Asian Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 26, No.

1, 171–196, 2021

TIME MANAGEMENT FOR BETTER JOB

PERFORMANCE: AN ANALYSIS FROM
AL-WASATIYYAH PERSPECTIVE
Rafikul Islam , Md. Yousuf Ali , and Noor Mohammad Osmani
1* 2 3

Department of Business Administration, Kulliyyah of Economics and Management Sciences,

1

International Islamic University Malaysia, Jalan Gombak, 53100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilisation, International Islamic University
2

Malaysia, No. 24, Persiaran Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin, Taman Duta, 50480 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Department of Quran and Sunnah, Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences,
3

International Islamic University Malaysia, Jalan Gombak, 53100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
*
Corresponding author: [email protected]

Published online: 4 June 2021

To cite this article: Islam, R., Ali, M. Y., & Osmani, N. M. (2021). Time management for better job
performance: An analysis from al-wasatiyyah perspective. Asian Academy of Management Journal, 26(1),
171–196. https://doi.org/10.21315/aamj2021.26.1.7

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.21315/aamj2021.26.1.7

ABSTRACT

Managing time means engaging activities that generate greater benefits to human beings. To a Muslim,
benefits encompass for both worlds, i.e., life in this mundane world as well as life in the hereafter. Previous
research on time management resulted in a variety of findings depending on the aspects under study. The
objective of this research is to investigate the components of time management that have significant
relationship with job performance, especially in the context of Malaysian employees. This research also
intends to relate the concepts and attributes of “al-wasatiyyah” that have direct relationship to job
performance. To pursue the research objectives, 223 employees working in different sectors in Malaysia were
contacted. The researchers found that certain time management factors namely “prioritisation of tasks,”
“usage of schedules,” and “time management instrument” sustained statistically significant positive
relationships to job performance. Meanwhile, the al-wasatiyyah variables that have been found to have
statistically significant positive relationships to job performance are “working with sincerity/pure intention
(niyyah),” “following the middle path to avoid excessiveness in working place (wasatan),” “practicing values
in working place (qiam),” and “ensuring fairness in

© Asian Academy of Management and Penerbit Universiti Sains Malaysia, 2021. This work is licensed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) (http://creativecommons. org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Rafikul Islam, Md. Yousuf Ali, and Noor Mohammad Osmani

task assignment (adl).” These findings have important implications. Most importantly, managers of
organisations can practice them to motivate employees in order to enhance their job performance which by
and large will improve the performance of the whole organisation in the long run.

Keywords: time management, time management factors, job performance, Islamic perspective, al-wasatiyyah

INTRODUCTION

Allah (swt) says (Al-Asr, 103: 1–3):

 By (the token of) time (through the Ages), verily man is in loss, except those who have faith
and do righteous deeds and (join together) in the mutual teaching of truth and of patience and
constancy (Al-Qur’an, 2016).

In line with the above Qur’anic verses, human beings are required to discipline themselves by
underscoring the importance of time. They must be prompt in doing good deeds, which will increase
their faith and subsequently, enable them to gain Allah’s pleasure and mercy. They have to
remember that on the Day of Judgement, they will be asked how they spent their time, lives, wealth,
and knowledge. In other words, they will be questioned on how they spent everything that Allah
(swt) has given to them as narrated [by Abdullah bin Masud (ra)] in the following hadith.

Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) said:

A man shall be asked concerning five things on the Day of Resurrection: concerning his life,
how he spent it; concerning his youth, how he grew old; concerning his wealth, how he
acquired it, and in what way he spent it; and what was it that he did with the knowledge that
he had (Sunan Al-Tirmidhi, vol. 4, book 11, hadith no. 2416).

The above hadith reiterates that time management is important, beneficial, and effective for
individuals and organisations. In order to balance our daily lives, we need to be able to organise and
utilise our time wisely. Without good time management skills, we can easily fall behind in fulfilling
our responsibilities and feeling exasperated. Time is a valuable resource whereby our attitude to it
and the way we use it makes the difference between success and failure, fitness and poor health,
peace of mind and anxiety or depression (Jone, 1997). Since time always passes at a constant speed,
one has to care for the time allocated to him/her. The

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amount of time daily, monthly, or yearly is the same for all. It is said that those who care for their
time are the ones who make great achievements in their personal and professional lives, and they do
realise that time is not enough for doing all what they want to do. In contrast, those who do not care
for achievements are the ones who consider time to be of little value (Al-Jeraisy, 2008). Ironically, in
spite of its great importance, time is the most wasted and the least concerned element at both the
individual as well as organisational levels.

One of the critical issues in management today is how to manage time. Time is a very unique
commodity. It cannot be borrowed, rented, or bought. It is irreplaceable and execution of anything
requires it. It is found that proper management of time increases efficiency, personal and professional
satisfaction, and decreases stress (Claessens et al., 2007). In essence, time management is vital for
overall wellbeing.

