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FMDS0122
FMDS0122
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1-22 Maximum Foreseeable Loss
Page 2 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets
List of Figures
Fig. 1. Cantilever wall: Minimum clearance between MFL fire wall and aligned steel framing .................... 8
Fig. 2. Double wall: Minimum clearance between fire walls ......................................................................... 8
Fig. 3. Cantilever wall: Maximum clearance for support under fire conditions. ............................................ 8
Fig. 4. Tied wall: Through-wall tie, shown with primary steel perpendicular to wall. .................................... 9
Fig. 5. Tied wall: Through-wall tie, shown with primary steel parallel to fire wall ......................................... 9
Fig. 6. One-way wall: Corbel arrangement for one-way wall ...................................................................... 10
Fig. 7. Cantilever wall: Corbel arrangement (masonry and corbel reinforcing not shown) .......................... 10
Fig. 8. Double wall: Corbel arrangement ..................................................................................................... 11
Fig. 9. Typical cantilever wall; used at expansion joints, or at joints between buildings ............................ 12
Fig. 10. Reinforced masonry cantilever wall ............................................................................................... 13
Fig. 11. Flashing detail ................................................................................................................................. 13
Fig. 12. Typical tied fire wall; used with continuous building framework .................................................... 14
Fig. 13. A tied wall at the center of a continuous steel frame. .................................................................... 15
Fig. 14. Tied wall where framing is not continuous throughout the building ............................................... 15
Fig. 15. Tied wall off center of continuous steel frame ............................................................................... 16
Fig. 16. Flexible masonry anchors (courtesy of the National Concrete Masonry Association). ................. 16
Fig. 17. Double MFL fire wall ...................................................................................................................... 17
Fig. 18. Typical double fire wall; used at expansion joints, or at joints between buildings ........................ 17
Fig. 19. Examples of roof flashing details ................................................................................................... 18
Fig. 20. Expansion joint (courtesy of the National Concrete Masonry Asociation) ..................................... 19
Fig. 21. Typical control joints in concrete masonry (reinforcing not shown) ............................................... 19
Fig. 22. Typical joint detail in precast concrete (courtesy of the National Concrete Masonry Association) . 19
Fig. 23. Horizontal joint reinforcing and control joint in concrete block wall construction
(courtesy of the National Concrete Masonry Association) .......................................................................... 19
Fig. 24. Bond beam reinforcing at intersecting concrete masonry walls .................................................... 20
Fig. 25. Bond beam reinforcing termination detail for concrete masonry walls in
FM Global earthquake zones ......................................................................................................... 20
Fig. 26. Typical concrete masonry bond beam ........................................................................................... 21
Fig. 27. An MFL fire wall divides a one-story facility ................................................................................... 21
Fig. 28a. MFL wall arrangement at elevation difference (double wall) ....................................................... 23
Fig. 28b. MFL wall arrangement at elevation difference (cantilever wall) ................................................... 23
Fig. 29a. End wall exposure protection; end walls tied to steel framing (for X values, see Table 2) ........ 24
Fig. 29b. End wall exposure protection; end walls not tied to steel framing (for X values, see Table 2) .. 25
Fig. 30. Alternative end wall protection ....................................................................................................... 25
Fig. 31. Angular wall exposure protection ................................................................................................... 25
Fig. 32. Exterior wall protection ................................................................................................................... 26
Fig. 33. Independent feeds for automatic sprinkler systems on each side of an MFL fire wall ................. 27
Fig. 34. Breakaway connections; slip joints ................................................................................................ 28
Fig. 35a. Vertical reinforcing detail at concrete masonry wall corner ......................................................... 33
Fig. 35b. Vertical reinforcing detail at concrete masonry wall intersection .................................................. 34
Fig. 36. Vertical reinforcing detail at concrete masonry wall opening or termination ................................. 34
Fig. 37. Vertical reinforcing detail at concrete masonry wall control joint ................................................... 34
Fig. 38. Boundary element reinforcing detail (plan view) for concrete walls in FM Global earthquake zones . 36
Fig. 39. Length of exposing wall for overlapping buildings ......................................................................... 39
Fig. 40. Length of exposing wall for offset buildings .................................................................................... 39
Fig. 41. Exposed buildings at angles .......................................................................................................... 40
Fig. 42. Small storage areas in light/ordinary hazard buildings .................................................................. 40
Fig. 43a. Required space separation for exposed noncombustible walls (English units). ......................... 43
Fig. 43b. Required space separation for exposed noncombustible walls (metric units). ........................... 44
Fig. 44a. Required separation for exposed combustible walls (English units). .......................................... 45
Fig. 44b. Required separation for exposed combustible walls (metric units). (In some cases the required
spacemay be reduced. See Sections 2.3.3 and 2.3.4.) .............................................................................. 46
Fig. 45. Multiplier for buildings exposed at an angle .................................................................................. 47
Fig. 46. Window and spandrel heights ........................................................................................................ 50
Fig. 47. Mechanical floor fire break and theoretical flame height ................................................................ 50
Fig. 48. Labels for FM Approved doors ....................................................................................................... 53
Fig. 49. Pair of metal-clad sliding fire doors (biparting) on inclined track ................................................... 54
Fig. 50. Sliding doors on level tracks ......................................................................................................... 54
Fig. 51. Preferred details at center joint of doors mounted in pairs. .......................................................... 55
Fig. 52. Doors swinging in pairs—flush mounted. ....................................................................................... 56
Fig. 53. Single swinging fire door. ................................................................................................................ 57
Fig. 54. Swinging fire door with door closer. ............................................................................................... 58
List of Tables
Table 1. Minimum Clearance Between Structural Steel and MFL Fire Wall .................................................. 7
Table 2. Length of End Wall Protection* ..................................................................................................... 24
Table 3. Verification and Inspection of Concrete Masonry MFL Wall Construction ..................................... 33
Table 4. Verification and Inspection of Reinforced Concrete MFL Wall Construction. ................................. 35
Table 5. Required Separation Distance for Fire-Rated Construction ........................................................... 37
Table 6. Exposed Wall Categories ................................................................................................................ 38
Table 7. Damper Leakage Classification ..................................................................................................... 90
Table 8. Mortar Proportions by Volume ........................................................................................................ 94
Table 9. Allowable Glazing Area For Fire Doors ......................................................................................... 97
Table 10. Classification of Fire Wall Openings .......................................................................................... 105
1.0 SCOPE
This data sheet provides design criteria and guidelines for maximum foreseeable loss (MFL) limiting factors
and the protection of openings in MFL limiting factors. Data Sheet 1-23, Fire Barriers and Protection of
Openings, addresses non-MFL fire walls, floors, ceilings, and protection of openings used to separate
occupancies within the same building.
1.1 Changes
April 2011. This document now contains all data sheet material on MFL limiting factors and the protection
of openings in MFL limiting factors.
• Data Sheet 1-23, Protection of Openings in Fire Subdivisions, former Section 2.1, Openings in MFL Fire
Walls, has been relocated to this document.
2.1 Introduction
The maximum foreseeable loss (MFL) is the largest loss to result from an insured event, as calculated from
an understanding of the overall hazard and associated business impact. This event assumes that active
protection systems or safety devices are impaired, with the exception of specifically approved and tested
MFL fire doors.
The event can be related to fire, explosion, equipment failure, or other scenario, with the exception of natural
hazards. MFL limiting factors are physical barriers or conditions that limit the spread of fire or contain
explosive forces and control the amount of damage from the event.
2.2.1 Introduction
Ensure all MFL walls and supporting structures are designed by a registered civil or structural engineer.
Except where noted otherwise, recommendations in sections 2.2.2.1, 2.2.2.2, 2.2.2.8 through 2.2.2.13 apply
to all types of MFL fire walls.
Table 1. Minimum Clearance Between Structural Steel and MFL Fire Wall
Length of Bay Perpendicular to the Fire Wall Minimum Clearance Between Wall and Steel
ft m in. mm
20 6.1 21⁄2 64
25 7.6 3¼ 83
30 9.1 3¾ 95
35 10.7 41⁄2 114
40 12.2 5 127
45 13.7 5¾ 146
50 15.2 6¼ 159
55 16.8 7 178
60 or longer 18.3 71⁄2 191
.
b) Provide a maximum of 3⁄4 in. (19.1 mm) clearance between the wall and the structural framework for walls
up to 40 ft (12.2 m) high if the steel is aligned horizontally and vertically on both sides of the wall (see Figs.
3, 4, and 5). For walls higher than 40 ft (12 m), this maximum space may be increased ¼ in. (6.4 mm) for
each additional 10 ft (3.0 m) of wall height. Install a bond beam in the first full course below the bottom of the
primary steel for the full length of the wall.
Where the adjacent primary steel is parallel to the MFL fire wall, grout all cores above the bond beam to
the top of the wall; however, in FM Global earthquake zones 50-year through 500-year, grout the cores above
the bond beam along the full length of the wall, but only to the first course above the top of the primary steel.
Where the adjacent primary steel is perpendicular to the MFL fire wall, grout cores above the bond beam
to the top of the wall, but only to 16 in. (0.4 m) on each side of the columns.
In all cases, grout reinforced cores the full height of the wall, and continue vertical reinforcement for the full
height of the wall (i.e., ensure vertical reinforcing is not interrupted at bond beams).
c) For existing construction where the clearance guidelines in either (a) or (b) of this section are not met,
construct solid masonry or concrete pilasters or corbels (see Figs. 6, 7, and 8) between the wall and structural
steel. This alternative applies only if the steel framing lines up horizontally and vertically on both sides of
the wall.
Place a layer of building paper over the structural steel to prevent bonding to it. If clearance is needed for
normal building expansion, maintain a small space as described above in part (b) between the column and
the pilaster or corbel. Make the pilaster or corbel at least 2 ft (0.6 m) wide. Locate corbels at least as high
on each face as the adjacent primary structural steel member, and ensure the face abutting the walls is at least
2 ft (0.6 m) high. Ensure the space between corbels or pilasters and adjacent framework does not exceed
the guidelines stated in part (b) above.
A steel assembly may be used in lieu of a corbel; design it to withstand the load due to steel frame expansion
without crushing the wall construction. Note that a steel assembly is generally preferable to a concrete or
masonry corbel for buildings located in FM Global earthquake zones 50-year through 500-year.
Fig. 1. Cantilever wall: Minimum clearance between MFL fire wall and aligned steel framing
Fig. 3. Cantilever wall: Maximum clearance for support under fire conditions. Note: This condition applies only when steel
is aligned horizontally and vertically.
Fig. 4. Tied wall: Through-wall tie, shown with primary steel perpendicular to wall. Note: Columns are needed, but not
illustrated here.
Fig. 5. Tied wall: Through-wall tie, shown with primary steel parallel to fire wall
Fig. 7. Cantilever wall: Corbel arrangement (masonry and corbel reinforcing not shown)
2.2.2.2.7 Design and construct MFL fire walls to provide adequate strength, stiffness, stability, and durability.
a) Design wall panels to adequately resist a minimum uniform lateral pressure of 5 psf (0.24 kN/m2) for
allowable stress design (ASD) or working stress design (WSD) (using a load factor of 1.0); use a load factor
of 1.6 for load and resistance factor design (LRFD) methodology (1.6 x 5 psf = 8 psf [0.38 kN/m2]). This
usually is accomplished easily in all walls except the cantilever type.
For buildings located in hurricane-prone regions (see definition in FM Global Data Sheet 1-28), ensure wall
panels can adequately resist design wind pressures derived from the basic wind speed per Data Sheet 1-28,
Wind Design. Examine both enclosed and partially enclosed conditions if applicable. Do not, under any
circumstances, use uniform wind pressures less than 5 psf (0.24 kN/m2) for ASD design or 8 psf (0.38 kN/m2)
for LRFD design.
b) Apply the lateral pressure, which is perpendicular to the wall face, on the side of the wall that produces
the more severe demand. This minimum lateral load typically will not be adequate for walls exposed directly
to wind (i.e., fire walls used as temporary exterior walls or walls subjected to interior wind force due to partially
enclosed buildings) or in FM Global earthquake zones 50-year through 500-year.
Where MFL fire walls are subjected directly to wind forces (e.g., a fire wall used as a temporary exterior
wall), the wall must be designed to adequately resist these forces (see Data Sheet 1-28, Wind Design).
