perpendicular to each other and some are inclined
as shown in Fig. 2.
DEMONSTRATION
1. Let the wires represent the lines l1, l2, ..., l8.
2. l1 is perpendicular to each of the lines l2, l3, l4 (see Fig. 2).
3. l6 is perpendicular to l7.
4. l2 is parallel to l3, l3 is parallel to l4 and l5 is parallel to l8.
5. (l2, l3), (l3, l4), (l5, l8), ∈ R
OBSERVATION
1. In Fig. 2, every line is parallel to itself. So the relation R = {( l, m) : l || m}
.... reflexive relation (is/is not)
2. In Fig. 2, observe that l2 l3 . Is l3 ... l2? (|| / || )
So, (l2, l3) ∈ R ⇒ (l3, l2) ... R (∉/∈)
Similarly, l3 || l4. Is l4 ...l3? (|| / || )
So, (l3, l4) ∈ R ⇒ (l4, l3) ... R (∉/∈)
and (l5, l8) ∈ R ⇒ (l8, l5) ... R (∉/∈)
∴ The relation R ... symmetric relation (is/is not)

3. In Fig. 2, observe that l2 || l3 and l3 || l4. Is l2 ... l4 ? (|| / || )
So, (l2, l3) ∈ R and (l3, l4) ∈ R ⇒ (l2, l4) ... R (∈/∉)
Similarly, l3 || l4 and l4 || l2. Is l3 ... l2 ? (|| / || )

So, (l3, l4) ∈ R, (l4, l2) ∈ R ⇒ (l3, l2) ... R (∈,∉)
Thus, the relation R ... transitive relation (is/is not)
Hence, the relation R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. So, R is an
equivalence relation.
APPLICATION NOTE
This activity is useful in understanding the This activity can be repeated
concept of an equivalence relation. by taking some more wires
in different positions.
104 Laboratory Manual

Activity 4
To demonstrate a function which is Cardboard, nails, strings, adhesive
one-one but not onto. and plastic strips.
1. Paste a plastic strip on the left hand side of the cardboard and fix two nails
in it as shown in the Fig. 4.1. Name the nails as a and b.
2. Paste another strip on the right hand side of the cardboard and fix three
nails on it as shown in the Fig. 4.2. Name the nails on the right strip as
1, 2 and 3.
3. Join nails on the left strip to the nails on the right strip as shown in the Fig. 4.3.
DEMONSTRATION
1. Take the set X = {a, b}
2. Take the set Y = {1, 2, 3}.
3. Join elements of X to the elements of Y as shown in Fig. 4.3.
OBSERVATION
1. The image of the element a of X in Y is ______________.
The image of the element b of X in Y is ______________.
So, the Fig. 4.3 represents a _____________________.

2. Every element in X has a _________ image in Y. So, the function is
_____________ (one-one/not one-one).
3. The pre-image of the element 1 of Y in X __________ (exists/does not
exist). So, the function is __________ (onto/not onto).
Thus, Fig. 4.3 represents a function which is _________ but not onto.
APPLICATION
This activity can be used to demonstrate the concept of one-one but not onto
function.

Activity 5
To draw the graph of sin −1 x , using the Cardboard, white chart paper, ruler,
graph of sin x and demonstrate the coloured pens, adhesive, pencil,
concept of mirror reflection (about eraser, cutter, nails and thin wires.
the line y = x).
1. Take a cardboard of suitable dimensions, say, 30 cm × 30 cm.
2. On the cardboard, paste a white chart paper of size 25 cm × 25 cm (say).
3. On the paper, draw two lines, perpendicular to each other and name them
X′OX and YOY′ as rectangular axes [see Fig. 5].
4. Graduate the axes approximately as shown in Fig. 5.1 by taking unit on
X-axis = 1.25 times the unit of Y-axis.
5. Mark approximately the points
π π π π π π
 ,sin  ,  ,sin  , ... ,  ,sin  in the coordinate plane and at each
6 6 4 4 2 2
point fix a nail.
6. Repeat the above process on the other side of the x-axis, marking the points
 –π –π   –π –π   –π –π 
 ,sin ,  ,sin  , ... ,  ,sin  approximately and fix nails
 6 6   4 4   2 2 
on these points as N1′, N2′, N3′, N4′. Also fix a nail at O.
7. Join the nails with the help of a tight wire on both sides of x-axis to get the
–π π
graph of sin x from to .
2 2
8. Draw the graph of the line y = x (by plotting the points (1,1), (2, 2), (3, 3), ...
etc. and fixing a wire on these points).
9. From the nails N1, N2, N3, N4, draw perpendicular on the line y = x and produce
these lines such that length of perpendicular on both sides of the line y = x
are equal. At these points fix nails, I1,I2,I3,I4.
10. Repeat the above activity on the other side of X- axis and fix nails at I1′,I2′,I3′,I4′.
11. Join the nails on both sides of the line y = x by a tight wire that will show the
graph of y = sin −1 x .
DEMONSTRATION
Put a mirror on the line y = x. The image of the graph of sin x in the mirror will
represent the graph of sin −1 x showing that sin–1 x is mirror reflection of sin x
and vice versa.

