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Chapter 41 Types and Models of
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B types, itofistheneither
ecause overlapping purposes and elements in various group
possible nor desirable to make a list of group
work models that are presented as rorally different from each other.
For example, educational groups can provide support, and support
groups have therapeutic effects (Garland. 1986). Wasserman and
Danforth (1988), note that "A helping process rhar is not conceptual­
ized as lh~rapeutic may be just as therapeutic, if not more so, than one
that is. This may he the case of support group vis-a-vis the therapy
group (p. 66).According to Toseland and Rivas (2001),"rherapy groups
help members change their behavior, cope with or ameliorate their
personal problems, or rehabilitate themselves after physical, psycho­
logical, or social trauma" (p. 26).Although these authors go on to point
to the remedial and rehabilitative focus of therapy groups, each of the
purposes they describe could be attributed to educational and sup­
port groups as well.
Given their overlapping dements, it is helpful to conceptualize
groups as if they were viewed under a floodlight rather than a spot­
light.A spotlight lights up an area with a clearly delineated boundary.
There is nothing to see or consider in the surrounding darkness. A
fJoodlight provides a major fOCllS, hut allows one to see it within the
framework of the dimmer peripheral area. Students often err by men­
tally spotlighting a group rype and losing sight of related though not
central factors to be considered. They may also err in the other direc­
tion and lose sight of the major purpose.The resulting practice may be
either too rigid or lacking in focus.
Following are four hypothetical situations presented by hypotheti­
cal students that represent the kinds of group situations actual stu­
dents present to classroom and field instructors, and which contain
34 Group Work Education in the Fjeld Group Work Practice Types 35

elements of common dilemmas.An understanding of the range of group Each of these students is describing a dilemma in a different kind
types and models and the similarities and differences among them of social work group, each with its own purpose, and recognizes that
would help actual students answer their own questions. The first situ­ their interventions must relate to the type of group their members
ation is presented by a student we'll call jeannie, who explains: have agreed or will agree to form. All groups should operate within a
working agreement that sets the stage for member expectations and
I run a support group for elderly widows who have lost an
worker interventions.
adult child. At the last meeting, one of the women suggested
that the group celebrate birthdays with cake and coffee. The jeannie needs to recognize the celebration of birthdays as a con­
members seem to like the idea, burl feel uncomfortable. They structive step towards healing the wounds ofloss.Tom needs to listen
can go to the community center for their social lives. I'm sup­ to what the parents are saying to each other and to find the seeds of a
posed to be helping them grieve their losses, not joining them curriculum that has more meaning to them than the articles he wishes
in birthday parties.What is the best way to explain this to them? they would read. Francine is in danger of overlooking the group's ma­
jor purpose and needs to help the members work on their agreed upon
Tom presents the following problem: task, planning the holiday party. She could offer the committee mem­
I'm placed in a junior high school and run a parenting skills bers a different group opportunity for mutual support around their
group for parents of acting-out teen-teenagers. My co-leader illness. jim needs to know that there are other group work options for
and I don't think the parents are really motivated to learn new the work he wishes to do besides trying to get members to attend a
ways to handle their children. They come regularly, bur never group meeting at a time he has chosen, to address a topic he believes
read the articles we give them. They seem to want to spend is in their best interests to discuss.
their time together trading family war stories. How can we keep
them focused on the material we need to cover? The articles Defining Group Types
could really help them.
When classroom teachers ask students to describe the kinds of
Francine talks about working with a holiday party planning commit· groups they have been assigned in the field, their responses will usu­
tee of an association for diabetics. The committee members are them­ ally reflect a wide range of ways to categorize groups. They might
selves diabetic, and Francine says: mention a support group for single mothers, a mandatory group for
They have begun to use committee meetings to discuss the drunk drivers, a single session group for newly diagnosed cancer pa­
stresses and anxieties of their disease. It's so good to see them tients, or an after-school activity group for eight-year-olds. As in the
use each other in this way that I hate to interrupt them even examples given, group types can be described according to many dif­
though they almost don't get to plan for the party, and we are ferent dimensions. These include group purpose (support), how the
behind schedule. I'm not sure what I should do. group was formed (mandatory), group structure (single session), or
group content (activities). These dimensions overlap with each other,
jim teUs his frustrating story:
so that groups with the same purpose can differ in many ways. They
The doctors in the hospital where I am placed have asked the may be long- or short-term, and have open-ended or closed member­
social workers to help get the hypertension patients to take ship. They may rely primarily on dialogue or include activities as a
their medications in spite of their unpleasant side effects. My medium for expression, communication, and personal development.