2.2.2.2.8 Use fire-resistive material that is durable enough to resist the forces described in Section 3.2.2,
to construct the MFL fire wall. Some material may have adequate fire resistance but not adequate durability.
2.2.2.2.9 For locations in active seismic areas (FM Global 50-year through 500-year earthquake zones as
shown in Data sheet 1-2, Earthquakes), refer to Section 2.2.2.12 for seismic design criteria.
2.2.2.2.10 Walls designed to be MFL fire walls do not typically have sufficient strength to act as explosion-
resistant walls. Locate any occupancy presenting an explosion hazard a minimum of 125 ft (38 m) from MFL
fire walls.
Examples of occupancies that present an explosion hazard:
• Any ignitable liquid process that has a weak or severe explosion hazard as defined in FM Global Data
Sheet 7-32, Ignitable Liquid Operations.
• Storage of ignitable liquids in non-relieving-style metal containers greater than 6 gal (22.7 L)
• Improperly vented ignitable liquid tanks
• Improperly protected dust-handling equipment
• An occupancy with a dust room explosion hazard
• Ammonia compressor rooms
• Any storage or use of flammable gases
Fig. 9. Typical cantilever wall; used at expansion joints, or at joints between buildings
2.2.2.3.2 High walls (more than 30 ft [9.1 m] high) may require a steel column in each pilaster rather than
vertical reinforcing bars, and anchorage of the columns to deep foundations, to provide adequate strength and
stability.
2.2.2.3.3 Anchor cantilever walls to their foundations to properly resist overturning moments and base shears.
Permanent soil overburden and concrete floor slab may be used to resist overturning moment when needed.
2.2.2.3.4 If tilt-up or precast concrete construction is used in a cantilever wall design, pay particular attention
to the connections to the foundation, structural slabs, or pilasters. If connections are added external to the wall
panels to allow the wall to adequately resist the overturning moment, fireproof these connections with a
durable material to obtain the same fire resistance rating as the wall.
2.2.2.3.5 Cantilever fire walls used as temporary exterior walls (until future construction occurs) will be
subjected directly to wind loads, and therefore must be properly designed and temporarily connected to the
building frame until the additional building is constructed. Ensure all connections to the wall are completely
removed or cut when the new construction has been completed.
An alternative to temporarily affixing the wall to the building frame is to design the wall as a cantilever wall
to adequately resist the full lateral loads; note that foundations would also need to be designed to support the
forces on a cantilever wall. This method could be costly due to the larger design loads on both the wall and
the foundation.
2.2.2.3.6 Do not use cantilever walls in active seismic areas (FM Global 50-year through 500-year earthquake
zones as shown in Data sheet 1-2, Earthquakes). If they must be used, specifically design them to resist
anticipated seismic conditions; see Section 2.2.2.12.
Fig. 12. Typical tied fire wall; used with continuous building framework
2.2.2.4.3 Ensure the building framing on each side of a tied MFL fire wall is at the same elevation and in
line horizontally.
2.2.2.4.4 Locate a tied fire wall near the center of the building frame (Figs. 13 and 14) so the building frame
on each side of the fire wall will provide roughly the same lateral resistance. Consider breaks in continuity
of the building frame (e.g., double-column expansion joints) when locating a tied fire wall.
Fig. 13. A tied wall at the center of a continuous steel frame. The horizontal force from collapsing steel on either side must
be resisted by the lateral strength of steel on the other side
Fig. 14. Tied wall where framing is not continuous throughout the building
2.2.2.4.5 The lateral resistance of the frames on either side of the wall must be sufficient to resist the horizontal
component of the force resulting from the collapsing frame on the opposite side. This is critical if the building
frames on both sides of the wall are not of equivalent strength (see Figure 15). Remember to consider
collapse on both sides, since the fire could occur on either side. The horizontal force may be computed by
using the following catenary cable formula:
H = WL2/8S
Where:
H = Horizontal force, lb (kg)
W = Tributary dead load of the roof per unit length of truss or beam, lb/ft (N/m)*
L = Truss or beam span, ft (m)
S = Sag in ft (m) that may be assumed as:
0.09L for solid-web steel beams
0.07L for open-web steel trusses
0.06L for open-web wood trusses
*Note: Under certain conditions, W must also include environmental loads. Include the weight of rainwater
when roofs are capable of ponding water. In locations where snow could accumulate on the roof for a
significant period of time during the year (locations with 20 psf [0.96 kN/M2] or greater ground snow load
as determined using Data Sheet 1-54, Roof Loads for New Construction), add 25% of that ground snow load
to the dead load to determine W. If both of the above conditions exist, use the higher figure.
Assume the horizontal force, H, is applied at two adjacent column lines simultaneously; use a worst-case
scenario in deciding where to apply these design forces.
2.2.2.4.6 At roof level, the expected horizontal force must be transmitted through the wall with continuous
framing (for single-column line tied walls) or through-wall ties (for double-column line tied walls). Masonry
anchors from the wall to the respective framework on each side will not provide adequate reliability.
2.2.2.4.7 For walls constructed between columns on a double-column line, design the strength of ties based
on the horizontal force, H, calculated using the formula in section 2.2.2.4.5. For design purposes, use an
allowable tensile stress of not more than 10,000 psi (69,000 kN/m2) and an allowable shear stress of 7,000
psi (48,000 kN/m2) for steel tie rods and connection assemblies.
Use two (2) tie rods per column to reduce torsion (see Fig. 4) when primary roof framing is perpendicular
to the wall. The ties must connect the roof framing members on each side of the wall over the columns. When
the primary roof framing is parallel to the wall it may be necessary to install ties at a more frequent interval
than every column line (see Fig. 5); in this case, the tie rods and wall penetrations must be designed and
detailed to ensure vertical deflections of the roof framing due to gravity loads will not transfer load to the tie
rods or fire wall. Nuts for through-wall ties must be backed off slightly (up to ¾ in. [19 mm] for walls up to
40 ft [12 m] high and an additional ¼ in. [6 mm] for every additional 10 ft [3.0 m] of wall height) to allow for
normal building movement.
Where tie rod penetrations will be core-drilled, locate the penetrations such that vertical and horizontal
reinforcing is avoided. Where tie rod openings are to be blocked out, ensure the horizontal and vertical wall
reinforcing runs continuously through the openings. In all cases, properly pack the fire wall penetrations with
a flexible fire-proofing material, such as mineral wool, to ensure the fire resistance of the wall is not
compromised. Install an integral steel cover plate or escutcheon plate at all penetrations to hold the
fire-proofing material in place.
While through-wall connections are needed to make framework continuous across the wall, it is also essential
to provide flexible concrete or masonry anchors (see Fig. 16) at approximately 2 to 4 ft (0.6 to 1.2 m) on
center to brace the wall laterally. Allow enough slip in the anchors to compensate for the slip (as noted above)
in the through-wall ties; this is to prevent the collapsing frame from pulling on the wall before the frame on
the non-fire side provides the needed resistance.
Fig. 16. Flexible masonry anchors (courtesy of the National Concrete Masonry Association). Note: Connection to opposite
columns is similar. *Maximum space is ¾ in. (1.9 cm) for walls up to 40 ft (12.2 m) high and an additional ¼ in. (0.6 cm)
for every additional 10 ft (3.0 m) of wall height.
2.2.2.4.8 In the case of single-column-line tied MFL walls (Fig. 12), the framing on the unexposed side of
the wall will resist steel expansion on the fire side. However, the connection of the wall to the columns must
allow some flexibility, as the building frame on the unexposed side will deflect laterally due to the pull from
the sagging steel on the fire side.
Use flexible masonry anchors (see Fig. 16) or concrete blocks that loosely key into the reentrant space of
the column to provide the needed flexibility. If sprayed-on fireproofing is used, spray the entire column before
constructing the wall.
Fig. 18. Typical double fire wall; used at expansion joints, or at joints between buildings
2.2.2.6.3 Ensure each of the two wall elements has a 3-hour fire resistance rating.
2.2.2.6.4 If masonry walls are not sufficiently separated to prevent bonding, install a layer of building paper
or other suitable bond breaker between the walls.
2.2.2.6.5 Anchor each wall to its respective steel framework at roof level and at columns if necessary. Allow
no connections between the two walls other than the roof flashing. Pay particular attention to details at open-
ings in the walls and at the roof flashing between the walls (see Fig. 19).
Fig. 20. Expansion joint (courtesy of the National Concrete Masonry Asociation)
2.2.2.8.2 To prevent irregular cracking due to initial shrinkage of the concrete masonry in an MFL fire wall,
provide control joints at intervals not exceeding 50 ft (15 m). Any of the types shown in Figures 21, 22, and
23 are applicable. Use an elastomeric fire stop sealant for caulking all joints.
Fig. 21. Typical control joints in concrete masonry (reinforcing not shown)
Fig. 22. Typical joint detail in precast concrete (courtesy of the National Concrete Masonry Association)
Fig. 23. Horizontal joint reinforcing and control joint in concrete block wall construction
(courtesy of the National Concrete Masonry Association)
Fig. 25. Bond beam reinforcing termination detail for concrete masonry walls in FM Global earthquake zones
2.2.2.8.4 Provide minimum shrinkage and temperature reinforcement per the applicable building code (e.g.,
ACI 318).
2.2.2.8.5 Provide minimum concrete protection for reinforcement per the applicable building code (e.g., ACI
318) or for the required fire resistance, whichever is greater. Refer to Data Sheet 1-21.
2.2.2.9.2 If steel deck roofs are used, provide FM Approved Class I construction assemblies.
2.2.2.9.3 Provide roof cover assemblies that have a Class A rating by ASTM E 108 on the entire roof of build-
ings separated by MFL fire walls. (See Data Sheet 1-28R/29R, Roof Systems.)
While concrete or Class I steel deck roofs are preferred adjacent to MFL walls, wood roofs are acceptable
if they meet the requirements for a Class A rating. This may require the use of a thermal barrier above the wood
deck.
2.2.2.9.4 Protect the top surface of roof assemblies as follows:
a) Surface built-up roofs for at least 50 ft (15 m) on both sides of the MFL fire wall with pea gravel or slag
embedded in a flood coat of asphalt (see Fig. 27). Use an application rate of at least 4 psf (0.19 kN/m2).
b) For single-ply membrane assemblies, use an assembly that has a Class A rating (for the specific maxi-
mum slope and assembly in question). In addition, protect the top surface with paver blocks or large gravel bal-
last (ASTM No. 3 stone) for at least 50 ft (15 m) on both sides of the MFL wall (ASTM No. 4 stone is
acceptable if the membrane is fully adhered or mechanically attached and doesn’t require ballast for wind
uplift). Apply the gravel at a rate of 10 to 12 psf (0.48 to 0.57 kN/m2). If added to an existing roof during
re-roofing, have a registered civil or structural engineer analyze the roof to verify it can support the addi-
tional load.
c) Do not use polyurethane foam roof cover systems that are spray-applied to roofs within 50 ft (15 m) of
an MFL fire wall.
d) Since it is not practical to provide gravel on a standing seam steel roof, install a layer of ceramic fiber or min-
eral wool or glass fiber batt insulation between the bottom of the roof panels and the top of the purlin flange
for at least 50 ft (15 m) on each side of the MFL wall. The batt must be a minimum of 1 in. (25.4 mm) thick
ceramic fiber or mineral wool, or 2 in. (50.8 mm) thick glass fiber.
2.2.2.9.5 Where a higher building or higher portion of a building adjoins a lower building at an MFL fire wall,
ensure the exterior wall above the roof of the lower building is blank and has a 3-hour fire resistance, depend-
ing on the occupancy and construction of the exposing building (see Figs. 28a and 28b). Ensure the lower
building has a 30 in. (0.76 m) high parapet. A parapet may be omitted on the higher building if there is at least
a 15 to 50 ft (4.6 to 15.2 m) elevation difference, depending on the severity of the exposure. When the para-
pet is omitted, ensure the exterior wall construction extends up to the gravel stop. Gravel surfacing (or paver
blocks) is still recommended for 50 ft (15 m) on the higher roof and at least 50 ft (15 m) on the lower roof to
protect against flying brands.