OBSERVATION
The image of point N1 in the mirror (the line y = x) is _________.
The image of point N1′ in the mirror (the line y = x) is _________.
The image point of N′2 in the mirror (the line y = x) is _________.
The image of the graph of six x in y = x is the graph of _________, and the
image of the graph of sin–1x in y = x is the graph of __________.
APPLICATION
Similar activity can be performed for drawing the graphs of cos –1 x, tan −1 x , etc.
Mathematics 111
Activity 6
To explore the principal value of Cardboard, white chart paper, rails,
the function sin–1x using a unit ruler, adhesive, steel wires and
circle. needle.
1. Take a cardboard of a convenient size and paste a white chart paper on it.
2. Draw a unit circle with centre O on it.
3. Through the centre of the circle, draw two perpendicular lines X′OX and
YOY′ representing x-axis and y-axis, respectively as shown in Fig. 6.1.
4. Mark the points A, C, B and D, where the circle cuts the x-axis and y-axis,
respectively as shown in Fig. 6.1.
5. Fix two rails on opposite
sides of the cardboard
which are parallel to
y-axis. Fix one steel wire
between the rails such
that the wire can be
moved parallel to x-axis
as shown in Fig. 6.2.
6. Take a needle of unit
length. Fix one end of
it at the centre of the
circle and the other
end to move freely
along the circle
Fig. 6.2.
DEMONSTRATION
1. Keep the needle at an
arbitrary angle, say x1
with the positive direction of x-axis. Measure of angle in radian is equal to
the length of intercepted arc of the unit circle.
2. Slide the steel wire between the rails, parallel to x-axis such that the wire
meets with free end of the needle (say P1) (Fig. 6.2).
3. Denote the y-coordinate of the point P1 as y1, where y1 is the perpendicular
distance of steel wire from the x-axis of the unit circle giving y1 = sin x1.
4. Rotate the needle further anticlockwise and keep it at the angle π – x1. Find
the value of y-coordinate of intersecting point P2 with the help of sliding
steel wire. Value of y-coordinate for the points P1 and P2 are same for the
different value of angles, y1 = sinx1 and y1 = sin (π – x1). This demonstrates
that sine function is not one-to-one for angles considered in first and second
quadrants.
5. Keep the needle at angles – x1 and (– π + x1), respectively. By sliding down
the steel wire parallel to x-axis, demonstrate that y-coordinate for the points
P3 and P4 are the same and thus sine function is not one-to-one for points
considered in 3rd and 4th quadrants as shown in Fig. 6.2.
Mathematics 113
6. However, the y-coordinate
of the points P3 and P1 are
different. Move the needle
in anticlockwise direction
π π
starting from − to and
2 2
look at the behaviour of
y-coordinates of points P5,
P6, P7 and P8 by sliding the
steel wire parallel to
x-axis accordingly. y-co-
ordinate of points P5, P6, P7
and P8 are different (see
Fig. 6.3). Hence, sine
function is one-to-one in
 π π
the domian  − ,  and its range lies between – 1 and 1.
 2 2
 π π
7. Keep the needle at any arbitrary angle say θ lying in the interval  − , 
 2 2
and denote the y-coordi-
nate of the intersecting
point P9 as y. (see Fig. 6.4).
Then y = sin θ or θ = arc
sin–1y) as sine function is
one-one and onto in the
 π π
domain  − 2 , 2  and
range [–1, 1]. So, its
inverse arc sine function
exist. The domain of arc
sine function is [–1, 1] and
Fig. 6.4