Macan et al. (1990) found that those who obtained higher time management behaviour scores will
experience less ambiguity concerning their role, less somatic tension, greater satisfaction in job as
well as life, and higher overall performance. The authors also discovered four factors that define time
management behaviour – setting goals and priorities; mechanics which includes planning and
scheduling; perceived control of time; and preference for disorganisation.

Amponsah-Tawiah et al. (2018) found in their cross-sectional study that in Ghana, many employees
have poor time management skills and consequently their productivity was low. In other words, to
improve productivity in the industrial sector of Ghana, employees must pay attention on how they
use their time in the workplace.
From the Islamic standpoint, time is a precious amanah from Allah (swt). Proper utilisation of time
increases efficiency, personal and professional satisfaction, and decreases stress from workload. It
also leads to success for worldly pursuits and secure eternal bliss in the hereafter. Since time is
limited in life, it must be utilised in the best possible manner so that eternal success can be attained.
According to Al-Jeraisy (2008), a Muslim’s life involves two elements, i.e., worshipping and
earning a living. He/she should use his/her time wisely and efficiently in daily life and should not
render his/her deeds in vain as the Qur’an (47: 33) says: “O you who believe! Obey Allah, and obey
the Messenger and render not vain your deeds.”

This present empirical work deals with time management, job performance, and al-wasatiyyah
concept in Islam. Al-wasatiyyah is an Arabic word derived from the word wasat which means
moderation, middle path, or balanced way (Hanapi,

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2014). In the context of the Qur’an, ummatan wasatan (Al-Baqarah, 2:143) refers to the balanced
Islamic community or a just nation in every aspect of life. Al-wasatiyyah is a guide for a Muslim in
achieving success in his/her worldly life as well as life after death. It is the opposite of extremism
and liberalism. In fact, the concept of al-wasatiyyah has become popular in contemporary time
amongst Muslims (Bakir & Othman, 2017). Hence, the present study aims (1) to investigate the
effects of time management on job performance, (2) to find out the factors that affect job
performance, and (3) to connect them with the role of al-wasatiyyah in time management for better
job performance.

In the Malaysian context, not many researches have been conducted involving time management and
job performance. Nonetheless, the few which were found in literature are briefly reported here.
Abduljabbar et al. (2012) investigated the relationship between time management and job
performance for the administrative staff of the Universiti Tenaga National in Malaysia. By means of
a survey on 220 respondents, the researchers found positive relationships between time planning,
time attitude, and job performance. However, as expected, they found a negative relationship
between time wasters and job performance. Another study discovered that to organise or execute any
event successfully, good time management is essential (Ahmad et al., 2012). The authors, through an
empirical study on 65 event managers in Malaysia, found significant positive correlation between
time management and event management performance. Most of the respondents disclosed that time
management affected their job performance.

Meanwhile, there has been a wide range of research on matching graduates’ competency and
employability skills required in the job market (Hamid et al., 2014; Kenayathulla et al., 2019). A
recent study conducted by Kenayathulla et al. (2019) found that there was a significant gap between
the skills possessed by the graduates in their hospitality program and the required skills in the
hospitality industry. The researchers recommended that graduates should be equipped with the 21st
century required skills including problem solving and decision making, risk taking, correlation,
organisation, and time management. Johari et al. (2019) investigated structural relationship between
job itself, employee well-being, and job performance for various public agencies in Malaysia. In
particular, the researchers found that employee well-being accounted for 41.8% variation in job
performance, but the research did not include the time management factor to test its relationship with
job performance.

Overall, in the Malaysian context, there is a clear dearth of studies on time management from al-
wasatiyyah perspective and, in fact, very little work has been done on the integration of the
philosophy of al-wasatiyyah with time management.

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 Time management, job performance, and al-wasatiyyah

Therefore, the present research investigates the relationship between time management, al-
wasatiyyah, and job performance to fill up this research gap.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Time Management

Research findings are abounding with different contents on time management in the areas of
academics, leadership, psychology, and organisational behaviour. As the objective of this research is
to identify the relationship between time management and job performance in the organisation from
al-wasatiyyah perspective, it needs to depict certain issues pertaining to time management.

Sarfraz (2017) dispels the myth that transformational, transactional, and other types of leaders have
similar time management skills. The researcher connected eight time management categories with
the nine leadership styles based on each style’s nature. The researcher concluded that the linkage
between leadership style and time management skills can bring greater understanding on the parts of
the leaders on how they should design their leadership strategies. In a recent study, Janeslätt et al.
(2018) developed a scale to assess time management skills of people who require occupational
therapy. A total of 238 respondents participated in their study of which 94 had impaired time
management skills due to mental disorders.