Construct the upper section of the wall of fire-rated insulated metal panel or precast concrete panel to reduce
the probability of damage to the lower roof from falling concrete masonry units. However, to provide pen-
etration resistance from falling upper wall material if masonry units are used, design the roof of the lower build-
ing for minimum 100 psf (4.8 kN/m2) construction for a length equal to the height of the elevation difference
or one bay, whichever is less.
The assembly can be arranged in either of two ways:
a) Separate the high bay and low bay with a double MFL fire wall, each wall tied to its respective frame-
work (see Fig. 28a), or
b) Construct a cantilevered, 4-hour fire wall from the foundation to the top of the parapet level for the lower
roof. Ensure the upper wall section is 2- or 3-hour fire rated and tied to the framework of the higher building.
Ensure the upper wall section is not connected to or does not extend over the face of the lower wall section.
Fill the space between the upper and lower wall sections with a fire-resistive material (see Fig. 28b).
2.2.2.9.6 Monitors, penthouses, cooling towers, or other structures, either combustible or noncombustible,
mounted on roofs can present special problems and require individual attention. Evaluate the space
separation requirements for such structures or equipment using the methodology and guidelines in Section
2.3. Locate such structures at least far enough from fire walls, or construct them of sufficiently fire-resistant
material, to prevent ignition.
Unusually high roof structures (over 20 ft [6 m] high) may require a greater separation distance. When this
is not practical, construct fire partitions on the exposed side of the roof projection.
Locate heat and smoke vents, skylights, roof hatches, and roof penetrations for air-handling equipment at
least 50 ft (15 m) from the MFL fire walls.
Fig. 29a. End wall exposure protection; end walls tied to steel framing (for X values, see Table 2)
Fig. 29b. End wall exposure protection; end walls not tied to steel framing (for X values, see Table 2)
2.2.2.10.2 Protect angle exposure at the end of an MFL fire wall (or section of it) by constructing both exterior
walls of blank, 3-hour-rated masonry or metal sandwich panels (Fig. 31). The length of protection (Y) is 20 ft
(6.1 m) if the exposing building has light combustible loading; 30 ft (9 m) if the exposing building has ordinary
combustible loading, and 35 ft (10.7 m) if the exposing building has high combustible loading. In addition,
construction of each wall and eave must be noncombustible up to a point of 60 ft (15.2 m), 75 ft (22.9 m),
or 100 ft (30.5 m) away from the junction (of the MFL wall and the exterior walls) for light, ordinary, or high
hazard exposures, respectively. Use wired glass, glass block, or special windows that have passed a ¾ hr
fire test for windows within this area, beyond the 3-hour rated portion.
2.2.2.10.3 Provide a minimum 12 in. (0.3 m) parapet atop end wall and angular exposure wall protection.
Ensure the parapet is at least as tall as the gravel stop.
2.2.2.10.4 For at least 20 ft (6 m) on each side of the end walls, ensure there are:
• no unprotected openings (truck docks, windows, personnel doors, ventilation openings, etc.).
• no combustible equipment.
• no combustible yard storage.
Determine the required space separation from the exterior walls based on the exposed construction beyond
the end walls, and severity of the exposure from the exposure (e.g., yard storage or trailers) using Section
2.3 for MFL space separation.
Provide barriers when necessary to prevent temporary vehicle parking, combustible equipment, or yard
storage being placed within 20 ft (6 m) of the end walls.
2.2.2.10.5 Locate railroad sidings at the end of the building that is parallel to the MFL fire wall. Alternatively,
if the railroad siding runs perpendicular to the MFL fire wall on the outside of the building, do not install
combustible construction or exterior wall openings for at least 50 ft (15 m) on each side of the MFL wall.
2.2.2.10.6 Protect elevation drops perpendicular to fire walls as angle exposure (See Fig. 32 and Section
2.2.2.10.2).
2.2.2.10.7 Locate fire-resistive end/angular exposure wall protection on the exterior surface. Do not place
siding materials that are combustible or of limited combustibility over them.
Fig. 33. Independent feeds for automatic sprinkler systems on each side of an MFL fire wall
2.2.2.11.2 Avoid penetration of MFL fire walls by pipes, conduit, cables, and ducts. Keep any unavoidable
penetrations to a minimum and arrange them as outlined below.
A. Position pipes, conduit, and cables (regardless of size) penetrating MFL fire walls to pass through the
wall as close as practical to, but no more than 3 ft (1.0 m) above, the finished ground floor level. Provide a
steel sleeve with a 1 in. (25 mm) annular clearance around the pipe or conduit, to be filled with an FM
Approved fire stop assembly with a minimum 3-hour fire rating. Provide mesh reinforcement in the horizontal
joints above and below pipes in concrete block walls, and fill all cores of the concrete block immediately
adjacent to pipe penetrations with concrete grout. Do not penetrate the wall with clusters of pipes or conduit.
If more than one pipe penetrates the wall in the same area, provide center-to-center spacing of at least three
times the largest pipe diameter. The structural aspects of this recommendation do not apply to panel walls
in reinforced concrete buildings, providing the frames on both sides of the wall are reinforced concrete.
However, FM Approved fire stop materials still need to be used to seal around penetrations.
B. Protect exposed cables with combustible insulation with an FM Approved fire-resistive coating or wrap
for at least 3 ft (1.0 m) on each side of the wall, unless a 4-hour fire stop assembly is used.
2.2.2.11.3 Arrange heating, ventilating, and air conditioning ducts penetrating MFL fire walls with a slip joint
(Fig. 34) located on each side of the wall as near to the face of the wall as practical. Provide 3-hour rated
fire doors or dampers in the section of duct that penetrates the wall and securely fasten it to the wall at the
opening. Provide two dampers for a double wall (one damper in each wall) with a slip joint between the walls.
Install access panels nearby. For more information see Section 2.5.2.7 and 3.3.5.
Building code requirements may not allow the use of dampers in ducts conveying hazardous materials or
used for smoke removal. In such cases, reroute the duct to avoid penetration of the fire wall.
2.2.2.11.4 Do not laterally brace or support piping, conduit, cables, ducts, and connected electrical control
panels on MFL walls (other than double MFL fire walls or MFL panel walls in reinforced concrete build-
ings). When any of these services must penetrate the wall, ensure the service is attached to and sup-
ported from the building columns and not the MFL wall.
2.2.2.11.5 Do not penetrate an MFL wall with piping that conveys combustible gas or ignitable liquid (such
as fuel oil). Provide separate supplies to areas on each side of the wall.
2.2.2.11.6 Allow only steel or iron pipe, conduit, or ducts to pass through any MFL fire wall.
2.2.2.11.7 Keep combustibles at least 1 ft (0.3 m) away from pipes, ducts, plates, conduit, etc., where they
penetrate the wall.
2.2.2.12.4 Design MFL fire walls located in the United States, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Guam
for earthquake loads in accordance with the requirements of the Structural Engineering Institute/American
Society of Civil Engineers, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, Standard SEI/ASCE
7, or a building code based on this standard (e.g., the International Building Code). Use a seismic impor-
tance factor (IE) of 1.5 for the design of MFL fire walls. Where MFL walls are intended to provide resis-
tance to earthquake forces as part of the lateral-force-resisting system of the building (i.e., seismic shear
walls), and if the overall building structure is designed using an IE less than 1.5, increase all design forces
for the wall to an IE of 1.5; also design connections transferring forces to and from the MFL shear wall based
on an IE of 1.5.
2.2.2.12.5 In locations other than in Section 2.2.2.12.4, MFL fire walls may be designed using the recom-
mendations in Section 2.2.2.12.4 if appropriate earthquake acceleration parameters are available. If these
parameters are not available, use a seismic importance factor (IE) of 1.5 and the values of SDS provided below
in the following equations (these forces are applied perpendicular to the face of the wall unless noted oth-
erwise):
• FM 50-year earthquake zone: SDS = 1.3 (g)
• FM 100-year earthquake zone: SDS = 0.9 (g)
• FM 250-year earthquake zone: SDS = 0.55 (g)
• FM 500-year earthquake zone:SDS = 0.55 (g)
Calculate the forces on the walls as follows:
Cantilever walls – The wall is supported at the base only, with no attachment to the superstructure.
Seismic design force = 0.4*SDS*IE*WW
The force distribution on a cantilever wall is assumed to be an inverted triangular shape (i.e., with the force
resultant located above the base of the wall a distance equal to 2⁄3 of the wall height).
Tied, one-way, double, and panel walls – The wall is supported at the base and connected to the structure
at floors and roofs.
a) Wall and wall connections to supporting base or columns:
Seismic design force = 0.4*SDS*IE*WW
b) Wall connections to elevated floors and roof:
1. Concrete or masonry wall to flexible diaphragm (a diaphragm other than a rigid diaphragm)
Seismic design force = 0.8*SDS*IE*WW
2. Concrete or masonry wall to rigid diaphragm (a roof or floor structure that is monolithic structural con-
crete, structural concrete topping over metal deck, or structural concrete topping over concrete
planks) or MFL wall not of concrete or masonry material.
Seismic design force = 0.4*SDS*IE*WW
For rigid and flexible diaphragm construction, ensure the seismic design force perpendicular to the wall,
for connections from concrete or masonry walls to floor or roof diaphragms, is not less than 280 lb/ft (4.1
kN/m) nor 400* SDS*IE (lb/ft) (5.84* SDS*IE [kN/m]); also, the spacing of the connections does not exceed
4 ft (1.2 m) on center.
The force distribution on tied, one-way, double, and panel walls can be applied as a uniform force.
Parapets
a. Cantilever parapets
Seismic design force = 1.2*SDS*IE*WW
b. Braced parapets
Seismic design force = 0.5*SDS*IE*WW (for wall and bracing elements)
Seismic design force = 0.8*SDS*IE*WW (for bracing connections)
Where:
SDS is the site (soil) adjusted, 5% damped, design spectral response acceleration at a short (0.2- second)
period, expressed as a portion of the gravitational acceleration (g).
IE = seismic importance factor = 1.5.
WW = the weight of the wall in lbs (kN).
These design forces are intended for use in load and resistance factor design (LRFD) — also known as
strength design or ultimate limit state design – and are provided factored (i.e., no additional load factors are
required). If allowable stress design (ASD) or working stress design (WSD) is used, the LRFD design forces
shown can be multiplied by 0.7 to determine equivalent approximate ASD design forces.
The Response Modification Factor (R-factor) is already embedded in these formulae. The forces should not
be further reduced by an R-factor.
2.2.2.12.6 Where MFL walls are intended to provide resistance to earthquake forces as part of the lateral
force resisting system of the building (i.e., seismic shear walls), design MFL walls using the recommendations
in Section 2.2.2.12.4.
2.2.2.12.7. Provide adequate clearance between adjacent independent structures (e.g., between double
walls, or between a cantilever wall and the structure on either side) to minimize the potential for pounding.
Assume the actual deflection of a cantilever fire wall during an earthquake will be 21⁄2 times the deflection
determined, assuming the wall behaves elastically and using the LRFD forces in Sections 2.2.2.12.4
or 2.2.2.12.5 with an importance factor (IE) of 1.0. Criteria to determine the actual deflections of the building
structures adjacent to cantilever fire walls, or to which double walls are attached, is beyond the scope of
this document. The registered engineer responsible for the building structural design must determine these
deflections (amplifying deflections from design forces as necessary) and provide clearance adequate to
prevent pounding based on appropriate analysis.
2.2.2.13 Structural Design Details, Detailing Guidelines, and Quality Assurance for MFL Fire Wall
Construction
2.2.2.13.1 Reinforced Concrete Masonry
Provide concrete masonry walls with sufficient strength, durability, and stability to meet or exceed the
performance requirements. The provisions in this section represent the minimum requirements – additional
strength, durability, and stability may be needed to meet project-specific performance requirements.
Use 2-core concrete masonry units (blocks) installed in a running bond pattern. Do not use 3-core concrete
masonry units or stack bond patterns. The thickness of the mortar bed joint is typically 3⁄8 in. [9.5 mm]. Ensure
it does not exceed 5⁄8 in. [16 mm].
Ensure the 28-day compressive strength of concrete masonry units is not less than 1500 Lb/in2 (10.3 MPa)
and the units conform to ASTM C 90.
Assume face shell mortar bedding in design calculations rather than full area mortar bedding.