 π π
range is  − ,  . This range is called the principal value of arc sine
 2 2
function (or sin–1 function).
OBSERVATION
1. sine function is non-negative in _________ and __________ quadrants.
2. For the quadrants 3rd and 4th, sine function is _________.
π
3. θ = arc sin y ⇒ y = ________ θ where − ≤ θ ≤ ________.
2
4. The other domains of sine function on which it is one-one and onto provides
_________ for arc sine function.
APPLICATION
This activity can be used for finding the principal value of arc cosine function
(cos –1y).
Mathematics 115
Activity 9
To find analytically the limit of a Paper, pencil, calculator.
function f (x) at x = c and also to check
the continuity of the function at that
point.
 x 2 – 16 
 , x ≠ 4
1. Consider the function given by f ( x) =  x – 4 
 10, x = 4 

2. Take some points on the left and some points on the right side of c (= 4)
which are very near to c.
3. Find the corresponding values of f (x) for each of the points considered in
step 2 above.
4. Record the values of points on the left and right side of c as x and the
corresponding values of f (x) in a form of a table.
DEMONSTRATION
1. The values of x and f (x) are recorded as follows:
Table 1 : For points on the left of c (= 4).
x 3.9 3.99 3.999 3.9999 3.99999 3.999999 3.9999999
f (x) 7.9 7.99 7.999 7.9999 7.99999 7.999999 7.9999999

2. Table 2: For points on the right of c (= 4).
x 4.1 4.01 4.001 4.0001 4.00001 4.000001 4.0000001

f (x) 8.1 8.01 8.001 8.0001 8.00001 8.000001 8.0000001
OBSERVATION
1. The value of f (x) is approaching to ________, as x → 4 from the left.
2. The value of f (x) is approaching to ________, as x → 4 from the right.
3. So, lim f ( x ) = ________ and lim+ f ( x ) = ________.

x→ 4 x →4
4. Therefore, lim f ( x ) = ________ , f (4) = ________.

x →4
5. Is lim f ( x ) = f (4) ________ ? (Yes/No)

x →4
6. Since f ( c ) ≠ lim f ( x) , so, the function is ________ at x = 4 (continuous/

x →c
not continuous).
APPLICATION
This activity is useful in understanding the concept of limit and continuity of a
function at a point.
Mathematics 123
Activity 13
To understand the concepts of Pieces of wire of different lengths,
decreasing and increasing functions. piece of plywood of suitable size,
white paper, adhesive, geometry
box, trigonometric tables.
1. Take a piece of plywood of a convenient size and paste a white paper on it.
2. Take two pieces of wires of length say 20 cm each and fix them on the white
paper to represent x-axis and y-axis.
3. Take two more pieces of wire each of suitable length and bend them in the
shape of curves representing two functions and fix them on the paper as
shown in the Fig. 13.
4. Take two straight wires each of suitable length for the purpose of showing
tangents to the curves at different points on them.
DEMONSTRATION
1. Take one straight wire and place it on the curve (on the left) such that it is
tangent to the curve at the point say P1 and making an angle α1 with the
positive direction of x-axis.
2. α1 is an obtuse angle, so tanα1 is negative, i.e., the slope of the tangent at P1
(derivative of the function at P1) is negative.
3. Take another two points say P2 and P3 on the same curve, and make tangents,
using the same wire, at P2 and P3 making angles α2 and α3, respectively with
the positive direction of x-axis.
4. Here again α2 and α3 are obtuse angles and therefore slopes of the tangents
tan α2 and tan α3 are both negative, i.e., derivatives of the function at P2 and
P3 are negative.
5. The function given by the curve (on the left) is a decreasing function.
6. On the curve (on the right), take three point Q1, Q2, Q3, and using the other
straight wires, form tangents at each of these points making angles β1, β2,
β3, respectively with the positive direction of x-axis, as shown in the figure.
β1, β2, β3 are all acute angles.
So, the derivatives of the function at these points are positive. Thus, the
function given by this curve (on the right) is an increasing function.
OBSERVATION
1. α1 = _______ , > 90° α2 = _______ > _______, α3 = _______> _______,
tan α1 = _______, (negative) tan α2 = _______, ( _______ ), tan α3 =
_______, ( _______). Thus the function is _______.
2. β1 = _______< 90°, β2 = _______, < _______, β3 = _______ , < _______
tan β1 = _______ , (positive), tan β2 = _______, ( _______ ), tan β3 =

