INVISIBLE MECHANICS

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INVISIBLE MECHANICS
 CONTENT
1. Rotational Variables
1.1 Angular Position
1.2 Angular Displacement
1.3 Angular Velocity
1.4 Angular Acceleration
1.5 Rotation with Constant Angular Acceleration
1.6 Relating the Linear and Angular Variables

2. Torque
2.1 Torque Of a Force About The Axis Of Rotation
2.2 Γ = Iα
2.3 Bodies In Equilibrium

3.Angular Momentum
3.1 Definition
3.2 L = Iω
3.3 Conversation Of Angular Momentum
3.4 Angular Impulse
3.5 Kinetic Energy Of a Rigid Body Rotating About a Given Axis
3.6 Power Delivered And Work Done By a Torque

4. Moment of Inertia
4.1 Definition
4.2 Moment of Inertia of Uniform rod about a Perpendicular Bisector
4.3 Theorem of Parallel Axes
4.4 Theorem of Perpendicular Axes
4.5 Radius of Gyration
4.6 Moment of Inertia of Other Geometrical Figures

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5. Rolling Motion
5.1 Rolling
5.2 Rolling Bodies in Moving Platform
5.3 Velocity of Point on the Rolling Body
5.4 Kinetic Energy of Rolling Wheel
5.5 Rolling as Pure Rotation
5.6 Angular Momentum of Rolling Wheel
5.7 Rolling of a Body on an Inclined Plane
5.8 Illustration

Question

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 1. Rotational Variables
1.1 Angular Position
The angular position of this line is the angle of the line relative to a fixed direction, which we take as the
zero angular position. In Fig., the angular position is measured relative to the positive direction of the x
axis. From geometry, we know that θ is given by

 ere s is the length of a circular arc that extends from the x axis (the zero
H
angular position) to the reference line, and r is the radius of the circle.

1.2 Angular Displacement

 his definition of angular displacement holds not only for the rigid body as a whole but also for every
T
particle within that body.
Clocks Are Negative. If a body is in translational motion along an x axis, its displacement Δx is either
positive or [negative, depending on whether the body is moving in the positive or negative direction of the
axis. Similarly, the angular displacement Δθ of a rotating body is either positive or negative, according to
the following rule:

An angular displacement in the counterclockwise direction is positive, and one in the clockwise
direction is negative

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1.3 Angular Velocity

1.4 Angular Acceleration

1.5 Rotation with Constant Angular Acceleration

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1.6 Relating the Linear and Angular Variables
 point in a rigid rotating body, at a perpendicular distance r from the rotation axis, moves in a circle
A
with radius r. If the body rotates through an angle θ, the point moves along an arc with length s given
by

The linear velocity of the point is tangent to the circle; the point's linear speed v is given by

 he linear acceleration à of the point has both tangential and radial components. The tangential
T
component is

If the point moves in uniform circular motion, the period T of the motion for the point and the body is

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 2. Torque
2.1 Torque Of a Force About The Axis Of Rotation

 here F is a force applied to a particle and r is a position vector locating the particle relative to the fixed
w
point.

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2.2 Γ = Iα

The above equation is called ‘torque equation.’

The torque equation is, however, more complex than the force equation. Why?

 hereas force is an absolute value, torque depends on the point about which torque is being
W
calculated.

Mass is an absolute value for a body, whereas MI can have infinite values for a body. MI is defined
only for a particular axis of the body.

 emember the following points about the torque equation: Torque equation can be applied only
R
about two points in a body. These are as follows:

•Centre of mass.

•Point which has zero velocity/acceleration. This point is commonly referred to as the axis of rotation
or instantaneous axis of rotation.

Now, remember that the axis of rotation passes through the point and is perpendicular to the
surface (valid only for two dimensional bodies).

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 2.3 Bodies In Equilibrium
 he conditions of equilibrium for a rigid body are different from that of a particle. Unlike
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particle such as bodies, rigid bodies have a tendency to rotate, therefore, one has to consider
the rotational equilibrium also, in addition to the translational equilibrium.
The equations of equilibrium (in two dimensions) for a rigid body are stated as:

Note that for rotational equilibrium of a rigid body, the net torque about its centre of mass must be zero.

Action of two forces on a particle and a rigid body is shown in figure 1

Figure 1

A particle is in equilibrium under the action of two equal and opposite forces 2.

Figure 2

The body have both translational and rotational equilibrium.