2.2.2.13.1.1 Minimum Reinforcing Ratio
The sum of the cross-sectional area of vertical and horizontal steel reinforcement is not less than 0.002 times
the gross cross-sectional area of the wall; and the minimum cross-sectional area of steel reinforcement in
each direction (vertical and horizontal) is no less than 0.0007 times the gross cross-sectional area of the wall.
The horizontal cross-sectional reinforcing area can include horizontal joint reinforcing wire and continuous
bond beam reinforcing.
See Section 3.2.2 for an example calculation of reinforcing ratios.
2.2.2.13.1.2 Vertical Reinforcing
Space vertical reinforcement no greater than 4 ft (1.2 m), or 1/3 the wall length or 1/3 the height between
support points, whichever is less. In all cases, ensure vertical reinforcing is continuous through bond beams
and for the entire height of the wall. Where splices are required for continuity, lap reinforcement no less than
48 bar diameters (for example, 1⁄2 in. [13 mm] diameter reinforcing bars would be lapped at least 24 in. [610
mm]). Provide a minimum clearance of 1⁄2 in. [13 mm] between the reinforcement and the interior surfaces of
the masonry unit. Use rebar positioners spaced no greater than 8 ft [2.4 m] to fix vertical reinforcing in place,
ensuring the position assumed for design is held during construction.
Provide no fewer than two (2) full-height, reinforced grouted cores at each wall corner or intersection. See
Figures 35a and 35b.
Provide no fewer than two (2) full-height, reinforced grouted cores at each wall termination and at each side
of horizontal wall openings 8 ft (2.4 m) and greater. Provide no fewer than one (1) full-height, reinforced
grouted core at each side of horizontal wall openings less than 8 ft (2.4 m) and greater than 1.33 ft (0.4 m).
See Figure 36.
Provide no fewer than two (2) full-height, reinforced grouted cores at each wall control joint or expansion
joint, one on each side of the joint. See Figure 37.
For grouted reinforced cores at wall corners, intersections, terminations, openings, control joints, and
expansions joints, use the same reinforcing bar size and number of reinforcing bars per core as used for
the typical wall reinforcing.
2.2.2.13.1.3 Horizontal Reinforcing
Provide horizontal joint reinforcing consisting of minimum two (2) No. 9 (0.1483 in. [4 mm] diameter) diameter
longitudinal steel side wires, one at each face shell, with No. 9 (0.1483 in. [4 mm] diameter) cross wires
spaced at 16 in. [400 mm]. Use ladder-type horizontal joint reinforcing rather than truss-type (truss-type
diagonals can interfere with the proper placement of the vertical reinforcing). Ensure horizontal joint reinforcing
shall be factory fabricated and shall conform to ASTM A 82 (minimum yield strength 70,000 psi [480 MPa],
minimum tensile strength 80,000 psi [550 MPa]); do not use tack welded construction. Provide joint
reinforcement in flat sections not less than 10 ft (3 m) in length; lap splice longitudinal side wires not less
than 6 in. (15 mm). Provide factory formed tees and ells for continuity of horizontal joint reinforcing at wall
intersections and corners. Ensure all joint reinforcing is hot-dip galvanized in conformance with ASTM A 153
Class B2 (zinc coating 1.5 oz/ft2 [450 g/m2]) unless exposed to extremely humid or corrosive atmospheres,
in which case use stainless steel in conformance with ASTM A 580 Type 304.
Place steel joint reinforcement in every second horizontal joint of concrete masonry walls (spaced not more
than 16 in. [0.4 m] on center) for stiffening and additional shrinkage control (see Fig. 23). In addition, place
joint reinforcement in every first and second bed joint above and below wall openings and extend it at least
2 ft (0.6 m) horizontally beyond the openings. Provide joint reinforcement in the three joints immediately below
the top of the wall. Interrupt joint reinforcement at control joints and expansion joints.
Incorporate at least one (1) continuous bond beam located at the same elevation of each level of adjacent
structural floor or roof framing. Bond beams (Fig. 26) spaced at a maximum of 3.3 ft (1.0 m) on center vertically
may be used in lieu of horizontal joint reinforcement; however, horizontal joint reinforcement still must be
provided midway between bond beams. Provide bond beams with minimum steel reinforcement of two (2)
#4 (1⁄2 in. [12.7 mm] diameter) bars for 8-inch (20 mm) nominal concrete masonry units, or two (2) #5 (5⁄8 in.
[15.9 mm] diameter) bars for 10 in. (25 mm) nominal and larger concrete masonry units. Provide continuous
steel reinforcing for bond beam by means of lap splicing, including at wall intersections and corners. Provide
lap lengths of not less than 48 times the diameter of the lapped reinforcing bar (see Figure 24). Provide a
minimum clearance of 1⁄2 in. [13 mm] between the reinforcement and the interior surfaces of the masonry
unit.
Fill all bond beams solid with grout; do not use mortar or other materials.
Ensure bond beam reinforcing extends uninterrupted through control joints.
Position continuous bond beams to incorporate lintels at the same elevation whenever practicable. Where
lintels cannot be incorporated into continuous bond beams, provide no less than 8 in. (200 mm) of lintel
bearing length at each side of the opening. Limit lintel deflection due to combined dead load and live load
to 1/600 of the span, or 0.3 in. (8 mm), whichever is less.
Provide lintels at all openings greater than 16 in. (405 mm).
2.2.2.13.1.4 Grout and Mortar
Provide grout in conformance with ASTM C 476. Ensure the compressive strength of the grout is equal to
or greater than the compressive strength of the masonry unit, but never less than 2000 lb/in2 (13.8 MPa).
Determine the compressive strength of grout in accordance with ASTM C 1019. Ensure the grout mix has a
consistency such that the measured slump is between 8 in. and 11 in. (200 to 280 mm). Where openings
are restricted or congested with reinforcing, use only fine grout. Ensure the maximum aggregate size is less
than 1/5 the narrowest clear dimension within the grout space; under no circumstances use an aggregate
size greater than 3⁄8 in. (9.5 mm) for coarse grout.
Place grout using low-lift grouting procedures; use 5 ft (1.5 m) maximum lifts. If low-lift grouting procedures
are not used, ensure cleanouts are provided at the base of the wall at each grouted core. For solid grouted
walls, provide cleanouts at a maximum spacing of 32 in. (810 mm) on center. For each grout lift, stop grout
pours at least 1 in. (25 mm) below the top of the masonry in order to form a grout key with the next lift (except
for final grout pour at the top of the wall).
Use only Type M or Type S mortars for masonry walls. (See Appendix A, Glossary of Terms, for a description
of each.)
2.2.2.13.2 Reinforced Concrete
2.2.2.13.2.1 Provide reinforced concrete walls with sufficient strength, durability, and stability to meet or
exceed the performance requirements. The recommendations in this section represent the minimum
requirements; additional strength, durability, and stability may be needed to meet project-specific performance
requirements.
2.2.2.13.2.2 Provide concrete with a 28-day compressive strength of not less than 3,500 psi (24 MPa).
2.2.2.13.2.3 Ensure the cross-sectional area of steel reinforcing in each direction (vertical and horizontal)
is at least 0.0025 times the effective gross cross-sectional area of the wall. Space horizontal and vertical
reinforcing no greater than 18 in. (0.46 m).
2.2.2.13.2.4 Provide continuous steel reinforcing by means of lap splicing, including at all wall intersections
and corners.
2.2.2.13.2.5 Provide lap lengths of not less than 60 times the diameter of the reinforcing bar. Do not use
welding or mechanical couplers to join reinforcing steel.
2.2.2.13.2.6 Provide steel reinforcing oriented diagonally at all wall openings greater than 8 in. (20 mm);
provide not less than two (2) #5 (0.625 in. [16 mm] diameter) reinforcing bars at each corner of each opening.
2.2.2.13.3 Detailing and Inspection of MFL Fire Walls in FM Global Earthquake Zones
2.2.2.13.3.1 Ensure MFL fire walls located in FM Global earthquake zones (50, 100, 250, and 500-year zones)
are in conformance with the recommendations in Sections 2.2.2.1 and 2.2.2.2 unless specifically noted
otherwise.
2.2.2.13.3.2 Provide walls with sufficient strength, durability, and stability to meet or exceed the performance
requirements. The recommendations in this section represent the minimum requirements; additional strength,
durability, and stability may be needed to meet project-specific performance requirements.
2.2.2.13.3.3 For all vertical reinforcing bars, and all bond beam and lintel reinforcing bars, use reinforcing
steel conforming to the following specifications: Actual tested tensile strength not less than 1.25 times the
actual tested yield strength; minimum 14% elongation (over 8 in. [203 mm]) at tensile failure for reinforcing
bars not greater than 0.75 in. (19 mm) in diameter; minimum 12% elongation (over 8 in. [203 mm]) at tensile
failure for reinforcing bars greater than 0.75 in. (19 mm) in diameter. These specifications can be met by using
reinforcing bars in conformance with ASTM A 706; alternatively, ASTM A 615 steel reinforcing may be used
provided that mill certificates are submitted that indicate the material meets the specifications noted above.
2.2.2.13.3.4 Do not credit heavily reinforced localized portions of the wall — for instance, at pilasters, chords,
or wall openings - when determining the amount of reinforcing providing shear resistance for the wall.
2.2.2.13.3.5 Reinforced Concrete Masonry
2.2.2.13.3.5.1 Provide Level 2 Special Inspection in accordance with Chapter 17 of the latest edition of the
International Building Code (IBC), with the addition of item 1 in Table 3 below. In locations where the IBC
is not available or not in force, provide construction inspection in accordance with Table 3 below.
Fig. 36. Vertical reinforcing detail at concrete masonry wall opening or termination
Fig. 37. Vertical reinforcing detail at concrete masonry wall control joint
Provide 180-degree standard hooks for all bond beam, lintel, and sill reinforcing terminations; ensure each
reinforcing bar hook encompasses at least one vertical reinforcing bar. See Figure 25.
Provide reinforced sills at all wall opening requiring lintels; ensure sills are of similar type, size, reinforcing,
and detailing as lintels.
Where masonry lintels 16 in. (406 mm) or more in height are provided, ensure #3 (3⁄8 inch [10 mm] diameter)
shear stirrups spaced at 16 in. (406 mm), and two (2) #4 (1⁄2 in. [13mm] diameter) top reinforcing bars are
provided for the entire length of the lintel; these stirrups and top bars are to be provided in addition to the
required bottom reinforcing bars.
2.2.2.13.3.6 Reinforced Concrete
2.2.2.13.3.6.1 Provide Special Inspection in accordance with Chapter 17 of the latest edition of the
International Building Code (IBC), with the addition of item 1 in Table 4. In locations where the IBC is not
available or not in force, provide construction inspection in accordance with Table 4.
2.2.2.13.3.6.2 Provide at least two curtains of steel reinforcing throughout the entire wall.
2.2.2.13.3.6.3 Provide steel reinforcing oriented diagonally at all wall openings greater than 8 in. (20 mm);
provide not less than two (2) #5 (0.625 in. [16 mm] diameter) reinforcing bars at each corner of each opening.
2.2.2.13.3.6.4 Provide boundary elements (see Figure 38) with lengths not less than 1⁄8 the wall segment
length. Ensure all vertical reinforcing bars within the boundary element are confined within transverse hoop
reinforcement.
Fig. 38. Boundary element reinforcing detail (plan view) for concrete walls in FM Global earthquake zones
2.2.2.13.3.6.5 Ensure the cross-sectional area of vertical reinforcing contained in the boundary element is
from 0.01 to 0.06 times the gross cross-sectional area of the boundary element. Ensure the minimum
cross-sectional area of transverse hoop and cross-tie reinforcement is at least 0.008 times the gross
cross-sectional area of the wall at the boundary element location. Provide vertical spacing of transverse hoop
and cross-tie reinforcement based on local code requirements, but never less than 4 in. (100 mm) or more
than 6 in. (150 mm). Provide transverse hoop and cross-tie reinforcement such that the distance between
reinforcing bar bends (see dimension “X” on Fig. 38) is no greater than 14 in. (350 mm). Ensure horizontal
reinforcing can develop its full yield strength within the boundary element; if the length of the boundary
element is insufficient to develop full yield strength, use 135-degree standard hooks to anchor the horizontal
reinforcing bars to the vertical reinforcing bars located closest to the wall opening.
For cross-tie reinforcing oriented perpendicular to horizontal reinforcing and engaging the same vertical
reinforcing bar, install consecutive cross-tie reinforcing so the 135-degree standard hooks will be located on
opposite sides of the wall.