field instructor has assigned me to organize a support group In spite of all these possible variations, certain defining character­
in order for the patients to encourage each other to take bet­ istics must be present in order for work with groups to be considered
ter care of themselves. I just can't seem to get the group started. social work with groups. One of these is the worker's focus on help­
I've posted notices all over the hospital, sent letters to the pro­ ing members to meet each other's "human needs through democratic
spective members and asked doctors and nurses to urge their group processes" (Falk, 1995, p. 69). Social work with groups also re­
patients to attend. Still, not one person showed up for the first quires the development of a common goal and purpose that integrates
meeting last Wednesday evening. These patients haven't asked the personal goals of each member and the professional goals of the
to meet around their disease, but that's what I'm expected to worker (Pappell & Rothman, 1980).The group worker is not the group
get them to do. I don't know what to do next.
36 Group Wbrk Education in the Field Group Work Practice Types 37

leader, but instead seeks to promote members' autonomy and inde­ tate the learning of new information, behaviors, and relationship skills
pendence through support of positive indigenous leadership as it (Kuechler, 1997), Other examples include groups on caretaking, learn­
emerges through group development processes,These principles stem ing to cope with and manage an illness, or overcoming an addiction.
from the historical roots of this social work method that developed There are important differences between an educational group that
from a democratic movement.They must be present in all of the group is part of social group work and other kinds of educational groups,
types and formats discussed in this chapter, wbether they are described The latter may focus primarily on providing new knowledge to mem­
by purpose, formation process, structure, or content. bers, while social work educational groups also attend to the psychoso­
cial factors that influence how that information will be received,internal­
Groups Defined by Purpose ized, and put to use, Social work educational groups are called for when
the nature of the new information brings questions, anxieties, and con­
Group work theorists categorize group purposes in many differ­
cerns that need to be addressed for the new knowledge to be useful and
ent ways. For example, Toseland and Rivas (1998) define groups as
valuable, These groups require workers with both teaching and social
being either for treatment or task purposes. They consider treatment
group work skills,The student must help participants move beyond their
as the broad category in which all other personal growth groups fall.
roles as learners into the roles of group members engaged in mutual aid,
In contrast, this book considers personal growth, rather than treat­
Educational groups become social work groups "when the aim of. .. [the I
ment as an overarching category, largely because of its health and
activity is to assist clients to teach each other (Falk, 1995, p. 69).
strengths perspective. Such an approach reflects the heritage of social
Students may feel comforted and supported by going into a group
group work, and its contribution to the social work profession.
with a prepared structure or curriculum, like Tom and his co-leader.
Though students must be helped to understand the differences
However. they must be encouraged not to become so conlmitted to
between groups that are designed for personal growth and those de­
covering material. that they overlook the importance of uncovering
signed for task achievement, they must also recognize that to some
material For example, a father in this group may quickly learn that the
extent, this is a false dichotomy. Growth groups may inclnde tasks, aud
experts do not believe in corporal punishment as a response to an
successful task achievement certainly promotes individual growth and
acting-out child. The student, however, must then recognize that al­
development. Pappell and Rothman (1962), in their discussion of the
though this father may readily give sincere verbal agreement to this
social goals model (i.e., groups organized for affecting social change)
notion, it will probably be difficult for him to implement the new ap­
refer to the underlying assumption that there is a unity between social
proach when he is flooded with angry emotions evoked by his child's
action and individual psychological health. They point to the thera­
provocative behaVior. A worker in Tom's situation must help the par­
peutic and growth promoting implications of social participation.