_______( _______ ). Thus, the function is _______.
APPLICATION
This activity may be useful in explaining the concepts of decreasing and
increasing functions.
Mathematics 133
Activity 14
To understand the concepts of local A piece of plywood, wires,
maxima, local minima and point of adhesive, white paper.
inflection.
1. Take a piece of plywood of a convenient size and paste a white paper on it.
2. Take two pieces of wires each of length 40 cm and fix them on the paper on
plywood in the form of x-axis and y-axis.
3. Take another wire of suitable length and bend it in the shape of curve. Fix
this curved wire on the white paper pasted on plywood, as shown in Fig. 14.
4. Take five more wires each of length say 2 cm and fix them at the points A, C,
B, P and D as shown in figure.
DEMONSTRATION
1. In the figure, wires at the points A, B, C and D represent tangents to the
curve and are parallel to the axis. The slopes of tangents at these points are
zero, i.e., the value of the first derivative at these points is zero. The tangent
at P intersects the curve.
2. At the points A and B, sign of the first derivative changes from negative to
positive. So, they are the points of local minima.
3. At the point C and D, sign of the first derivative changes from positive to
negative. So, they are the points of local maxima.
4. At the point P, sign of first derivative does not change. So, it is a point of
inflection.
OBSERVATION
1. Sign of the slope of the tangent (first derivative) at a point on the curve to
the immediate left of A is _______.
2. Sign of the slope of the tangent (first derivative) at a point on the curve to
the immediate right of A is_______.
3. Sign of the first derivative at a point on the curve to immediate left
of B is _______.
4. Sign of the first derivative at a point on the curve to immediate right
of B is _______.
of C is _______.
of C is _______.
of D is _______.
Mathematics 135
of D is _______.
9. Sign of the first derivative at a point immediate left of P is _______ and
immediate right of P is_______.
10. A and B are points of local _______.
11. C and D are points of local _______.
12. P is a point of _______.
APPLICATION
1. This activity may help in explaining the concepts of points of local maxima,
local minima and inflection.
2. The concepts of maxima/minima are useful in problems of daily life such
as making of packages of maximum capacity at minimum cost.

Activity 16
To construct an open box of maximum Chart papers, scissors, cellotape,
volume from a given rectangular sheet calculator.
by cutting equal squares from each
corner.
1. Take a rectangular chart paper of size 20 cm × 10 cm and name it as ABCD.
2. Cut four equal squares each of side x cm from each corner A, B, C and D.
3. Repeat the process by taking the same size of chart papers and different
values of x.
4. Make an open box by folding its flaps using cellotape/adhesive.
DEMONSTRATION
1. When x = 1, Volume of the box = 144 cm3
2. When x = 1.5, Volume of the box = 178.5 cm3
3. When x = 1.8, Volume of the box = 188.9 cm3.
4. When x = 2, Volume of the box = 192 cm3.
8. When x = 3, Volume of the box = 168 cm3.
Clearly, volume of the box is maximum when x = 2.1.
OBSERVATION
1. V1 = Volume of the open box ( when x = 1.6) = .................
3. V = Volume of the open box ( when x = 2.1) = .................
7. Volume V1 is ____________ than volume V.
So, Volume of the open box is maximum when x = ________.
APPLICATION
This activity is useful in explaining the concepts of maxima/minima of functions.
It is also useful in making packages of maximum volume with minimum cost.
Mathematics 141
NOTE
Let V denote the volume of the box.
Now V = (20 – 2x) (10 – 2x) x
or V = 200x – 60x2 + 4x3
dV
= 200 –120 x +12 x 2 . For maxima or minima, we have,
dx
dV
= 0 , i.e., 3x2 – 30x + 50 = 0
dx
30 ± 900 – 600
i.e., x = = 7.9 or 2.1
6
Reject x = 7.9.
d 2V
= –120 + 24 x
dx2
d 2V
When x = 2.1, is negative.
dx 2
Hence, V should be maximum at x = 2.1.