The wall segment length is defined as the distance between wall openings; if there are no wall openings,
the wall segment length is equal to the wall length.
2.2.2.13.3.6.6 Where ACI 318, Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete, is available, providing
walls in accordance with ACI 318 requirements for Special Structural Walls with Special Boundary Elements
will ensure conformance with the recommendations noted here.
2.2.2.13.3.6.7 Where multiple openings in the walls are proposed, creating horizontal wall segments (coupling
beams between multiple openings vertically aligned) or vertical wall segments (wall piers or columns), special
reinforcing and detailing is required to ensure adequate performance of the wall. Addressing these conditions
is beyond the scope of this document.
2.3.1 Introduction
MFL space separation is the most common MFL limiting factor. The MFL space separation is the clear distance
required to prevent a fire from propagating across an open space from one building to another (or to/from
combustible yard storage). The analysis must include the fire severity, the susceptibility of the exposed
construction, heat transfer via convection and radiation, the effect of wind and the potential for burning brands.
2.3.1.1 Evaluate space separation between buildings for limiting MFL fires per Figures 43a/43b and 44a/44b
when the exposed walls are combustible or noncombustible.
2.3.1.2 Evaluate the space separation per Table 5 when the exposed wall is fire rated.
2.3.1.3 The key information needed in order to use the figures is occupancy fire loading, exposed wall
category, and length of the exposing wall. The length of the exposing wall is not important when the exposed
wall is fire rated.
2.3.1.4 The minimum separation distance is 10 ft (3.0 m) for any situation except for exposed walls greater
than or equal to 3-hour fire-rated.
2.3.3.3 Evaluate buildings that are offset from one another using a 90 degree angle of exposure, a length
of the exposure (L) based on a 45 degree angle (see Fig. 39) up to a maximum of 100 ft (30 m) (see Fig. 40).
2.3.3.4 When the exposed buildings are at an angle to one another, use Figure 41 to determine the exposing
length (L) and use Figure 45 to determine the multiplier to account for the reduced radiation due to the angular
exposure.
Do not use this category for multi-story combustible construction. See the storage categories below.
Do not use this category for multi-story buildings with unprotected openings between floors and combustible
interior finish material (walls and ceiling). If both of those are present, treat the building as a storage
occupancy up to 30 ft (9.1 m) high.
2. Storage occupancies up to 30 ft (9.1 m) high. This category includes storage of any commodity up to 30
ft (9.1 m) in height. It also includes multi-story combustible-construction buildings up to 30 ft (9.1 m) tall.
Storage of noncombustible goods in noncombustible packaging can be considered light/ordinary.
3. Storage occupancies greater than 30 ft (9.1 m) up to 45 ft (13.7 m) high. This category includes storage
of any commodity over 30 ft (9.1 m) up to 45 ft (13.7 m) in height. It also includes multi-story combustible
construction buildings up to 45 ft (13.7 m) tall. Storage of noncombustible goods in noncombustible packaging
can be considered light/ordinary.
4. Storage occupancies over 45 ft (13.7 m) high. This category includes storage of any commodity above
45 ft (13.7 m) in height. It also includes multi-story combustible construction buildings above 45 ft (13.7 m)
tall. Storage of noncombustible goods in noncombustible packaging can be considered light/ordinary.
5. Evaluating Occupancies with Ignitable Liquids.
• Classify production areas with isolated systems with less than 500 gal (1,900 L) capacity per reservoir of
ignitable liquids as light/ordinary hazard.
• Classify production areas with systems with greater than 500 gal (1900 L) reservoirs of ignitable liquids
in closed pipe systems (i.e., not ignitable liquids storage) as storage up to 30 ft (9.1 m) high.
• Evaluate the storage of ignitable liquids (i.e., storage in drums, totes, IBCs, etc.) as follows:
Inside Buildings
− Use the greater of the two spacings in Table 3 in DS 7-88; assume all liquids have a flash point below
140°F (60°C).
− Variable D for use in Table 3 is defined by the expected pool fire size. This is determined by the
presence of any containment and/or the total amount of ignitable liquid.
− The minimum space separation is 75 ft (22.3 m) for noncombustible exposed walls and 125 ft (38.1
m) for combustible exposed walls.
− The maximum space separation is 200 ft (61 m) for noncombustible exposed walls and 300 ft (91.4
m) for combustible exposed walls.
− If only a small amount of the storage area has ignitable liquid analyze the space for the hazard
from the rest of the occupancy.
− Evaluate exposure to fire-rated walls using Table 5 and storage over 45 ft (13.7 m).
2.3.6.2 Provide protection for conveyors, pipes, bridges, tunnels, and other connector links that could damage
or otherwise compromise the protective wall of an exposed building. Bridges must be independently
supported with fireproofed supports to prevent the protecting wall of the exposed building from collapsing.
Ensure construction of all passageways is noncombustible (i.e., no Class 2 steel deck roofs). Provide fire
doors at each end of tunnels, passes, connector links, etc., with a minimum fire resistance equal to the needed
fire resistance of the walls in accordance with Table 5, but not less than1 hour.
2.3.6.3 If the buildings are within 50 ft (15 m) of each other, provide the roof of the exposed building with a
gravel surface or paver blocks for at least the portion of roof within 50 ft (15 m) of the exposure. For other
types of roofs, such as standing seam or lap seam steel roofs, provide the protection on the underside as
recommended in Section 2.2.2.9.4(d).
300
Exposing building length (ft.)
250
200
150
100
50
0
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
170
160
150
140
130
120
100
0
110
Required separation (ft.)
Fig. 43a. Required space separation for exposed noncombustible walls (English units). (In some cases the required space
may be reduced. See Sections 2.3.3 and 2.3.4.)
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150
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
45
35
25
15
50
40
30
20
10
0
Required separation (m)
Fig. 43b. Required space separation for exposed noncombustible walls (metric units). (In some cases the required
spacemay be reduced. See Sections 2.3.3 and 2.3.4.)
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500
250
200
150
100
50
0
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
220
210
200
190
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
100
0
110
Required separation (ft.)
Fig. 44a. Required separation for exposed combustible walls (English units). (In some cases the required spacemay be
reduced. See Sections 2.3.3 and 2.3.4.)
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150
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Required separation (m)
Fig. 44b. Required separation for exposed combustible walls (metric units). (In some cases the required spacemay be
reduced. See Sections 2.3.3 and 2.3.4.)
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180
170
160
150
Angle between the exposure and the exposed wall (0) (degrees)
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
Exposure angle adjustment factor (M)
Fig. 45. Multiplier for buildings exposed at an angle
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2.3.8 Vegetation
Trees in temperate climates without significant undergrowth do not contribute to fire spread if the space
separation is otherwise acceptable. Each case must be evaluated on its own merits and it is possible that
there are exceptions to the above position. In non-temperate or non-tropical climates such as deserts and
other hot, arid locales, trees and undergrowth can contribute to fire spread. Data Sheet 9-19, Wildfire/Bushfire
Exposure, is a good guide to identifying geographic areas where vegetation should be considered a possible
contributing factor in MFL scenarios.
Typical urban and suburban areas of eastern North America receive sufficient rainfall or supplemental
watering that this type of foliage would not be expected to contribute to the MFL scenario. However, a large
tree canopy that spans the entire space and actually comes in contact with wood roofs or wood eaves may
result in a space being unacceptable.
Fig. 47. Mechanical floor fire break and theoretical flame height
2.4.2 Setbacks
A high-rise may have one or more abrupt reductions in floor area. Consider the reduction deep enough to
stop exterior fire spread if its depth is equal to or greater than the height needed for a mechanical floor break
and it extends around the entire building perimeter. In the previous example, we needed a mechanical floor
height greater than 12.2 ft. So a setback that goes completely around the building that is greater than
12.2 ft would be sufficient to stop vertical exterior fire spread.
All other criteria in 2.4.1 must also be provided.
2.4.3 Balconies
Noncombustible balconies of adequate size can deflect flames and stop upward exterior fire spread. To qualify
as an adequate vertical fire break, the balcony must overlap the openings on the lower floor by at least 4
ft (1.2 m) both outward and to the sides.
2.5.1 Introduction
This section provides guidelines for the protection of openings in MFL limiting factors. Openings are defined
as personnel, vehicle, and material-handling-system openings. For guidelines on the protection of
penetrations (pipes, cables, etc.), see Section 2.2.2.11.
Trigger Assembly
Trigger Assembly
Fusible Link
Fusible
Links
Roller
Hold-open Strip
Weights Stay Rolls
Floor
Reprinted with permission from NFPA 80, Fire Doors and Windows.
Fig. 49. Pair of metal-clad sliding fire doors (biparting) on inclined track
Ceiling line
Fusible links
Box-type track
Pendent hanger
Labeled sliding
door closer
¹⁄₂ in. (13 mm)
dia. minimum Listed latch if
Not fewer than two
or more than four required in
panel sections in manufacturer’s
a single door leaf published listing
Intermediate
rear binder
closed position Sill binders Concealed guide roll
Reprinted with permission from NFPA 80, Fire Doors and Windows.
Reprinted with permission from NFPA 80, Fire Doors and Windows.
Top bolt
Single-point latch
Astragal
Reprinted with permission from NFPA 80, Fire Doors and Windows.
High ceiling
Pulley
Suspended
weights
Door Pilot
weight
Metal
enclosure
Opening
Floor
Reprinted with permission from NFPA 80, Fire Doors and Windows.
Reprinted with permission from NFPA 80, Fire Doors and Windows.
Reprinted with permission from NFPA 80, Fire Doors and Windows.
Ceiling line
Fusible
Pipe sleeve Eye
links
through wall bolt
Door
Metal
enclosure
Fusible Hold-open
link weights
Opening Track
Counterbalance
weights
Floor
Reprinted with permission from NFPA 80, Fire Doors and Windows.
Reprinted with permission from NFPA 80, Fire Doors and Windows.
Concrete /
Masonry Stud Jamb
Jamb
Endlock
1/4" (6 mm) Back
Set Typ. Both Sides Min. Depth
"A" "B" "A" of Guide
2.5.2.1.17 Use FM Approved or listed hardware where applicable. Ensure all bolts supporting guides/tracks
extend completely through the wall. As an alternative in concrete, brick, or grouted (filled) concrete masonry
units, expansion anchors may be used according to Figure 60. Ensure expansion anchors engage the brick
or masonry unit and not the mortar joint. Ensure through bolts do not extend through both walls in a double
fire wall.
Expansion
bolt
8 x Bolt ø
minimum
6 x Bolt ø
minimum
Reprinted with permission from NFPA 80, Fire Doors and Windows.
2.5.2.1.18 Ensure lintels and opening framing are of fire-resistive construction, such as brick, reinforced
concrete, concrete masonry, or protected steel (Fig. 61).
2.5.2.1.19 Ensure combustible flooring does not extend through the wall.
2.5.2.1.20 Where it is important to prevent the passage of liquids through openings, install sills, curbs, or
ramps made of fire-resistive construction at the opening above floor level (Fig. 62), and provide adequate floor
drains nearby.
2.5.2.1.21 After installation, have rolling steel fire doors satisfactorily tested, reset, and tested again to ensure
the installer/operator has reset the door-closing mechanism correctly. When spring tension is used to close
the door, make chalk marks noting the gear alignment to the release lever until the proper spring tension
has been established. The door can then be reset and placed back in service.
Springs for rolling steel fire doors are under extreme tension. Have only properly trained and qualified
personnel test, reset, repair, or adjust these doors.
2.5.2.1.22 Ensure the closing device housing (end cover) on all rolling steel fire doors (Fig. 63) is reinstalled
after the door is reset. The housing must also be in place during testing. This will prevent the accumulation
of dirt and debris, which could hamper the door closure, and help to detect (during tests) restrictions that
will prevent movement of the release lever.
2.5.2.1.23 Use flame baffles (to close the space created when the curtain unrolls, see Fig. 63, 64) on FM
Approved rolling steel fire doors.
Closing
device Hood
Flame
baffle
Guide
Interlocking steel
slat curtain
Expansion
Bottom bar clearance
Floor
Elevation
(Double Door)
Guide
Bottom bar Through bolts
Plan
(Double Door)
Reprinted with permission from NFPA 80, Fire Doors and Windows.