ents to deal with the challenges and potential conflicts the new infor­
Nevertheless, as students consider the direction of their interventions,
mation or new perspectives produce, and help them feel safe enough
it remains helpful to distinguish between groups designed primarily
within the group to express feelings that they are not supposed to
for personal growth and those designed to complete a task.
have. Tom's acceptance of these in a nonjudgmental manner can help
Personal growth groups vary in their degree of emphasis on edu­
the parents face and hopefully modify their feelings and inclinations
cation, support, therapy/treatment and socialization. Task groups in­
towards less effective parental responses.
clude agency or community committees, boards of directors, staff
Any form of structure a student brings into the group must have a
meetings, and other work groups.
liberating rather than constricting effect on group processes. Struc­
ture can liberate by providing a focus, direction, and channel for the
Educational Groups group's energy. However, in instances such as the one Tom and his co­
The purpose of social work edncational groups is to help mem­ leader faced, students must be prepared to let go of their curriculum
bers gain new knowledge that will influence their psychosocial func­ structure as they receive direct or indirect cues about what the group
tioning. These groups are characterized as having a specific focus and members consider their most immediate concerns to be. Any form of
addressing specific content areas, like Tom's group on parenting skills. social work must start where the client is, even if that place is not
They are generally time-limited, informative, and structured to facHi- where the curriculum assumes they must be.
38 Group Work Education in the Field Group Work Practice Types 39

SuppOrt Groups pleasures, and problems. It is this broad purpose and use of content,
as well as general informality that distinguishes this type of group from
The purpose of support groups is to help members relieve stress
those that are focused on helping members improve a specific area of
and deVelop constructive behaviors to deal with difficult situations.
functioning. Its usual lack of a presenting problem further distinguishes
They are not designed to cure mental illness or bring about overall
this type of group work from most work with individuals.
personalily change. Support groups are composed of people who share
Opportunities for socialization are Omnipresent with natural groups
a similar set of challenging circumstances and who could help each
in their daily living environment, whether in a residential or commu­
other through an exchange of their experiences, ideas, and feelings
nity setting.When possible, it may be more effective for the student to
(Wasserman & Danforth, 1988). Such circumstances could include
find rather than form such groups (see section on natural groups).
dealing with loss, as was the issue in Jeannie's group, living with a
chronic illness as in Jim's proposed group, or membership in a popula­
Therapy Groups
tion suffering from discrimination because of ethnicity, race, physical dis­
ability, Or sexual orientation. Members of support groups who demon­ The purpose of a therapy group is to bring about personal changes
strate personality or emotional problems that severely limit the helpful­ in the behavior, cognition or affect of its members. Barker (1987) de­
ness of the support may need to be referred to a different kind of group. fines therapy as "a systematic process and activity designed to remedy,
On a cognitive-affective continuum, support groups are closer to cure, or abate some disease, disability, or problem" (p. 164). Therapy
the affective realm than educational groups. However, there is great groups focus on the personal problems of group members, as com­
overlap in these groups (Garland, 1986), and they are not distinctly pared to support groups that focus on helping them to cope with the
different than each other. The best educational groups help members difficult circumstances they share. Despite the focus on individual
support each other as they learn. The best support groups will usually personal problems, students must help members identify the connect­
provide some information about the problem that members share and ing threads that create opportunities for members to be helpful to
for which they seek to deVelop coping behaViors. each other in some way.
There are as many types of therapy groups as there are theories of
Socialization Groups therapeutic approaches.As with one-to-one work, each of these theories
has implications for the structure and focus of therapeutic interventions.