Activity 21
To verify that angle in a semi-circle is Cardboard, white paper, adhesive,
a right angle, using vector method. pens, geometry box, eraser, wires,
paper arrow heads.
1. Take a thick cardboard of size 30 cm × 30 cm.
2. On the cardboard, paste a white paper of the same size using an adhesive.
3. On this paper draw a circle, with centre O and radius 10 cm.
4. Fix nails at the points O, A, B, P and Q. Join OP, OA, OB, AP, AQ, BQ, OQ
and BP using wires.
5. Put arrows on OA, OB, OP, AP, BP, OQ, AQ and BQ to show them as vectors,
using paper arrow heads, as shown in the figure.
DEMONSTRATION

1. Using a protractor, measure the angle between the vectors AP and BP , i.e.,
∠ APB = 90°.

2. Similarly, the angle between the vectors AQ and BQ , i.e., ∠ AQB = 90°.
3. Repeat the above process by taking some more points R, S, T, ... on the
semi-circles, forming vectors AR, BR; AS, BS; AT, BT; ..., etc., i.e., angle
formed between two vectors in a semi-circle is a right angle.
OBSERVATION
By actual measurement.

OP = OA = OB = OQ = r = a = p = _______ ,

AP = _______ , BP = _______, AB = ______

AQ = _______ , BQ = _______
2 2 2 2

AP + BP = ________, AQ + BQ = ________

So, ∠APB = ________ and AP.BP ________ ∠AQB = ________ and

AQ.BP = ________
Similarly, for points R, S, T, ________
∠ARB = ________, ∠ASB = ________, ∠ATB = ________, ________
i.e., angle in a semi-circle is a right angle.
APPLICATION
This activity can be used to explain the
concepts of
(i) opposite vectors

(ii) vectors of equal magnitude

(iii) perpendicular vectors
(iv) Dot product of two vectors.
NOTE
Let OA = OB = a = OP = p

OA = – a , OB = a , OP = p

AP = – OA + OP = a + p ., BP = p – a .
2 2
AP. BP =( p + a ) .( p – a ) = p – a = 0
.
( 2
since p = a )

So, the angle APB between the vectors AP and

BP is a right angle.

Similarly, AQ. BQ = 0 , so, ∠AQB = 90° and so on.
Mathematics 159
Activity 22
To locate the points to given Drawing board, geometry box,
coordinates in space, measure the squared paper, nails of different
distance between two points in space lengths, paper arrows.
and then to verify the distance using
distance formula.
Y
Z 6
5 C (4, 1, 3)
(–2,2,2)B 4
3 3 cm
2 cm
N 2
(–2, 2)
1 M
(4, 1)
¢
X X
O
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1 D (3, –5, 4)
A –2
(–2, –3, 1) 1 cm
L 4 cm
(–2, –3) –3
–4
–5 S
(3, –5)
–6
¢
Y
Fig 22
1. Take a drawing board and paste a squared paper on it.
2. Draw two lines X′OX and Y′OY to represent x-axis, y-axis respectively
(see Fig. 22) and take 1 unit = 1 cm.
3. Fix a wire through O, in the vertical direction, representing the z-axis.
4. Fix nails of length 1 cm, 2 cm, 3 cm, 4 cm, etc. at different points on the
squared paper (say at L (–2, –3), N (–2, 2), M (4, 1), S (3, –5)), etc.
Now the upper tips of these nails represent the points (say A, B, C, D) in the
space.
DEMONSTRATION
1. Coordinates of the point A = (–2, –3, 1).
2. Coordinates of the point B = (–2, 2, 2).
3. Similarly find the coordinates of the point C and D.
4. By actual measurement (using a scale) distance AB = 5.1 cm.
5. By distance formula, AB= (–2 + 2)2 + (–3 – 2)2 + (1 – 2)2 = 26 = 5.099.

Thus, the distance AB, obtained by actual measurement is approximately same
as the distance obtained by using the distance formula.
Same can be verified for other pairs of points A, C; B, C; A, D; C, D; B, D.
OBSERVATION
Coordinates of the point C = ________.
Coordinates of the point D = ________.
On actual measurement :
AC = ________, BC = _________.
AD = ________, CD = _________, BD = __________.
Mathematics 161
Using distance formula; AC = ________, BC = ________, AD = ________
CD = ________, BD = ________.
Thus, the distance between two points in space obtained on actual measurement
and by using distance formula is approximately the same.
APPLICATION
1. This activity is useful in visualising the position of different points in space
(coordinates of points).
2. The concept of position vectors can also be explained through this activity.