Flame
Flame baffle Hood baffle
fusible link
release
Opening height
Guide
Interlocking steel
slat curtain
Bottom bar
Floor
Expansion clearance
Elevation
(Double door)
Machine bolts
Plan
(Double door)
Reprinted with permission from NFPA 80, Fire Doors and Windows.
2.5.2.1.23 To help prevent mechanical damage to fire doors, resulting in their failure to operate, provide the
following at any existing installation with a history of vehicular damage:
1. Guard posts (such as concrete-filled steel pipe) rigidly secured to the floor or foundation installed in
front of all guides or tracks for rolling steel and vertical sliding fire doors used to protect personnel-operated
vehicle openings.
2. Guard rails (such as highway guard rails) installed in front of the entire length of horizontal sliding fire
doors (in the open position) to prevent storage from being placed against it, as well as damage from
impact.
3. A heavy steel horizontal guard installed in front of the hood of a rolling steel door. Ensure the guard
is vertically supported directly off the floor with posts. An alternative is to use surface-mounted doors with
at least 2 ft (0.6 m) of clear space between the top of the opening and the bottom of the door hood.
2.5.2.1.24 To ensure the prompt operation of fire doors, locate detectors (such as fusible links; see Appendix
C.2) per Data Sheet 5-48, Automatic Fire Detection.
2.5.2.1.25 Where fusible links are used, provide at least one link near an upper corner of the opening.
2.5.2.1.26 Where activation is by electric or pneumatic power, arrange the system so the door will close if
power is interrupted.
2.5.2.1.27 Arrange all doors on an opening to close automatically upon activation of a detector on either
side of the wall.
2.5.2.1.28 When cable is used to interconnect fire door closing mechanisms and detectors on both sides
of the MFL fire wall, ensure it passes freely through 1⁄2 inch (13 mm) inner dimension steel pipe embedded
in the wall. Ensure the distance between the inlet to the pipe or eyelets and the detector on each side is
at least adequate to allow the door mechanism to fully release and allow the door to close. Cut the steel pipe
flush with the face of the wall on each side and grind it smooth at each end to prevent abrasion and resistance
to cable movement (Fig. 65). It is not necessary to penetrate the wall at the ceiling level. Other arrangements
that meet the intent of this recommendation are acceptable.
Fire wall
Ground smooth or
bevelled to reduce
resistance to cable
2.5.2.1.29 Where personnel doors (up to a maximum size of 4 by 8 ft [1.2 × 2.4 m]) swinging in the direc-
tion of the exit route are required for egress according to the governing codes, a single minimum 3-hour rated
fire door may be provided. Provide the door with a positive latch and door closer. Ensure the door is nor-
mally closed.
If a double MFL fire wall is used, provide a narrow, reinforced concrete, self-supporting frame that passes
through (but is not structurally connected to) both walls with one normally closed, self-closing fire door sup-
ported by the frame.
If double egress doors (a pair of side-by-side doors swinging in opposite directions) are required by the local
code, one set of doors may be used on a single fire wall only if the doors are self-closing and latch into a
fixed (non-removable) mullion. Otherwise, provide two sets of doors, with one set at each end of a vesti-
bule constructed as described above.
2.5.2.1.30 Ensure vehicle openings in double MFL fire walls use a reinforced concrete, self-supporting frame
that passes through (but is not structurally connected to) both walls. Ensure the fire doors on either side
of the opening (surface mounted) or in the opening are supported by the frame (Figs. 66 and 67).
Fig. 66. Rolling steel fire doors in double MFL wall using reinforced concrete frame.
Fig. 67. Rolling steel fire doors in double MFL wall using reinforced concrete frame.
2.5.2.1.31 Locate and arrange storage of small, pressurized containers of aerosol products so the rocketing
cans cannot pass through protected openings. For other details of protection, see Data Sheet 7-31, Storage
of Aerosol Products.
2.5.2.1.32 The following recommendations apply to all doors protecting openings where the occupancy is
highly susceptible to smoke damage:
1. Arrange fire doors to close automatically by actuation of smoke detectors. Ensure the smoke detector
is suitable for the environment.
2. In the case of conveyor openings, make arrangements to shut down the feed conveyor and allow
conveyed material to clear the opening before the door is allowed to close. This can be accomplished
by using cross-zoned detectors on each side of the wall. Have the first signal initiate feed conveyor
shutdown. Receipt of a second signal must initiate door closure. Provide a 15-ft (4.6 m) space between
the detectors on respective sides of the fire wall to allow sufficient time delay for the feed conveyor to be
shut down and the opening to be cleared.
3. An alternative to cross-zoning is to provide a single smoke detector on each side of the wall that upon
actuation will shut down the feed conveyor and activate a time delay switch, which will allow delayed door
closure. The time delay must be adequate to allow clearing of the opening, but generally must only be
a few seconds. In either case, connect the door holder to a back-up power supply using an uninterrupt-
ible power supply (UPS) system. This will prevent premature door closure during a power failure.
4. Equip doors with listed 3-hour rated fire door gasket material (that will not restrict door closure). Pro-
tect the bottom of swinging personnel doors with either an automatic door bottom or listed 3-hour rated fire
door gasket material.
5. Ensure openings protected by horizontal sliding doors are equipped with continuous front, rear, and
top binders (Fig. 68), and have listed fire door gasket material at their bottom edges to reduce smoke pas-
sage.
6. Ensure fire dampers used to protect openings for air-handling systems have a Class 0, I, or II leak-
age classification. (See Section 3.3.5.)
Reprinted with permission from NFPA 80, Fire Doors and Windows.
Fig. 68. Binder arrangements to reduce smoke penetration around horizontal sliding doors.
2.5.2.1.33 Anchor fire doors and fire door frames to masonry or concrete walls at locations in FM Global earth-
quake zones 50-year through 500-year.
2.5.2.1.34 Use FM Approved horizontal sliding fire doors in FM Global earthquake zones 50-year through 500-
year.
2.5.2.1.35 Where toppling of equipment or stock positioned close to fire doors may interfere with complete clo-
sure of the doors, properly anchor or relocate equipment and stock away from doors.
2.5.2.2.3 Design material handling systems to provide a clear distance perpendicular to the opening equal
to the maximum dimension (height or width) of the opening. Maintain a clear space of 2 ft (0.6 m) in the
direction parallel to the wall. (See Fig. 69 and Sections 2.5.2.4 and 2.5.2.5.)
(0.6 m) (0.6 m)
Fire wall 2 ft. 2 ft.
Fire door
Maximum
dimension of
opening but not Potential area of ingition
less than 6 ft.
(1.8 m)
PLAN
Fig. 69. Clearance area at fire doors.
2.5.2.2.4 Ensure combustible conveyor belts are not continuous through the fire wall. Ensure the system
has a discontinuity of combustibles, as well as an opening that will allow for complete closure of the fire door.
2.5.2.2.5 Arrange detectors to do the following:
1. Stop the feed conveyor or otherwise initiate the mechanism that clears the path of the fire door.
2. Provide an adequate time delay to clear the opening.
3. Activate the fire door closing mechanism.
When multiple detectors are used to provide a fire-dependent time delay between the clearing of the opening
and closure of the door, ensure the detectors have different temperature ratings and are located no more
than a few inches apart.
Ensure the temperature rating of the device used to clear the opening and/or stop the feed conveyor is rated
at 135°F or 165°F (57°C or 74°C), but not less than 50°F (28°C) above ambient temperature. Use a
combination rate-of-rise, fixed-temperature detector arranged for fail-safe operation for MFL fire walls, except
where otherwise noted.
Ensure the detector that initiates fire door closure is 286°F (141°C) rated or the next highest standard rating
that is over 100°F (38°C) above the rating of the detector used to clear the opening.
Locate closely spaced devices of each type near the top of the opening and at ceiling level on each side
of the fire wall, and arrange so operation of any one set of devices will allow stoppage of the conveyor and
fire door closure, in that order. Where smoke damage is a concern, also see Section 2.5.2.1.32.
2.5.2.2.6 Ensure clearance around rails or chains is a maximum of 3/8 in. (10 mm) and a special factory-
applied label (Fig. 71) is attached to the door. Small openings for clearance around conveyor rails or chains
are acceptable if necessary (Fig. 70), except in occupancies with a significant amount of combustible dust
or lint.
Direction Of Closure
For Doors
Edge Of Wall
Conveyor Opening
Rail
Edge Of
Door
Door
Face
Door
Face
3/8" (10 mm)
Max.
Astragal
Junction Of Doors
(COMPANY NAME)
(CITY AND STATE)
THIS DOOR CONFORMS TO A 3 HOUR RATED CONSTRUCTION BUT IS
NOTCHED FOR A CONVEYOR
IT WAS PRODUCED UNDER THE FACTORY MUTUAL AUDIT
INSPECTION PROGRAM
ACCEPTANCE IS THE PREROGATIVE OF THE AUTHORITY HAVING
JURISDICTION
SERIAL NO.
2.5.2.2.7 Arrange the conveyor drive mechanism to shut down the conveyor if conveyed material can become
lodged in one position and obstruct closure of the fire door. Ensure sections of the conveyor downstream
of the obstruction can continue to operate.
2.5.2.2.8 Ensure the fire door(s) at the opening are capable of effective closure regardless of whether or
not any section of the conveyor is operating.
2.5.2.2.9 Where it is impractical to provide inclined sections at the junction of the fire wall with roller or belt
conveyors, special design is necessary to allow a clear path for the fire door to close (Section 2.5.2.5).
Detectors must still be provided as outlined in Section 2.5.2.2.5.
2.5.2.2.10 Design the material-handling system and its support structure in such a way that its collapse will
not damage or put any significant loading or stress on the fire wall.
Ensure conveyor sections on either side of the fire wall are supported by the floor or roof, and not by the
fire wall. The short section within the plane of the fire wall (between fire doors) may be supported directly by
the fire wall (only one of the fire walls in the case of a double fire wall). Where the supports for the sections
on either side of the fire wall may be exposed to lift truck traffic, provide guards to prevent movement of
these sections into the fire door path.
2.5.2.2.11 Ensure tow conveyors use vestibules with at least one 3-hour rated fire door at each end, and
that vestibule walls, roof, and floor are made of 4-hour fire-rated, reinforced concrete (fully grouted and
reinforced concrete masonry wall is also acceptable) designed for 100 psf (488 kN/m2). Ensure the vestibule
is free-standing and independent of the MFL wall.
2.5.2.2.12 Ensure the clear distance between carts on tow conveyors is greater than the vestibule length,
including door widths. Ensure the clear distance between doors is greater than the length of the carts. Only
use carts at clip-on points (points where carts are attached to drive chain). Do not place carts between clip-on
points and allow them to be pushed by the carts behind them. (See Section 3.3.4.)
2.5.2.2.13 Protect chain or rail conveyors with door packs. (See Fig. 72 and Section 3.3.3.)
Reprinted with permission from NFPA 80, Fire Doors and Windows.
2.5.2.2.14 Ensure the enclosure and baffles in the door pack are constructed of at least 4-hour fire-rated
material. If the door pack enclosure is above floor level, ensure its supporting structure has a fire-resistance
rating equivalent to that of the wall. Ensure fire doors are rated for at least 3 hours.
2.5.2.2.15 Provide devices to stop the conveyor if a door drifts into a fouling position, and before allowing
automatic closure.
2.5.2.2.16 Ensure ″Go″ and ″Return″ passes for chain or rail conveyors do not penetrate the same wall
opening or use the same door pack enclosure.
2.5.2.2.17 Use the following formula to determine the minimum number of 3-hour fire-rated doors in door
packs for chain or rail conveyors (see Section 3.3.3 for an example):
N = Sh/(Sc–Td)
Where: N = number of doors
Sh = horizontal spacing between hangers, in. (mm)
Sc = clear space between stock, in. (mm)
Td = thickness of the door, in. (mm)
2.5.2.2.18 Ensure the door spacings for door packs in chain and rail conveyors are even and meet the
following criteria:
Sd = Sc–Td
Sd = (Ls + Td)/(N–1)
Where: Sd = center-to-center spacing of doors, in. (mm)
Ls = length of stock perpendicular to wall, in. (mm)
2.5.2.2.19 When it is not practical to provide door packs, arrange the chain or rail conveyor system so all
fire wall openings can be cleared at the same time. Provide double, minimum 3-hour rated fire doors at each
opening along with photo eyes that will allow the openings to be cleared before the material handling system
is shut down for any reason. Provide a back-up power supply to prevent conveyed material from stopping
in the path of fire doors due to power failure.