The purpose of socialization groups is to help members deVelop
attitudes and behaviors that will help them contribute to and receive
Task-oriented Groups
satisfaction from participation in daily community life. Such groups
could be composed of children or youths being helped to deVelop age Task-oriented groups are those designed for the achievement of a
appropriate social competencies such as dealing with complex emo­ goal outside of the group that affects a broader constituency than the
tions, managing interpersonal conflict, and learning to share, create, group members themselves. Its "overriding purpose is to accomplish a
and make decisions with others. The student who described her as­ goal that is neither intrinsically nor immediately linked to the needs of
signment as an after-school activity group may have been describing a the members of the group" (Toseland & Rivas,2001,p. 15),ln task groups,
group for these purposes. assessments of individuals and group processes are made in relation to
Socialization groups can be helpful for any population that would achievement of the group's task.Any resulting personal growth of mem­
benefit from a new view of their social selves. This includes isolated bers is viewed as a by-product of the group's major purpose.
mothers who need to develop the necessary skills to become part of a Francine's holiday party planning committee was established as a
supportive social network (Wayne, 1979), or elderly people who may task-oriented group. Hopefully, the working agreement articulated her
be in need of resocialization into the changing social and family roles responsibility to help the members plan a successful party,When they
that come in later years (Hartford & Lawton, 1997). drifted into using the committee as a support group for personal is­
Socialization groups usually seek to create group situations that sues, it would be Francine's job to help them remain focused on their
mirror daily life events. Ordinary life experiences include recreational task. It would not have been in their or anyone's interest to produce a
and work-oriented activities (see section on activity groups) and in­ poorly planned holiday party. Francine could create support group
formal discussion of members' recent and past experiences, interests, opportunities for the committee members at another point.They could
4f) Group W01-k Education i1'l tbe Field Gnnip Work Practice Types 41

agree to remain after comolittee meetings to resume their more per­ Natural Groups
sonal discussions, or come together as a support group after the party
had occurred. Natural groups refer to those that form without professional inter­
Task-oriented groups frequently follow formalized rules for dis­ vention. They exist in residential as well as community settings and
cussion and decision making. Members are chosen for their potential are there to be found rather than formed by the professionals who
contribution as individuals or representatives to the task at hand. A wish to work with them (Frey, 1966). Natural groups offer special op­
student may assume a direct leadership role in such a group, or may portunities for social work practice. The level of communication and
serve as a staff person and consultant to a group chaired by a layperson. accessibility to feelings that workers try to foster in formed groups
In these instances, the student can provide direct feedback to the group often occur spontaneously amongst people who have come together
from his/her assigned role, or can confer with the chair outside of meet­ naturally, and who have been together for a period of time. Ironically,
ings, to help him/her keep the group directed towards its agreed upon in both residential and community settings, it is often paraprofessional
purpose. In either case, it is the student as social group worker who brings direct practice workers rather than professional social workers who
knowledge and skill about group work practice to the group experience. have opportunities to intervene in such circumstances.
Although task-group membership does not entail sharing personal Work with natural groups is as challenging as with formed groups.
and intimate material, the socia-emotive factors of personal and inter· The student should not assume that the existing relationships amongst
personal feelings amongst members still affect group processes. group members are conflict-free or necessarily built on trust and af­
Whether for political, personal, or other reasons, subgroups and alli­ fection. There are times when the student as the new member of the
ances develop, and these may have either a positive or negative effect group may have to help members unlearn their less effective ways of
on successful completion of the task. relating and communicating with each other.
The most common error students make in their work with task There are many opportunities for students in different settings to
groups IS to overlook these socia-emotive factors, and to proceed as if reach out to naturally grouped target populations. These include com­
all that occurred in the group were based on objective thought, with­ mon living areas where people in residential settings spend their un­
out the influence of personal feelings. Professional social workers some­ structured time, community center drop-in lounges, and high school
times overlook the fact that the same skilled professionalism required cafeterias. In the community, natural groups can be found in play­
for work with personal growth groups is necessary for task groups as grounds, on neighborhood street corners, shopping malls, and fast­
wel1. Ephross and Vassil (988) assert that "a steadily increasing con­ food restaurants. Adolescents, who may be difficult to engage within
cern with gaining skills in group methods in treatment... has not been an agency setting, may respond positively to the social work student
accompanied by corresponding attention to working groups" (p. 7). It who reaches out to them in such places (Bass, 1995).