Previous literature suggests developing skills for better time management which include the
capability of identifying priorities, having achievable goals, remain organised, and monitor one’s
very own progress (Claessens et al., 2007). A number of researchers have discussed about the
components of effective time management. A group of researchers of the Eastern Illinois University
developed seven components of effective time management. On the other hand, researchers at the
University of Central Florida developed 16 components related to time management (Pierce &
Jussila, 2011). The components are essentially related with managing goals, tasks, prioritisation of
tasks, usage of schedule, procrastination management, and reminder system. These components have
strong links with the pioneering model on time management developed by Macan (1994).

Konig and Kleinmann (2005) found that people became most active in carrying out the projects
when deadlines loom. This phenomenon is known as “time discounting” which is the main cause for
deadline rush. The authors also observed that, in general, people preferred smaller but sooner reward
over larger but later reward. This typical behaviour of people is more accurately portrayed

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by a hyperbolic function rather than an exponential one. The observation has also been supported by
some earlier researchers such as Koch and Kleinmann (2002). On a related topic, several researchers
explored the relationship between dispositional characteristics and time management. Propensities to
procrastinate, impatience, and polychonicity (multitasking) are treated as common dispositional
characteristics (Bond & Feather, 1988; Francis-Smythe & Robertson, 1999) found among
employees.

A number of studies have been conducted linking time management and academic performance.
Using the time management model originally developed by Britton and Glynn (1989), Britton and
Tesser (1991) tested the effects of certain time management practices on students’ academic
achievements. A principal component analysis on a 35 itemised list provided three components,
namely short
range planning, time attitudes, and long-range planning. The researchers found significant positive
correlation between academic achievement (such as CGPA) and time attitude. Oran (2009) has
shown how students’ study time in a semester can be saved by re-structuring the class-schedules. If
the restructured class
schedules are implemented, the author is of the opinion that about a month’s time can be saved in a
typical semester. Though, it is basically a research on students’ class schedule, time is used as a
parameter and time management concepts have been used to delineate the propositions.

Sun and Yang (2009) investigated the relationship between time management practices of higher
secondary students in the Shenyang region of China and their learning outcomes. The authors
revealed that students felt pressured that are coming from different sources. The strongest pressure
was to do well in school and to pass the national college entrance examinations. Then, another strong
pressure was parents’ pressure followed by pressure from the greater society. Surprisingly, the
students felt that the least pressure came from their school and teachers.

Karakose (2015) found positive correlation between medical students’ time management skills and
their academic performance. In particular, the author found that female students demonstrated
superior skills in time management compared to their male counterparts. In the meantime, a research
on time management in academic setting also suggest that developing the school principal’s time
management capacities may be a worth-while strategy in increasing higher priority tasks and
reducing stress (Grissom et al., 2015). The researchers derived this strategy from their empirical
study that examined time management among 300 school principals in the USA and linked time
management to their key outcomes.

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Kouali and Pashiardis (2015) also conducted another empirical research on Cypriot primary school
principals and found three different time management profiles of principals. They are centralised
monochrons, procrastinative managers, and decentralised polychrons. They maintain that principals
who adopt decentralised polychrons manage time better than others. On the other hand, Alvarez
Sainz et al. (2019) observed that students lack sound time management skills. They deduce that it is
the educational system that should ensure developing these skills among students. The authors also
contend that students focus only on short-term planning and lack habits and attitudes for long term.

Time Management and Job Performance

A number of researchers have also investigated the relationship between time management and job
performance. Woodward and Geissler (1999), through an empirical research, identified the
management skills required for students in the textile programs, i.e., to be successful as managers in
the textile industry. The respondents, who were managers in the same industry, said that the new
entry
level managers must have the following skills especially leadership, problem solving, decision
making, and time management. Overall, from the survey, it was highlighted that time management is
an important skill that is necessary in order to perform well in the textile industry.

Green and Skinner (2005) conducted a survey on 233 participants and found that the majority of the
participants recorded significant improvement of performance in the following areas, i.e., planning,
prioritising, and assertiveness. They also found that the median improvement of personal
effectiveness was 20%. In the context of selected parastatals in Kenya, Njagi and Malel (2012) found
a statistically positive correlation of 0.674 between time management and job performance. The
researchers concluded that since there was significant positive correlation between time management
and job performance, therefore, adequate training should be provided to the managers on time
management. In another related research, Afsaneh et al. (2019) investigated the extent time
management skills are associated with self-efficacy. The researchers found that poor time
management, planning and organisation skills have a negative effect on self-efficacy.

Al-Wasatiyyah

Al-wasatiyyah is an Arabic word which means “an individual or group of attributes and practices as
being moderate and adjusted” (Yousif, 2015). It additionally implies a disposition, which is in
opposition to being indulged in extremism and excessiveness. Other words that are commonly used
for al-wasatiyyah are balanced,

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standard, intermediacy, midpoint, and adequate (Hassan, 2013). Al-wasatiyyah is more meaningful
today due to the increased religio-political difficulties postured by the rising ebbs and flows of
religious extremism, radicalism, and savagery (Mujani et al., 2015).