A rigid body may or may not be in equilibrium under the action of two equal and opposite forces.

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 he body is in translational equilibrium but not in rotatinal equilibrium.
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Figures 2.55 and 2.56 show equilibrium of a rigid body under the action of three parallel or concurrent forces.
A rigid body may be in equilibrium under the action of three forces if their lines of action are parallel to each
other.

A rigid body may be in equilibrium under the action of three concurrent forces (concurrent means having a
common point of application).

3.ANGULAR MOMENTUM
3.1 Definition

 here p is the linear momentum and r ́ is the position vector of the particle from the given point O. The
w
angular momentum of a system of particles is the vector sum of the angular momenta of the particles of the
system. Thus,

 uppose a particle P of mass m moves at a velocity v (figure 10.12). Its angular momentum about a point O
S
is,

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3.2 L = Iω
 uppose a particle is going in a circle of radius r and at some instant the speed of the particle is v (figure
S
10.13a). What is the angular momentum of the particle about the axis of the circle?

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3.3 Conversation Of Angular Momentum

For a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis, we can arrive at equation (10.13) in a simpler manner.
We have

Equation (10.13) shows that

If the total external torque on a system is zero, its angular momentum remains constant.

This is known as the principle of conservation of angular momentum.

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 3.4 Angular Impulse
The angular impulse of a torque in a given time interval is defined as

3.5 Kinetic Energy Of a Rigid Body Rotating About a Given Axis

Sometimes it is called rotational kinetic energy. It is not a new kind of kinetic energy as is clear from
the derivation. It is the sum of of all the particles.

3.6 Power Delivered And Work Done By a Torque

Consider a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis on which a torque acts. The torque produces angular
acceleration and the kinetic energy increases. The rate of increase of the kinetic energy equals the rate of
doing work on it, i.e., the power delivered by the torque.

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4. Moment of Inertia

4.1 Definition

We have defined the moment of inertia of a system about a given line as :

I=Σ mᵢrᵢ²

where m is the mass of the ith particle and r; is its perpendicular distance from the given line. If the system
is considered to be a collection of discrete particles, this definition may directly be used to calculate the
moment of inertia.

4.2 Moment of Inertia of Uniform rod about a

perpendicular bisector
If the body is assumed to be continuous, one can use the technique of integration to obtain its moment of
inertia about a given line.

Consider a small element of the body. The element should be so chosen that the perpendiculars from
different points of the element to the given line differ only by infinitesimal amounts. Let its mass be dm and
its perpendicular distance from the given line be r.

Evaluate the product r²dm and integrate it over the appropriate limits to cover the whole body. Thus,
under proper limits.

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We can call r²dm the moment of inertia of the small element. Moment of inertia of the body about the
given line is the sum of the moments of inertia of its constituent elements about the same line.

Consider a uniform rod of mass M and length 7 (figure given) and suppose the moment of inertia is
to be calculated about the bisector AB. Take the origin at the middle point O of the rod. Consider the
element of the rod between a distance x and x + dx from the origin. As the rod is uniform,

Mass per unit length of the rod = M/l

so that the mass of the element = (M/l)dx.

The perpendicular distance of the element from the line

AB is x. The moment of inertia of this element about AB
is

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4.3 Theorem of Parallel Axes

The parallel-axis theorem relates the rotational inertia I of a body about any axis to that of the same
body about a parallel axis through the center of mass:

I = I꜀ₒₘ + Mh²

Here h is the perpendicular distance between the two axes, and Im is the rotational inertia of the body
about the axis through the com. We can describe h as being the distance the actual rotation axis has
been shifted from the rotation axis through the com.

4.4 Theorem of Perpendicular Axes

This theorem is applicable only to the plane bodies. Let X and Y-axes be chosen in the
plane of the body and Z-axis perpendicular to this plane, three axes being mutually
perpendicular. Then the theorem states that

Consider an arbitrary particle

P of the body (figure 10.25).
Let PQ and PR be perpendicular
from P on the X and the Y-axes
respectively. Also, PO is the perpendicular
from P to the Z-axis. Thus, the moment
of inertia of the body about the Z-axis is

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4.5 Radius of Gyration

The radius of gyration k of a body about a given line is defined by the equation

I = Mk²

Where I is its moment of inertia about the given line and M is its total mass. It is the radius of a ring with the
given line as the axis such that if the total mass of the body is distributed on the ring, it will have the same
moment of inertia I. For example, the radius of gyration of a uniform disc of radius r about its axis is r/√2.