is the ability to assess the group dynamics and to intervene purpose­ Students may feel awkward reaching out to natural groups as the
fully, informed by knowledge of group work practice, and directed by new and usually uninvited members. They must be as honest and clear
the values of the profession that separates the social group worker about their purpose and function as they would be in a more tradi­
from the lay chairperson, and which makes task groups a model of tional, formed group. This may be more difficult to do away from the
social group work practice. security of an office and a presenting problem focus. This is not social
work practice as usual, and requires a different perspective of profes­
Groups Defined by the Formation Process sional self than in the more traditional therapeutic hour. Chapter 7
elaborates on how to help students develop skills for engaging groups
AIJ groups can be categorized as either natural or formed. Natural in natural, unstructured situations.
groups are those in which people come together either because of Social group work has its roots in working with natural groups,
geographic proximity, shared interests or goals, shared circumstances, and the profession's movement away from prevention and educa­
or family ties. Most students,however, are assigned to work with groups tion has resulted in doing so less frequently than before. Students
that are formed by professionals for a particular purpose. Formed should be helped to recognize when this approach may be the most
groups may be composed of voluntary or mandated members. effective.
42 Group Wbrk Educatiou iu the Field Group Work Practice Types 43

Formed Groups the patients became so invested in the group experience that instead
of leaving the hospital after seeing the doctor, they rejoined the other
Students will be assigned either to work with groups that have members for the remainder of the meeting.
already been formed by another professional, or like Jim be asked to By broadening his concept of how groups could be brought to­
form a group themselves. Though students may sometimes not recog­ gether, Jim could create structures through which people in shared,
nize it as such, forming a group is as much a part of group work prac­ stressful circumstances could help each other.
tice as is the work done at any meeting. While chapter 7 will elaborate Voluntary Membership. All of the groups discussed so far in this
on group formation skills, this section will describe the characteris­ chapter have been composed of people who chose to be group mem­
tics of formed groups. bers.They may have been recruited from direct contact, through refer­
Formed groups may be composed of members who are there by rals from their colleagues, or from public notices about the group be­
choice or because they must attend in order to avoid some negative ing formed.
consequence. The negative consequence could be an angry spouse, a Even voluntary group members can be expected to have some
legal consequence, or some other consequence. Whether composed ambivalence and feelings of caution (Garland,Jones, & Kolodny, 1976).
of voluntary, semivoluntary, or mandated members, all formed groups This is especially true for the semi-volunteer who is there because of
share certain commonalities. some external pressure.The person who is there at the insistence of a
Members of formed groups must be helped to understand why spouse is one such example. Even the most self-motivated members
they have been asked to come together and what they stand to gain benefit from professional skills aimed at helping them become invested
from the experience. They need to know what will be expected of in the group experience. Each of the formed groups described in this
them, and what it is that they can expect from the worker and from chapter was helped to reach the point where work with natural groups
each other. They must be helped to define their common purpose, and may begin. It is natural for friends to celebrate milestones such as birth­
to identify their personal goals within the framework of that broader days with each other, as in Jeannie's support group. It represents
purpose. The student must explain his/her function in helping them progress when acquaintances want to know more about each other's
to achieve the goals they have established. The understanding and ac­ lives, as in Tom's parenting group. Jt is a sign of connection when nlenl­
ceptance of a shared purpose serves as the foundation for each person's bers turn to each other for support around their vulnerabilities, as in
progression from a solitary individual to a member of a group that will Francine's planning group, and ultimately in Jim's group. The mem­
function as a mutual aid social system. bers entered the group with the hope and expectation that they could
Drawing again on Jim's unsuccessful attempts to organize a hyper­ benefit from the experience.They remained in the group because their
tension support group through traditional approaches, let's assume expectations were being met.