Islamic moderation is a concept derived directly from four sources. The main source is the Qur’an
that portrays the ummah as ummatan wasatan (Al-Baqarah, 2: 143). The second source is the
Qur’anic directive to evade fanatic religious practices (Al-Anaam, 6: 153). The prophetic standard is
the third source that expresses “the best of undertakings is that which is most just (or more adjusted)”
and the last source is the significance that Islam provides for the quest for far reaching information
of the world we live in so that our life is edified by such learning and wisdom.

Time Management from Al-Wasatiyyah Perspective

As mentioned previously, the term al-wasatiyyah has been derived from the word wasat in Arabic
which means to be moderate or to be in the middle. Islam encourages to be balanced in all activities
that we do in our daily life including talking, eating, drinking, sleeping, spending, and so on.
Extreme practices in any of these activities can bring negative consequences. This means that we
need to make a balance in our lives. Regarding spending, Allah (swt) says (Al-Isra, 17: 29): “And do
not make your hand (as) chained to your neck (spending) or extend it completely and (thereby)
become blamed insolvent.”

In some related verses, Allah (swt) says:

And those who, when they spend, are neither extravagant nor miserly, and it (i.e., their
spending) is moderate in between (the two extremes) (Al-Furqan, 25: 67).

And fight in the cause of Allah (against) those who fight you, (but) do not transgress limits,
indeed Allah does not love the transgressors (Al Baqarah, 2: 190).

The above verses amply underscore the importance of striking a balance in all our worldly activities.
Since time is required to carry out all activities, therefore, there is a need to be mindful of not
spending excessive time on certain activity. Many Qur’anic verses and hadiths are related with time
management that encouraged people to use their time wisely. Several theories have also been
discussed by scholars that show the importance of time in every sphere of human life.

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Life in this world is temporary. People do not know when death has been destined for them.
Everyone must value time for the obedience of Allah (swt). For the success of human life, nobody
should waste his/her valuable time. Al-Jeraisy (2008) considers time as one of the gifts that Allah
(swt) has given to individuals. According to the Islamic teachings, Allah’s endowments are
incalculable. Allah (swt) says in the Qur’an: “And if you would count the favour of Allah you
cannot reckon it. Lo! Allah is indeed Forgiving, Merciful” (An-Nahl, 16: 18).

The Qur’an stresses the value of time in many ways and contexts. For instance, deeds and their
means, administration and organisation, universe and creation, and creation-creator relationship are
all related to the time dimension. Allah (swt) says: “Surely, the number of months according to Allah
is twelve (as written) in the Book of Allah on the day He created the Heavens and the Earth, of
which there are four sacred months” (At-Tawbah, 9: 36). One hadith explains the above as narrated
by Sayyidina Abu Bakr As-Siddiq (ra):

The Prophet (pbuh) said: Time has come back to its original state which it had when Allah
created the Heavens and the Earth; the year is of twelve months, four of which are sacred.
Three of them are in succession: Dhul Qa’dah, Dhul Hijjah, and Muharram, and (the fourth
being) Rajab which stands between Jumad (ath-thani) and Shaban” (Bukhari, vol. 6, book
60, no. 184).

From the Qur’an, we also find that many acts of worships are related with time. For example, Allah
(swt) says in the Qur’an about starting the month of fasting (Ramadan):

The month of Ramadan in which was revealed the Qur’an, a guidance for mankind, and clear
proofs of the guidance, and the Criterion (of right and wrong). And whosoever of you are
present and witness the month let him fast in the month (Al-Baqarah, 2: 185).

And also He mentioned the same for prayers by saying: “Establish worship (prayers) at the going
down of the sun until the dark of night and (the recital of) the Qur’an at dawn. Lo! (the recital of) the
Qur’an at dawn is ever witnessed” (Al-Isr’a 17: 78).

The Qur’an has accentuated on overseeing time by relating it to the movement of the day and the
night. Allah (swt) says in the Qur’an: “Behold! In the creation of the Heavens and the Earth, and the
alternation of Night and Day, there are indeed Signs for men of understanding” (Al-Imran, 3: 190).

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We should comprehend the wisdom and the motivation behind time and to figure out how we can
utilise it viably for our advancement, development, and improvement and not to fall prey to its
negativities of either squandering or spending it in futile manner.