2.5.2.2.20 House lowerators for handling of roll paper in a 4-hour fire-rated enclosure. Provide minimum
3-hour rated FM Approved fire doors at each end of the enclosure. Keep at least one door closed at all times.
2.5.2.2.21 Where emergency stops are required on material-handling systems, arrange them in such a
manner as to not compromise the reliability of fire door closure. This can be accomplished on conveyor
systems by providing an inclined gravity section at the wall, and separately powered feed and take-away
sections. Another alternative is to provide three separately powered sections (feed, middle, and takeaway
sections) with the middle section at the wall enclosed in a cage that would thus not require an emergency stop
mechanism. The feed and take-away sections could then be equipped with the necessary emergency stop
mechanisms.
Connector
Angle
Alternate
Frame location
fasteners for duct
(typical) connections
Sleeve
Curtain Type
Wall
Fusible link
Flow
Fire
door
Duct work
Latch
Frame
Thru bolt
Swinging Type
(Courtesy of the Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractor’s National Association, Inc. [SMACNA].)
2.5.2.3.3 Provide a service opening adjacent to each fire damper and fire detection device (e.g., smoke
detector, fusible link). Ensure the opening is large enough to permit testing and resetting of the damper.
2.5.2.3.4 Provide slip joints in the pneumatic conveyor on both sides of the wall (Fig. 74). If a double fire
wall is used, provide a slip joint between the two walls.
(Courtesy of the Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractor’s National Association, Inc. [SMACNA].)
take-away section will continue to operate briefly after the feed section has been shut down so the opening
is clear.
B. Ensure the distance between the upper end of an inclined gravity section and the face of the fire door
on its respective side (Y) of the fire wall is at least equal to the maximum dimension of the opening (Figs.
75 and 76). When this is not practical, provide fire doors with a 30-minute temperature rise rating of 250°F
(121°C) on the opening.
Fire Wall
Fire Door
Fire Door
X
Y
Motorized
Feed
Gravity
Sections
Elevation
Fig. 75. Roller conveyor protection.
Fire barrier
Feed
Take-away
Elevation
C. Ensure the distance between the lower end of the inclined gravity section and the face of the fire door
on its respective side (X) is at least equal to the maximum dimension of the opening plus twice the length
of the longest parcel to be conveyed (2L) (Figs. 75 and 76). A distance of 2L is acceptable if fire doors
with a 30-minute temperature rise rating of 250°F (121°C) are provided. If this is still not practical, provide
the above rated doors with a downstream incline at least equal to L, and the following:
1. Totally enclose the control panel for the take-away section nearest to the fire wall in metal casing,
and interlock it so the control panel will not operate unless its access door is closed.
2. Ensure the motor for the same section has a totally enclosed metal housing, and wiring in conduit.
3. Locate the control panel and motor adjacent to the door opening.
4. Connect the take-away section of the conveyor to a back-up power supply. The back-up power supply
may consist of a pneumatic system, a flywheel system, or float-charged batteries with dc-ac inverters
capable of powering the take-away section for a long enough period to clear the opening (usually only
a few seconds).
If it is not practical to install the control panel and motor near the wall opening, provide a 135° or 165°F (57°
or 74°C) detector (or minimum 50°F [28°C] above ambient) over the control panel and motor, or extend a
temperature-detection wire over the take-away section nearest the fire wall. Arrange the detector to shut down
the feed conveyor. This will help ensure proper fire door closure before the panel or motor on the take-away
section is damaged by a fire. Interlock control panels so they will not operate unless the control panel door is closed.
Fire barrier
Take-away Feed
Elevation
2.5.2.5.2 Do not connect the secondary power feed to a switchboard common to the main power feed. Ensure
wiring is in conduit, and control panels and motors are totally enclosed in metal casings and located as close
to the fire wall opening as possible.
2.5.2.5.3 Regardless of the power supply arrangement, provide a photo-eye on the take-away side of the
opening to prevent back-up of goods near the door. Arrange it to shut down the feed conveyor before goods
can back up within a distance equal to the maximum opening dimension.
2. The door has failed more than once for the same or for related mechanical reasons.
2.5.3.13 Test the AGVS interlocks at least semi-annually.
2.5.3.14 Instruct AGVS operators as follows:
1. Investigate and correct all vehicle alarm conditions immediately after discovery.
2. Take vehicles with low batteries out of service and recharge them.
3. If the emergency bumper is actuated, remove any remaining obstacles, restart the vehicle and continue
its route.
4. In the event of a control system malfunction, shut the system down (after all vehicles are stopped at
the next zone station); investigate AGV passages through fire walls and remove vehicles from the path of
fire doors immediately.
Specifying a minimum reinforcing ratio is a method of ensuring a minimum level of strength and crack control
for the wall.
Example 1: Calculation of reinforcing ratios for a masonry wall.
Given:
8-in. nominal (7.625 in. [195 mm] actual) masonry wall;
10 ft (3.0 m) in height;
No. 9 (W1.7) horizontal joint reinforcing (two 0.148 in. [3.7 mm] diameter steel wires) at 16 in. (406 mm)
on center;
One bond beam reinforced with two #4 bars (1⁄2 in. [13 mm] diameter);
Vertical reinforcing #5 (0.625 in. [16 mm] diameter) spaced at 24 in. [610 mm] on center.
Steel Area Calculations
#4 bars steel area = 0.20 in2
#5 bars steel area = 0.31 in2
No. 9 wires (2) steel area = 2 x 0.0172 in2 = 0.0344 in2
Calculate Ratios:Gross horizontal area = 10 ft x 12 in./ft x 7.625 in. = 915 in2
Minimum horizontal steel area = 0.0007 x 915 in2 = 0.64 in2
Check horizontal steel area = (2)(0.20 in2) + (7)(0.0344 in2) = 0.641 in2 > 0.64 in2
Gross vertical area = 12 in./ft x 7.625 in. = 91.5 in2/ft
Minimum vertical steel area = 0.0007 x 91.5 in2/ft = 0.064 in2/ft
Check vertical steel area = (0.31 in2/24 in.)(12 in./ft) = 0.155 in2/ft > 0.064 in2/ft
Check total steel area = (0.641 in2/ 15 in2) + (0.155 in2/91.5 in2) = 0.0007 + 0.0017 = 0.0024 > 0.002
Therefore, the wall reinforcing meets the prescribed minimum values.
Two distant one-way walls in parallel and supported by separate framework can be built at double-column
line expansion joints. As an example (see Fig. 80), one-way fire walls (A) could be tied to the steel framework
of Areas 1 and 3 respectively. A single fire would not involve more than two areas. Usually a 4-hour fire rating
is needed.
Fig. 80. Two one-way fire walls tied to areas 1 and 3 respectively
passage of flames and restrictions on the size of openings created by the exposure. Fire dampers generally
do not have any significant insulating value or ability to prevent the passage of smoke.
Listed leakage rated dampers used to control the passage of smoke (smoke dampers) are also available.
These dampers do not necessarily have a fire endurance rating. They are classified according to the rate of
smoke leakage through the damper under specified pressure differentials (Table 7).
4.0 REFERENCES
4.1 FM Global
Data Sheet 1-2, Earthquakes
Data Sheet 1-3, High-Rise Buildings
Data Sheet 1-20, Protection Against Exterior Fire Exposure
Data Sheet 1-21, Fire Resistance of Building Assemblies
Data Sheet 1-28, Wind Design
Data Sheet 1-28R/1-29R, Roof Systems
Data Sheet 1-44, Damage-Limiting Construction
Data Sheet 1-54, Roof Loads for New Construction
Data Sheet 7-4, Paper Machines and Pulp Dryers
Data Sheet 7-32, Ignitable Liquid Operations
Data Sheet 7-42, Evaluating Vapor Cloud Explosions Using a Flame Acceleration Method
Data Sheet 7-43, Loss Prevention in Chemical Plants
Data Sheet 7-88, Ignitable Liquid Storage Tanks
4.2 Other
ASTM International. Standard Specification for Loadbearing Concrete Masonry Units. ASTM C90, latest
edition.
ASTM International. Standard Specification for Steel Wire, Plain, for Concrete Reinforcement. ASTM A82,
latest edition.
ASTM International. Standard Specification for Stainless Steel Wire. ASTM A580, latest edition.
ASTM International. Standard Specification for Grout for Masonry. ASTM C476, latest edition.
American Concrete Institute (ACI). Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete. ACI 318, latest
edition.
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures.
ASCE/ SEI-7, latest edition.
International Code Council (ICC). International Building Code. Latest edition.
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). Recommended Practice for Fire Department Operations in
Properties Protected by Sprinkler and Standpipe Systems. NFPA 13E, latest edition.
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). Standard on Industrial Fire Brigades. NFPA 600, latest edition.
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning. NFPA 1620,
latest edition.
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). National Electrical Code. NFPA 70, latest edition.
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). Fire Doors and Windows. NFPA 80, latest edition.
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). Fire Walls and Fire Barrier Walls. NFPA 221, latest edition.
Continuous inspection and verification: Full-time observation of the work being performed by an approved
inspector.
Detectors: Devices such as fusible links, heat detectors (fixed temperature and/or rate-of-rise), and smoke
detectors.
Diaphragm, horizontal: The wood sheathing, concrete slab or fill, or metal deck at a roof or floor capable of
transferring earthquake forces to vertical lateral force-resisting elements (e.g., shear walls, braced frames,
or moment frames).
Elastic: A mode of structural behavior in which a structure displaced by a force will return to its original state
upon release of the force.
Elastic design: See allowable stress design.
Essential facility: A facility where buildings and equipment are intended to remain operational in the event
of extreme environmental loading from flood, wind, snow, or earthquake.
FM Approved: The phrase ‘‘FM Approved’’ is used to describe a product or service that has satisfied the
criteria for Approval by FM Approvals. Refer to the Approval Guide for a complete list of products and services
that are FM Approved.
Hollow metal doors: Doors made in seamless, flush panels, rail-and-panel, or stile-and-panel design. They
are manufactured from a suitable reinforced, minimum 20-gauge (0.91 mm) outer skin supplemented with an
insulating or sound-deadening material, or both. These doors are available in single-and double-swinging
units. When used in conjunction with passenger elevator entrance assemblies, they may be arranged for
swinging, sliding, vertical bi-parting, or horizontal-slide operation. Hollow metal doors for freight elevators and
dumbwaiters are counterbalanced.
Importance factor: A factor used in building codes to increase, for example, the usual wind or earthquake
design forces for important or essential structures, tending to make them more resistant to those phenomena.
Jackknife doors: Doors consisting of a curtain of interlocking steel slats that collapse horizontally when
operated.
Lap splicing: Preferred method used to get “continuous” reinforcing using several reinforcing bars laid end
to end; works by transferring forces from one rebar through the surrounding concrete to the adjacent rebar.
The length of the “lap” determines the strength of the connection for a particular rebar size and a particular
concrete strength; lap splices are specified as a certain number of bar diameters since the strength of the
lapped connection is a function of the contact area between the rebar and the concrete.
Limiting Factor: A physical barrier that stops the spread of fire or provides containment of explosive force.
The control of damage from these or other events is entirely dependent on structural integrity, susceptibility
of contents, fire-resistant and damage-limiting construction or adequate space separation. Limiting factors
can change over time and result in significantly larger losses than anticipated if improperly managed. These
factors, therefore, warrant a high level of validation, documentation, and oversight.
Load and resistance factor design (LRFD): A method of designing structural members so computed stresses
produced by service design loads multiplied by load factors do not exceed the theoretical nominal member
strength multiplied by a strength reduction (resistance) factor. Also called strength design or ultimate strength
design.
Make-up: The action of a client that is beyond their normal operating procedures and is intended to mitigate
lost production, services or revenue.
Masonry: Brick, stone, tile, or concrete block bonded together with mortar. With reinforcing steel, it is defined
as reinforced masonry; without reinforcing steel it is defined as unreinforced masonry (URM).
Metal-clad doors: Doors consisting of a two-or three-ply core of well seasoned wood covered with lock-jointed
terneplate, Ductillite, or 30 gauge (0.012 in., 0.30 mm) sheet metal. The covering is nailed to the core.