he would then be advised by the department's group work consultant Mandatory Membership. Mandatory groups are those that mem­
to reconceptualize his notion of formed groups and to integrate as­ bers must attend in order to avoid a nlost undesirable alternative, usu·
pects of the approach to natural groups. On the day the clinic saw ally a legal consequence. This could be a prison sentence for a drunk
hypertension patients, Jim would enter the waiting room, set down driving offense, or the removal of a child from the home because of
the refreshments he had brought, and introduce himself as a social parental abuse or neglect. It is common for students to feel awkward
work intern. He would tell the patients that he knew how stressful and intrusive when faced with such a seemingly resistant and frequently
waiting to see the doctor could be, and joke that the wait itself could hostile membership. The student should remember and should point
raise a person's blood pressure. A worker in this situation would ex­ oUl to the members that at some level they have chosen to attend, and
press hope that he could assist them in helping each other deal with in all likelihood, would like to acquire behaviors that would remove
the long wait, the feelings it was likely to evoke, and other issues re­ the threat of the negative consequences they joined the group to avoid.
lated to their hypertension. Such an approach would help the pa­ Students can help members engage in the group process by en­
tients-strangers to each other-draw themselves into discussion with couraging discussion of their feelings about being forced to attend
him about their feelings in the waiting room, their medical protocols, and their feelings about not needing the group. The very reasons for
and the related issues that Jim had hoped they would discuss as a their resistance may lead to the core of their problem. It can prove
group. In an actual waiting room group described by a student in class, most helpful to work with the resistance, rather than fighting or ig­
44 Group In:,,.k Edrtcation in the Field Gmup Work Practice Types 45

noring it (Shulman, 1999). Students should point out that the reluc­ the group's social structure and locating where they were most com­
tant members still have the choice of how they will spend the time fortable with the group's range of behavioral norms. On another level,
within group meetings.Trimble (1994) tells his mandated male batterers the members may have been testing Tom's ability to let them control
that though they would rather not be in the group, once there, "no their own group. If Tom were to insist that the members stick to the
one can reach into your mind and heart and order a change. That's agenda he had developed, he might fail the test, and eventually lose
where you have complete control" (p. 262). Mandated members can members. He would not be the first professional in these circumstances
recognize this as empowerment, and the potential power struggles to conclude that the members were indeed unmotivated and hard to
between members and worker can be eased. reach, rather than recognizing that he was the one who found it hard
to listen.An understanding of group development could foster a more
Groups Defined by Structure successfuloutcome.
The cohesion that is fostered by the membership stability of closed
Groups may often be defined by some aspect of the way they are
groups also creates an environment in which taboo subjects can be
structured. This section will discuss three commonly used structural
explored in greater depth than in groups with changing membership.
descriptions of group types. These are closed groups, open-ended
The student needs to build on the trust and acceptance that can de­
groups, and single session groups.
velop within a stable group to create a culture of open expression and
mutual support. Closed groups are more likely to reach this point than
Closed Groups those that have to deal with the disruption of memhers entering and
Closed groups are those in which most members begin and end at leaving from meeting to meeting.
the same time. Some groups have natural, predetermined time bound­
aries. Francine's holiday party planning committee could disband or Open-ended Groups
change its purpose after the party occurred. Groups in school settings
These are groups that may meet indefinitely, but with a changing
usually terminate at the conclusion of the school year. In other cir­
membership. People enter and leave throughout the life of the group.
cumstances, groups may be scheduled for a certain number of ses­
The hypertension waiting room group was open-ended. Membership
sions in the belief that goals can reasonably be met in that time.
changed as new patients began to use the clinic and other patients
An understanding of group development theory is critical for as­
were seen with decreasing frequency.
sessment and subsequent intervention in closed groups.A student must
The benefits of open-ended groups include the often welcome
appreciate that the same piece of behavior exhibited by a member at
stimulation that comes from the entry of new members. Reviewing
the first meeting may have a different meaning at the seventh meeting,
the group's purpose for the new members helps the others to main­
and may call for a different intervention. Knowledge of group devel­
tain a focus on the reason they are together. Continuing members can
opment can also help a student depersonalize and even appreciate
serve as culture bearers and guide new individuals into membership
the normally difficult phases in the life of a group. For example, a com­
more quickly than it took the original individuals to become a group.