Hassan (2013) provides a conceptual framework of al-wasatiyyah, where he stresses that the
structure of al-wasatiyyah stands on three pillars: excellence and goodness; justice; and
balance/moderation. Kamali (2010) also contends that al-wasatiyyah is a multi-dimensional concept.
However, there are no unique set of dimensions of al-wasatiyyah where opinions of all the scholars
have converged. For example, Kamali’s (2010) propositions on al-wasatiyyah are wider than the
dimensions of al-wasatiyyah in Hassan’s (2013) work. Summarily, based upon the behavioural
principles enshrined in the Qur’an, hadith, and scholars’ writings on al-wasatiyyah, the following
items (variables) are extracted by the authors of this paper as follows:

• Working with sincerity/pure intention (niyyah)

• Keeping trust (amanah)
• Performing a job efficiently and perfectly (itqan)
• Maintaining healthy inter-relationship with good faith among employees (at-ta’awun wa at-
tarabut)
• Ensuring fairness in task assignment (adl)
• Thinking and working positively with goodness (al-khairiyyah) • Practicing values in
workplace (al-qiam)
• Performing individual responsibilities (al-mas’ uliyyah al-fardiyyah) • Following the middle
path to avoid excessiveness in workplace (wasatan)

Subsequently, in this research, all these variables are conceptualised to have positive relationships
with employees’ job performance. This is as illustrated in Figure 1.

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Time management, job performance, and al-wasatiyyah

Figure 1. The conceptual framework for al-wasatiyyah variables and job performance

METHODS
This research is carried out to get the perception of employees on time management in relation to job
performance based on the Islamic perspective. A self-explanatory questionnaire in English was
designed which consist of two parts: demography (e.g., gender, age, education, and working
experience) and questions related to time management and job performance in the organisation from
al-wasatiyyah
perspective.

The questionnaire was structured in such a way as to make it easier for the respondents to proceed
from one question to the next. A 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 =
strongly agree was used for the questionnaire items. The items on time management were adapted
from Macan (1994) and Macan et al.’s (1990) time management behaviour scale. On the other hand,
the items on job performance and al-wasatiyyah were developed from the reviews of literature
(Abduljabbar et al., 2012; Hassan, 2013; Hanapi, 2014; Ahmad et al.,

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2012). The variables on time management, al-wasatiyyah, and job performance are provided in Table
4, Table 8, and Appendix, respectively. Various constructs on time management were generated
through the exploratory factor analysis (EFA) of which the details are provided in the “Exploratory
Factor Analysis” section.

A pre-test was performed to enhance the clarity of the items and improve face validity of the items.
An evaluation form was designed to get feedback on the questionnaire items and communicated with
two professors in the first author’s department. No major comments were received on the
questionnaire items from them except some suggestions of rewording some of the items. A reliability
test was also conducted to know whether or not accurate and precise results could be obtained from
the measurements made on the study’s variables from the instrument used.

Population Sample

Malaysian Muslim employees who are working in different organisations were the population for
this research. In particular, the researchers contacted the employees who were working in the
academic, health, financial, pharmaceutical, and telecommunication sectors located in Klang Valley,
Malaysia.

To obtain a better response rate, the lead researcher personally distributed the questionnaire
following probability sampling procedure. A total of 330 questionnaires were distributed to the
respondents of which 223 completed questionnaires (67.57%) were found valid for further analysis.
The sample size was determined following the rule of thumb: five times the number of items in the
questionnaire (Hair et al., 2018). According to this rule, the present sample size 223 can be
considered as acceptable. After collecting the data, internal consistency was checked by using the
Cronbach alpha (α) test.

Data Analysis Procedure

In order to reduce the number of variables on time management, the EFA was conducted using the
principal axis factoring method with varimax rotation and a cut-off value of 0.6 for factor loadings.
Finally, the multiple regression analysis was applied considering job performance as the dependent
variable (DV) and the factors generated from EFA as the independent variables (IVs). Data analysis
was carried out using the SPSS version 25.
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Time management, job performance, and al-wasatiyyah

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Results are discussed in two separate parts: In the first part, sections “Demography,” “Reliability,”
“Exploratory Factor Analysis,” and “Multiple Regression Analysis” pertain to time management and
job performance. In the second part, the section “Relationship between Al-Wasatiyyah and Job
Performance” deals with al-wasatiyyah and job performance.

Demography

Table 1 provides the demographic information of respondents in terms of gender, age, education, and
working experience. The percentages of male and female respondents for this research are 48.9% and
51.1%, respectively. Most (69.1%) of the respondents’ education level is master’s degree, while the
rest have bachelor’s degree (14.8%), PhD (9.9%), and diploma (6.3%). Among all the age groups
mentioned in Table 1, 45.6% of the respondents’ age is between 30 to less than 40 years. The highest
percentage for working experience lies in the group of less than 5 years (39.5%) whereas the second
highest is 30% with 5 to less than 10 years working experience.

Table 1
Demographic information of the respondents (n = 223)
Demographic characteristics Options Frequency Percent Gender Male 109 48.9 Female 114 51.1
han 30 years 64 28.7 30 to less than 40 years 102 45.6
40 to less than 50 years 40 17.9
50 to less than 60 years 12 5.4
60 years and above 5 2.2
al level Diploma 14 6.3 Bachelor 33 14.8
Masters 154 69.1
PhD 22 9.9
xperience Less than 5 years 88 39.5 5 to less than 10 years 67 30.0
10 to less than 20 years 52 23.3
More than 20 years 16 7.2

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Reliability

The reliability test was conducted to verify the internal consistency of the variables in the constructs.
Table 2 provides the Cronbach alpha (α) value for all the three constructs. Since Cronbach alpha (α)
values for all the constructs are more than 0.7, the internal consistency among the variables
belonging to the constructs is therefore acceptable.