Activity 26
To measure the shortest distance A piece of plywood of size
between two skew lines and verify it 30 cm × 20 cm, a squared paper,
analytically. three wooden blocks of size
2cm × 2 cm × 2 cm each and one
wooden block of size 2 cm × 2 cm
× 4 cm, wires of different lengths,
set squares, adhesive, pen/pencil,
etc.
1. Paste a squared paper on a piece of plywood.
2. On the squared paper, draw two lines OA and OB to represent x-axis,
and y-axis, respectively.
3. Name the three blocks of size 2 cm × 2 cm × 2 cm as I, II and III. Name the
other wooden block of size 2 cm × 2 cm × 4 cm as IV.
4. Place blocks I, II, III such that their base centres are at the points
(2, 2), (1, 6) and (7, 6), respectively, and block IV with its base centre at
(6, 2). Other wooden block of size 2 cm × 2 cm × 4 cm as IV.
5. Place a wire joining the points P and Q, the centres of the bases of the
blocks I and III and another wire joining the centres R and S of the tops of
blocks II and IV as shown in Fig. 26.
6. These two wires represent two skew lines.
7. Take a wire and join it perpendicularly with the skew lines and measure the
actual distance.
Fig. 26
DEMONSTRATION
1. A set-square is placed in such a way that its one perpendicular side is along
the wire PQ.
2. Move the set-square along PQ till its other perpendicular side touches the
other wire.
3. Measure the distance between the two lines in this position using set-square.
This is the shortest distance between two skew lines.
4. Analytically, find the equation of line joining P (2, 2, 0) and Q (7, 6, 0) and
other line joining R (1, 6, 2) and S (6, 2, 4) and find S.D. using
( )( )

a2 – a1 ⋅ b1 × b2
. The distance obtained in two cases will be the same.
b1 × b2
OBSERVATION
1. Coordinates of point P are ________.
2. Coordinates of point Q are ________.
3. Coordinates of point R are ________.
4. Coordinates of point S are ________.
5. Equation of line PQ is ________.
6. Equation of line RS is ________.
Shortest distance between PQ and RS analytically = ________.
Shortest distance by actual measurement = ________.
The results so obtained are ________.
APPLICATION
This activity can be used to explain the concept of skew lines and of shortest
distance between two lines in space.
Mathematics 173
Activity 27
To explain the computation of A piece of plywood, white paper
conditional probability of a given pen/pencil, scale, a pair of dice.
event A, when event B has already
occurred, through an example of
throwing a pair of dice.
1. Paste a white paper on a piece of plywood of a convenient size.
2. Make a square and divide it into 36 unit squares of size 1cm each
(see Fig. 27).
3. Write pair of numbers as shown in the figure.
Fig. 27
DEMONSTRATION
1. Fig. 27 gives all possible outcomes of the given experiment. Hence, it
represents the sample space of the experiment.
2. Suppose we have to find the conditional probability of an event A if an event
B has already occurred, where A is the event “a number 4 appears on both
the dice” and B is the event "4 has appeared on at least one of the dice”i.e,
we have to find P(A | B).
3. From Fig. 27 number of outcomes favourable to A = 1
Number of outcomes favourable to B = 11
Number of outcomes favourable to A ∩ B = 1.
NOTE
11
4. (i) P (B) = , 1. You may repeat this activity by
36
taking more events such as the
probability of getting a sum 10 when
1 a doublet has already occurred.
(ii) P (A ∩ Β) =
36 2. Conditional probability
P (A | B) can also be found by first
P(A ∩ B) 1 taking the sample space of event B
(iii) P (A | B) = = . out of the sample space of the
P(B) 11 experiment, and then finding the
probability A from it.
OBSERVATION
1. Outcome(s) favourable to A : _________, n (A) = _________.
2. Outcomes favourable to B : _________, n (B) = _________.
3. Outcomes favourable to A ∩ B : _________, n (A ∩ B) = _________.
4. P (A ∩ B) = _________.
5. P (A | B) = _________ = _________.
APPLICATION
This activity is helpful in understanding the concept of conditional probability,
which is further used in Bayes’ theorem.
Mathematics 175

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104 Laboratory Manual

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162 Laboratory Manual

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