parison of developmental theories (Toseland & Rivas, 2001) reveals
As recognized earlier, the disadvantages of this kind of group in­
the widespread observation that relatively early in the life of the group,
clude greater difficulty in helping members develop trust and intimacy
members will compete for status and influence, and will engage in
with each other, and the loss of continuity of the issues being dis­
some degree of testing behavior towards each other and towards the
cussed. In open-ended groups, the group development momentum
worker. If students know this, they will welcome this phenomenon as
referred to in the discussion of closed groups may be present (Schopler
a sign of the group's progress rather than believe this represents the
& Galinsky, 1984). but may be less powerful.
loss of their ability to control the group.
Agencies may sometimes establish open-ended groups more be­
Tom's group may well have been in a testing stage. He was begin­
cause of financial reasons than for benefits to members. The availabil­
ning to feel some frustration and irritation because the parents were
ity of an ongoing group to which clients can be quickly referred is an
not reading the assigned articles, and were not addressing the curricu­
advantage for an agency dependent on funds from a managed care
lum he had developed. On one level, these parents were following
arrangement. In addition, the possibility of a short-term membership
their own agenda of interest in each other, finding their places within
46 Gml/p Work Edl/cation in the Field Gml/p Work Practice Types 47

group experience may be the only option for people whose insurance Activity Groups
coverage is only for a few sessions. Unfortunately, this may cause some
Activities serve to promote interaction, creativity, and to develop
members to terminate before they have reached the goals they had set
feelings of personal mastery. Middleman and Wood (1990) say of activ­
for themselves.
ity that it
Single-session Groups is the driving force for whatever words are exchanged. The talk
arises from the action, is about the action, and is mediated by
Single-session groups are those that meet once for a specific, well­
it ... some persons know what to do with each other as long as they
defined purpose. They are being increasingly used, especially in medi­ are busy with play. with a project, or even with chores. (p. 135)
cal settings where people with a shared medical crisis can "air com­
plaints, express fears, share information and get support" (Ebenstein, Activity groups are particularly effective with children and other
1999, p. 49). However, single-session groups can be helpful in many populations whose verbal abilities are not well developed. They may
situations; for instance, Gladstone and Reynolds (1997) describe their also serve as an effective starting point for work with people who are
use to deal with stress reduction in the workplace. not yet ready to directly address the painful and possibly to them,
This kind of group can be intense and meaningful in itself, and shameful, problems they face. For such people, it may be easier to
also can provide valuable recruitment opportunities for longer-term start a relationship around pleasurable experiences rather than focus­
groups. If the members find the single meeting helpful, they may be ing on hurts and deficits.
motivated to enter into a continuing group experience. The student Activities are frequently central to socialization groups which aim
could even engage members in planning for such a group. Jim could to help members attain higher levels of social functioning. The activi­
have experimented with a single session hypertension information ties can convert the group into a microcosm of daily Iife.As such, they
group as a way to find members for the group he was trying to proVide opportunities for engaging people in the group process, and
organize. helping them express and understand the aspects of themselves that
emerge in the course of natural human interaction. Finally, activities
Groups Defined by Content offer pleasurable ways to grow and develop.

Many group workers have been asked if their groups were "activ­ Conclusion
ity," or "discussion," or even "activity," or "therapy." Both of these are
false dichotomies, since activity groups are not silent, and dialogue is Field instructors must help students to understand the many ways
not the only path to therapy. This section will examine major aspects groups can be formulated, and the implications of these for the group's
of groups described as either discussion groups or activity groups. working agreement and the group worker's practice interventions. Such
an understanding provides both gUidelines and options for effective
Discussion Groups practice. Too often, we hear it said that a certain person is not suited
for a group. That cannot be, since all of life occurs with other people.
Socia) work education includes content on communication in gen­ The challenge to students is to determine which kinds of groups can
eral, and the interview process in particular. The special dimension of be most helpful to the people they seek to serve.
communication in groups, however, is the need to focus on helping
the members to communicate with each other. It is common for mem­ References
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