Table 2
Cronbach alpha (α) value of the three main constructs
Construct name Alpha
Time management 0.878
Al-wasatiyyah 0.776
Job performance 0.900

Exploratory Factor Analysis

The EFA was conducted to reduce the number of items in time management. As mentioned in the
Methods section, varimax rotation was used to define the factors obtained from the variables.
Principal component analysis (PCA) was used for data reduction. A factor loading threshold value of
0.50 was used for retaining items in the factor. Factors were generated for eigenvalue 1.0 or more.

Table 3 displays the EFA results on time management where the Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO) value is
0.777 which is more than the threshold value of 0.50. Since KMO value is a measure of sample
adequacy, the present sample is deemed to be acceptable. On the other hand, the Bartlett’s test of
sphericity is highly significant (p < 0.001). This means that significant relationships exist among the
variables which are necessary to perform the EFA. Therefore, it can be concluded that the data are
suitable for the EFA.

The values of communalities of all the variables are more than 0.50. Therefore, a minimum of 50%
variation in any of the items is explained by the factor model. Eight factors that explained 64.786%
of total variance were obtained from the EFA. The values of factor loading lie between 0.507 and
0.859. High factor loadings for all the variables imply robustness in the factor model. Four items
were excluded as their factor loadings were below 0.50. The individual items belonging to the eight
factors are shown in the third column of Table 4.

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Table 3
Results from EFA on time management
Factor
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 T6 0.811
T8 0.643
T7 0.602
T5 0.569
T22 0.789
T21 0.759
T20 0.573
T25 0.507
T13 0.801
T14 0.689
T15 0.623
T16 0.516
T28 0.701
T27 0.663
T29 0.593
T2 0.810
T1 0.768
T4 0.618
T19 0.859 T18 0.833 T17 0.686 T23 0.764
T24 0.722 T26 0.675 T10 0.603 T9 0.583 Note: KMO = 0.777; Barlett’s test of sphericity, p < 0.001
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Table 4
Individual items belonging to the eight factors
Item
no. Item The eight factors
revision F1: Setting Deadlines and Reviewing Goals (SDRG)
T6 I break complex, difficult projects down into smaller
manageable tasks
T7 I set short-term goals for what I want to accomplish in a
few days or week
T8 I set deadline for myself when I set out to accomplish a
task
g Behaviour (PB)
T21 I feel I use my time effectively
T22 I plan beforehand for the day’s activities
T25 When I carry out some work-related activities, I pay full
attention to them
deas F3: Time Management Instrument (TMI)
T14 When I find that I am frequently contacting someone, I
record that person’s name, address, and phone number in
a special file
T15 I keep a daily log of my activities
T16 My desk space in the office is neat and organised

T27 I use my idle time (such as waiting time) for possible productive activities
T28 I do not entertain telephone calls when I am carrying out important activities in my office
T29 I avoid participating in social media (such as Facebook to manage my time in the office).
F4: Controlling Behaviour (CB)

Objectives Fulfilment (OF)

T2 I have measurable targets in my present job
T4 When I decide on what I will try to accomplish in the
short term, I also keep in mind my long-term objectives

T17 My workdays are too unpredictable for me to plan and manage my time to any great extent
T18 I have some of my most creative ideas when I am disorganised
F6: Performance under Disorganisation (PD)

(continued on next page)

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Table 4: (continued)
 Item
no.Item The eight factors
T19 When I am somewhat disorganised, I am better able to
adjust to unexpected events
not urgency F7: Prioritisation of Tasks (PT)
T24 I avoid spending too much time on unimportant things
ncy F8: Usage of Schedules (US)
T10 During a workday, I evaluate how well I follow the
schedule I have set down for myself
T26 I try to do the most important tasks during the early
hours of the day

Multiple Regression Analysis

The multiple regression analysis (MRA) was conducted with the eight factors as the IVs and the
overall job performance as the DV. The basic purpose of conducting the MRA is to investigate
whether any significant relationship exists between time management factors and job performance.
The model postulated for this study is:

JP = α + β SDRG + β PB + β TMI + β CB + β OF + β PD + β PT + β US + e The full forms of the

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

variable names are provided in Table 4.

Table 5 shows the model summary results including R and Adjusted R values. Here, the adjusted R
2 2 2

is 0.342 which means that about 34.2 % variation in DV is explained by the IVs included in the
model.