4.6 Moment of Inertia of Other Geometrical Figures

The moment of inertia of a rectangular plate about a
line parallel to an edge and passing through the centre

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Moment of inertia of a circular ring about its axis (the line perpendicular to the plane of the ring through its
centre)

Moment of inertia of a uniform circular plate about its axis

Moment of inertia of a hollow cylinder about its axis

Moment of inertia of a uniform solid cylinder about its axis

Moment of inertia of a uniform hollow sphere about a diameter

Moment of inertia of a uniform solid sphere about a diameter

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5. Rolling Motion
5.1 Rolling
Consider a wheel moving along a straight track, the centre of the level moves
forward in pure translation. A point on the rim of the wheel, however, traces
out a complex curve called cycloid. We can analyse the motion of a rolling
wheel as a combination of translation and pure rotation.

dl

In one complete rotation of wheel, the CM of the wheel moves a distance s =

2лR. In this motion there is no relative motion between the point of contact of
the moving body and the surface. If T is the time to complete a rotation, then
we have

Thus in pure rolling, the velocity of the point of the contact is zero and the
velocity of centre of mass is If the wheel moves through a distance
greater than 2лR in one full rotation, then and the wheel
slips forward. This type of motion occurs when you apply sudden brakes to a
car. The car stops after a long distance but the wheels rotate only a little
during the period.
CM

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When the wheel moves a distance shorter than 2лR in full rotation,
and the wheel slips backward. It happens when you drive the car on a muddy road;
the wheel rotates more than the forward motion of the car.

Take a uniform disc of radius R, (say), place it vertically on a smooth horizontal

surface. Spin the disc and simultaneously push it. In consequence, the disc will
rotate with an angular velocity and its centre of mass C moves with a velocity v.
The velocity of the lowest point P of the disc can be given as

The above expression tells us that for different v and , the point P will move with
different speed, For suitable velocities v and , let us assume that P moves with
a velocity which is equal to the velocity of the horizontal surface S, then

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A body in combined motion is said to be rolling over a surface if the surfaces in contact do not slide relative to
each other. It means that the relative velocity between the points of contact is zero.

5.2 Rolling Bodies in Moving Platform

The rolling bodies do not slide on the surface on which they are moving. If they are rolling on a moving platform, the
point of contact of the body with the platform should have the same velocity as the platform

1. If point of contact of the surface is moving with a velocity u with respect to the ground, then

2. For no sliding on the moving platform,

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 3. For accelerated surface,

5.3 Velocity of Point on the Rolling Body

Consider a point P on a rolling body, the velocity of point P is the vector
sum of velocity due to translation and due to rotation. Thus,

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5.4 Kinetic Energy of Rolling Wheel
Let us calculate the kinetic energy of a rolling wheel as measured by the stationary observer.

KE of a rolling wheel = KE associated with the translational motion + KE associated with the
rotational motion

= R

As we know is the moment of inertia of the wheel about the point of

contact , say it is , Thus

From the above relation, we can say a rolling body performs pure relation about point of
contact

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5.5 Rolling as Pure Rotation

For a rolling wheel, . Thus, rolling can be a pure rotation with angular
velocity about an axis that always extends through the point of contact P. It is clear
from Fig. 2.149 that velocity of point P,

5.6 Angular Momentum of Rolling Wheel

Angular momentum of a rolling wheel about an axis passing through the point of contact P and
perpendicular to the plane of wheel:

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Above relation of the angular momentum is the same as the rolling wheel is having rotation about
point of contact

5.7 Rolling of a Body on an Inclined Plane

A rigid body of radius of gyration k and radius R rolls (without slipping) down a plane inclined
at an angle with the horizontal.

When a body is placed on an inclined plane, it tries to slip down and hence a static friction
facts upwards. This friction provides a torque which causes the body to rotate. Let a be the
linear acceleration of centre of mass and a be the angular acceleration of the body.

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From force diagram: For linear motion parallel to the plane,

For rotation around the axis through centre of mass, net torque =

As there is no slipping, the point of contact of the body with the plane is instantaneously at rest.

Solving the following equations for a and f,

We can also derive the condition for pure rolling (rolling without slipping), to avoid slipping,

This is the condition of so that the body rolls without slipping.

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Question

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Question

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Question

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