Mortar: Type M or S mortars are mixed according to the proportions in the following table:
Non-shear walls: Non-shear walls resist wind forces perpendicular to the face of the building façade and
distribute the wind forces into the building frame; they provide the building frame with no resistance to lateral
(horizontal) forces, such as those generated by wind or earthquake; examples are curtain walls (most
mid-rise and high-rise office building facades with glass and either steel or aluminum frames), infill walls
(concrete or masonry panels within the building frame (bounded by beams and columns), insulated metal or
corrugated metal wall panels, and EIFS walls.
Periodic inspection and verification: Part-time or intermittent observation of the work being performed, and
the completion of the work, by an approved inspector.
Prestressed concrete: A type of precast concrete panel where steel strands (wire) or bars are embedded
in the concrete under high tension that is held in equilibrium by compressive stresses in the concrete after
hardening.
Pounding: The collision of adjacent buildings during an earthquake due to insufficient lateral clearance.
Ramp-up: Part of the normal post-loss restoration period that covers the time from the start-up of production
until the time full production has resumed.
Reinforced concrete: Construction using a composite material made from concrete and steel (or another
material, such as glass fiber-reinforced plastic) where the concrete and reinforcement work compositely.
Examples of reinforced concrete walls are tilt-up construction and precast concrete construction.
Reinforced masonry: Masonry units, reinforcing steel, grout, and/ or mortar combined to act together to resist
design loads. Reinforced masonry generally has both vertical and horizontal steel reinforcement.
Rolling steel doors: Doors that have their housing and mechanism located at the head of the opening and
are composed of a curtain of interlocking metal slats that coil upon a barrel. In most models the barrel is
provided with a torsion-spring mechanism to counterbalance the weight of the curtain. A detector releases
the torsion-spring mechanism that drives the door closed. In some newer models there is no spring. Automatic
closure is powered by counterweights or simply the weight of the curtain. Rolling steel doors may be operated
by hand, chain, crank, pneumatic, or electric power under normal operating conditions.
Shear walls: Shear walls provide the building frame with substantial resistance to lateral (horizontal) forces,
such as those generated by wind or earthquakes; they provide resistance to forces parallel to the horizontal
axis of the wall; they serve the same structural purpose as steel cross-bracing; they are typically constructed
from concrete or masonry, and wood (plywood, for wood-framed structures).
Sidewall protection: an upgrade in the passive protection of the wall. For example, increasing the rating of
the wall for noncombustible to 1-hour fire rating.
Sheet metal doors: Uninsulated or insulated, these doors are two-piece, vertically or horizontally sliding, and
may be either counterbalanced or telescoping. The uninsulated doors may consist of a single thickness of
galvanized sheet-metal, corrugated or flat, riveted or welded in a structural steel frame. The insulated types
are of sandwich-panel construction having mineral-core insulation between steel-faced sheets.
Special purpose doors: Doors of special construction whose intended end use does not lend itself to being
included in other classifications. Generally, these doors are not self-latching or provided with automatic clos-
ing devices. Examples include acoustical, radiant shielding, or pressure-resistant doors.
Strength design: See load and resistance factor design.
Swinging fire doors: Doors that swing on hinges in or out of a room or building.
Tilt-up concrete: A construction method where reinforced concrete panels are formed and placed on-site.
Once the panel has cured to sufficient strength, the slabs are then lifted by crane and tilted into place. The abil-
ity to make the panels on-site eliminates the need to ship them and thus eliminates the restrictions on size
that would apply if the panels had to be transported to the site.
Tin-clad doors: Doors that have the same specifications as metal-clad doors.
Two-ply cores: These doors are available in the standard sliding and swinging type. Metal-clad doors for
freight elevators are two-piece vertical sliding, counterbalanced, bi-parting, or telescoping. Rated at 1 1/2
hours; three or more ply cores are rated at three hours, as noted in the Approval Guide.
Ultimate strength design: See load and resistance factor design.
Unreinforced masonry: Masonry unit (e.g., bricks, concrete blocks) construction that does not incorporate
steel reinforcement, or where reinforcement is minimal and therefore neglected in the structural design.
Yield point: The stress at which there is a decided increase in the deformation or strain without a correspond-
ing increase in stress. The strain is inelastic, resulting in permanent deformation.
1. Additional information has been added for evaluation of space separation between buildings to further
clarify acceptable conditions. It is important to remember that construction features on both sides of the
separation must be considered individually, since the MFL exposure could occur from either direction.
2. Use 25% of the live load, as well as the entire dead load, when designing tied walls using the catenary
cable formula (see Recommendation 2.1.1.4.4).
3. An advisory comment has been added regarding the arrangement of racks adjacent to MFL fire walls to
prevent possible damage to the wall from collapsing racks during an uncontrolled fire.
An additional label (see Fig. 71) is available to accommodate sliding doors for use in openings in fire walls
penetrated by conveyors. Such doors are notched to provide as much closure as practical around the
conveyor track (see Fig. 70). As the track size may vary, so too may the notch; however, the maximum
clearances must not exceed those noted in Figure 70.
Vision panels may only be installed on fire doors having a maximum fire rating of 1 1⁄2 hours (interior) or ¾
hours (exterior). Consequently, they may not be used in fire doors protecting openings in MFL fire walls,
where a 3-hour fire door rating (Class A opening; see section C.8) is needed, or in exterior fire doors where
a severe exposure exists (Class D opening). The maximum area and dimensions of glazing for doors in Class
B, C, or E openings are given in Table 9.
Fire door hardware used with the fire doors is an important part of the overall door installation. Only FM
Approved hardware may be used when hardware has been FM Approved for that type door; otherwise,
appropriate listed hardware must be used.
Fire door hardware is classified as either builders’ hardware or fire door hardware. Builders’ hardware has
a subcategory of ‘‘fire exit hardware,’’ which consists of devices FM Approved or listed for both fire and panic
protection.
Builders’ hardware applies only to swinging doors and consists of hinges, locks, latches, top and bottom
bolts, and door closers. Builders’ hardware is not required to be shipped from the factory with the fire door.
Labels on swinging doors will generally provide the minimum latch throw distance required for that size and
type door.
Fire door hardware applies to both swinging and sliding fire doors. This hardware consists of surface-mounted
hinges, latches, and door closers. This type of hardware is shipped from the factory with the fire door.
C.2 Detectors
Detectors are devices such as fusible links, heat detectors (fixed temperature and/or rate-of-rise), and smoke
detectors. Detectors operate the release mechanism that allows door closers to close the doors.
When heat detectors are used, they must be a restorable type and a combination fixed-temperature and
rate-of-rise type. Smoke detectors must be suitable for the environment. Smoke detectors may experience
false operation in dusty environments, etc. For more information, refer to Data Sheet 5-48, Automatic Fire
Detection, and the Approval Guide.
FM Approved fusible links are used to operate fire doors, shutters, dampers, and other devices at the
predetermined temperature. The fusible-type link consists mainly of two metallic plates joined together by a
special solder alloy. The solder melts at a predetermined temperature allowing the plates to separate. Other
types of FM Approved links operate by the bursting of a glass bulb due to the expansion of an enclosed liquid
or the liquefying of a chemical compound when exposed to heat.
FM Approved fusible links are stamped with the following information:
• Manufacturer’s name
• Listing agency logo
• Load rating
• Temperature rating
• Model designation
• Year of manufacture
The load rating generally varies from 5 to 50 lb (2.3 to 2.7 kg), and can be as high as 500 lb (227.3 kg).
The load rating of the links must be at least equal to the load required to hold the door open. This load will
vary, depending on the type and size of the door and the counterweights used (if applicable).
Ceiling
Swivel
arm
release
Metal
enclosure
Door
Weights
Opening
Floor
Ceiling
Pipe sleeve Heat detectors Automatic
through wall (other than fusible links) release
Fusible link
Pulley
Pulley
Closing Hold-
weights open
weights
Metal Door
enclosure
Opening
Floor
Reprinted with permission from NFPA 80, Fire Doors and Windows.
Hanger
Hanger Track — ³⁄₄ in. (19 mm)
in 12 in. (305 mm) slope
Vent holes
— tin-clad Washer strip —
doors only chafing strip
opposite Track binder
for tin-clad doors; angles
Rear chafing strips also sheet metal
binders required on flush doors
and sheet metal doors
pockets Intermediate
required Handle pull binder
Reprinted with permission from NFPA 80, Fire Doors and Windows.
Fig. 84. Horizontal sliding inclined track fire door showing stay rolls and binders
Reprinted with permission from NFPA 80, Fire Doors and Windows.
Fig. 85. Stay roll for horizontal sliding fire door
floor, the guide is free to expand with minimal stress from frictional resistance. When the guides are welded
in place or there is not adequate clearance below the guides, expansion is restricted: the guides tend to
bow, high stresses can develop, and the guides may become partially or totally disengaged from the wall,
allowing the opening to be breached.
Manual operators or power operators must be arranged so the fusing of a single detector will allow the
operator to disconnect from the door mechanism, enabling the door to close automatically in a fire situation.
The average closing speed should be from 6 to 24 in. per second (0.15 to 0.60 m/sec).
1
Only Class A or 3-hour fire rated FM Approved doors are acceptable for use on MFL fire walls.
2
A 1-hour fire rated door is also available for this class of opening, but should only be used when the rating of the subdivision does not
exceed 1 hour.
The rating for fire doors in North America is based upon results of tests conducted according to ASTM E152.
There is an important difference between this specification and ASTM E119 for fire walls. For ASTM E152,
satisfactory performance for a given period is primarily a measure of the deformation of the door. For ASTM
E119, a wall assembly must prevent the passage of flame, and the average temperature on the unexposed
face must not exceed 250°F (121°C) above ambient temperature for the rated period. Combustible material
placed too near the unexposed face of a fire door could ignite from radiant heat in a time period less than
the door’s rated period (hourly rating) (Fig. 69).
Although the insulating value of the door is not part of the mandatory pass/fail criteria for fire doors as it is
with fire walls, this desirable property can be the deciding factor when considering the choice of otherwise
‘‘equal’’ doors. Some types of doors are better insulators than others. Composite, kalamein, and metal-clad
fire doors have some insulating ability, although not necessarily the same as an equivalently rated fire wall.
In the United States, during the first 30 minutes of a fire door test, the temperature rise on the unexposed
side of the door is measured. If the average temperature rise on the unexposed side does not exceed 250°F
(121°C), 450°F (232°C), or 650°F (343°C), the door receives that respective maximum temperature-rise
rating. The temperature-rise rating is independent of the fire-endurance rating (hourly rating) of the fire door.
A fire door may receive an hourly fire-endurance rating even if the temperature rise exceeds 650°F (343°C)
in the first 30 minutes. In Europe, a similar rating is provided. The time it takes for the average temperature
to reach 121°C (250°F) is monitored, and that number of minutes is assigned as an insulation rating.
Consequently, a European door with a minimum 30 minute insulation rating could be considered comparable
to a U.S. door with a maximum 250°F (121°C) temperature rise rating.
For new construction or door replacement on MFL fire walls, doors with a minimum 30-minute temperature
rise rating of 250°F (121°C) are preferred. This rating ensures the door has some thermal resistance to limit
heat conduction through it. Providing such doors is critical where, despite good preventive efforts, temporary
storage may be left too close to openings where autoignition may result from an uncontrolled fire on the
opposite side of the door. This is a particular concern in warehouses where the probability of having
combustible storage adjacent to openings in fire walls is high. The described door does not offer the same
protection a fire wall, however, and is not considered as a substitute for adequate space separation between
door openings and combustible storage.
The temperature-rise rating is noted on the fire door label. When it is not practical to use a door with a 250°F
(121°C) maximum temperature-rise rating, the next preference is to use one with a 450°F (232°C) maximum
temperature rise rating. Except where noted, all openings in MFL fire walls should be protected with two
automatic closing, minimum 3-hour rated fire doors, one on each side of the opening. Two doors are
recommended for all such openings to increase the probability of at least one door closing.
Labels are located on the hinge edge of the door, near the top hinge for personnel doors. On rolling doors,
they are located near the middle of the face of the bottom bar. On sliding doors, they are located in the middle
of the face of the door. For sample labels, see Figure 47.