Table 5
Model summary
Model R R Adjusted R Std. error of the estimate 1 0.605 0.366 0.342 0.352
2 2 a

a. Predictors: (Constant), SDRG, PB, TMI, CB, OF, PD, PT, US

b. Dependent variable: JP

In addition, ANOVA (in the context of the MRA) tests the significance of relationships between the
DV and the IVs, particularly whether the DV depends on any of the IVs. The test revealed a
statistically significant relationship between

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the DV and IVs (see Table 6). This means that job performance depends on all or at least some of the
factors of time management.

Table 6
ANOVA results
Model Sum of squares df Mean square F Sig. 1 Regression 15.255 8 1.907 15.411 0.000 Residual 26.480 214 0.124
Total 41.735 222

The regression model with the “Enter” method was carried out to identify the significant predictors
of job performance (JP) from among the eight IVs. The results are shown in Table 7. Setting
Deadlines and Reviewing Goals (SDRG) by breaking activities into manageable tasks (t = 1.973, p =
0.050), Time Management Instrument (TMI) (t = 2.572, p = 0.011), Prioritisation of Tasks (PT) (t =
 4.848, p < 0.001), and Usage of Schedule (US) (t = 3.679, p < 0.001) are found to have significant
relationship with job performance. Other factors are not found to have significant relationship with
job performance.

The results are consistent with the findings of Amponsah-Tawiah et al. (2018) in the sense that
superior time management skills enhance job performance. The results also concur with Claessens et
al. (2007) who assert that employees need to develop better time management skills, especially
identifying priorities, remaining organised, and monitoring one’s own progress. The present findings
also corroborate with the outcome of the empirical research conducted by Abduljabbar et al. (2012).
Researchers in both works conclude that time planning (that includes prioritisation of tasks and usage
of schedule) and time attitude are positively related to job performance.

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Table 7
Multiple regression coefficients Unstandardised

Standardised

Model
coefficients
coefficients
t Sig.

B Std. error Beta

1 (Constant) 1.886 0.248 7.601 0.000 SDRG 0.104 0.053 0.133 1.973 0.050 PB 0.071 0.063 0.079 1.124 0.262 TMI 0.127
0.049 0.210 2.572 0.011 CB –0.037 0.031 –0.075 –1.207 0.229 OF –0.056 0.055 –0.082 –1.019 0.309 PD 0.045
0.025 0.104 1.808 0.072 PT 0.143 0.029 0.284 4.848 0.000 US 0.184 0.050 0.253 3.679 0.000

Relationship between Al-Wasatiyyah and Job Performance

The MRA was also conducted with the nine variables of al-wasatiyyah as the IVs and the overall job
performance as the DV. Note that unlike the time management items, no EFA was performed for the
variables of al-wasatiyyah as its initial number of items is already less. The regression model used is
presented below:

JP = α + β W + β W + β3W3 + β4W4 + β W + β W + β W + β W + β W + e The details of the

1 1 2 2 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9

variables are shown in Table 8.

 Table 8
Al-wasatiyyah variables
Variable code Variable
W1 Working with sincerity/pure intention (niyyah) helps in managing time for better job performance
W2 Keeping trust (amanah) imposed on employees by employer as a means for better job performance
W3 Performing a job efficiently and perfectly (itqan) as a means for better job performance
W4 Maintaining healthy inter-relationship with good faith among employees (at-ta’awun wa at-tarabut) as a
means for better job performance
W5 Ensuring fairness in task assignment (adl) as a means for better job performance
(continued on next page)

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Table 8: (continued)
Variable code Variable
W6 Thinking and working positively with goodness (al-khairiyyah) as a means for better job performance
W7 Practicing values in working place (al-qiam) as a means for better job performance
W8 Performing individual responsibility (al-mas’ uliyyah al-fardiyyah) on time as a means for better job performance
W9 Following middle path (wasatan) to avoid excessiveness in working place as a means for better job performance
JP Job performance

The R and adjusted R values of the regression test are found to be 0.326 and 0.298, respectively.
2 2

Therefore, only about 30% of variation in job performance is explained by al-wasatiyyah variables.
ANOVA global test result is found to be highly significant (as shown in Table 9). Therefore, at least
some, if not all, of the al-wasatiyyah variables are significantly related with job performance.

Table 9
Multiple regression ANOVA test for al-wasatiyyah
a

Model Sum of squares df Mean square F Sig. 1 Regression 13.614 9 1.513 11.458 0.000 Residual 28.121 213 0.132
b

Total 41.735 222

a. Dependent variable: JP
b. Predictors: (Constant), W1 through W9

Table 10 shows the individual coefficients of the regression analysis. W1, Sincerity/ pure intention (t
= 3.562, p < 0.001); W5, Ensuring fairness in task assignment (t = 2.186, p = 0.030); W7, Practicing
values in working place (t = 2.577, p = 0.011), and W9, Following the middle path to avoid
excessiveness in working place (t = 2.898, p = 0.004) are all found to have significant relationship
with job performance.

While taking cognizance of the above findings and in the light of surah Al-Asr (especially on the
second thrust area: doing righteous deeds), it can be contended that managers need to assign tasks to
employees in a fair and equitable manner and that all the executives and employees in the
organisation could practise and promote Islamic values and ethics while discharging their job
responsibilities.

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Table 10
Multiple regression coefficientsa for al-wasatiyyah
 Unstandardised coefficients Standardised coefficientst Sig.
Model B Std. error Beta 1 (Constant) 1.912 0.248 7.723 0.000 W1 0.160 0.045 0.226
3.562 0.000 W2 0.063 0.045 0.101 1.415 0.158 W3 –0.029 0.049 –0.042 –0.587 0.558 W4 0.016 0.047 0.027 0.345
0.731 W5 0.109 0.050 0.164 2.186 0.030 W6 –0.020 0.047 –0.031 –0.433 0.665 W7 0.115 0.044 0.188 2.577 0.011 W8
0.056 0.035 0.107 1.573 0.117 W9 0.078 0.027 0.183 2.898 0.004 a. Dependent variable: JP

The first al-wasatiyyah variable which is significantly related to job performance has direct link with
the following hadith. Narrated by Umar bin Khattab (ra) while on the pulpit, he disclosed that the
Messenger of Allah (swt) said, “The reward of deeds depends upon the intentions and every person
will get the reward according to what he has intended. So whoever emigrated for worldly benefits or
for a woman to marry, his emigration was for that what he emigrated for” (Sahih Bukhari, vol. 1,
book 1, hadith no. 1).

Furthermore, the present findings empirically show that those who follow the middle path in their
organisation exhibit superior job performance. Indeed, this is also directly linked with the Qur’anic
verse that encourages Muslims to embrace a balanced life (see Al-Baqarah, 2: 143). Allah (swt) also
says (Al-Isr’a, 17: 110): “Neither say your prayer loud, nor say it in a low tone.” Certainly, Islam
prescribes people to follow the middle path in living their lives.

MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS

In view of the findings of this research, managers of organisations can make some policy
adjustments in order to further enhance performance of their organisations. It is a well-known fact
that an organisation’s performance depends, among others, on how the employees utilise their time
(Abduljabbar et al., 2012). Notwithstanding, managers can exercise the following practices:

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• Should organise training programs for better time management. Each employee should be
encouraged to attend this training. Expert facilitators can shed light on how the people can best
utilise their time professionally while working in the organisation. The training can also
highlight ways on how to manage their time even at the personal level.

• Time management workshops can be organised where employees can share their ways of managing
their own time. By doing so, they can learn from each other.

• Special emphasis should be placed to train employees on how to (1) set deadlines, (2) break
activities into manageable tasks, (3) prioritise tasks, and (4) use schedule.

• To keep the employees motivated, there should be fair and equitable distribution of works among
employees.

• Managers should lead by examples in managing time. Practicing ethics and good values should be
a culture that should permeate every level of the organisation. Managers should also identify all
time wasters including non-value added and unnecessary meetings and replace those by more
productive activities.

• Managers should also promote the concept of al-wasatiyyah among his/her employees and
encourage them to apply the principles of al-wasatiyyah in the organisation as well as in their
personal lives.

CONCLUSION

Successful people utilise their time judiciously. Time is an amanah entrusted by Allah (swt) to every
human being. On the Day of Judgement, Allah (swt) will ask how this amanah has been protected,
 i.e., how a person utilised his or her time in this mundane world. In fact, all the accounts of activities
are being recorded in an invisible book. This research highlights two aspects of time management.
Firstly, some components of time management have significant positive relationship with job
performance. Secondly, al-wasatiyyah concepts in managing time have a significant relationship
with job performance. In particular, time management instrument, prioritisation of tasks, and usage
of schedules are found to have strong relationship with job performance. At the same time, it is
found that four concepts of al-wasatiyyah have positive relationship with job performance. This
includes working with sincerity which helps in managing time for better job performance, following
the middle path to avoid excessiveness in working place as a means

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Time management, job performance, and al-wasatiyyah

for better job performance, practicing values in working place as a means for better job performance,
and ensuring fairness in task assignment as a means for better job performance. Hence, it is
recommended that managers of organisations take cognizance of the above findings of this research
to enhance employee’s job performance and consequently boost the performance of the whole
organisation.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

This study investigated the issue of time management in a quantitative way. It did not employ any
qualitative research design. Therefore, to better understand the social analysis of time management,
future research can be conducted using qualitative research method. Furthermore, for both
quantitative as well as qualitative studies, samples can be drawn from different types of
professionals, i.e., those who are working in different industries and possibly from different
countries, and not limiting to the Malaysian context only.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to the Ministry of Education Malaysia for the Research Initiative Grant,
RIGS15-118-0118. The authors are also thankful to their research assistants, Rezbin Nahar and Md.
Muhibbullah for their valuable assistance in preparing this article. Appreciation also goes to the
anonymous referees for providing their insightful comments.

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