Topic 4. Reasoning Inferences
Topic 4. Reasoning Inferences
INFERENCE
REASONING
third mental phase or act of the mind
it is the mental operation wherein the mind
infers a new truth drawn out from previous
judgment.
INFERENCE
a process of drawing a consequent
(conclusion) from an antecedent or a
combination of antecedents (premises)
reasoning process
.All left-handed people are honest.
. Christian is left-handed.
. Therefore, Christian is honest.
PREMISE 1
PREMISE 2 (MIDDLE TERM)
CONCLUSION
REVIEW!
INDUCTIVE REASONING
SPECIFIC Specific Premises – General Conclusion
1. Alakdan is a Filipino.
2. Maria is a Filipino.
SPECIFIC 3. Alakdan and Maria are also Asians
Therefore, all Filipinos are Asian.
GENERAL
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
General Premises – Specific Conclusion GENERAL
1. Board passers are professionals
2. But nurses are professionals
Therefore, nurses are professionals. SPECIFIC
1. All men are mortal
2. But, Juan is a man
Therefore, Juan is mortal. SPECIFIC
REASONING SCHEME
REASONING
DEDUCTIVE INDUCTIVE
INDUCTIVE
IMMEDIATE MEDIATE GENERALIZATIONS
PREDICTION OR PROBABILITY
LOGICAL
SYLLOGISMS
OPPOSITION
IMMEDIATE
INFERENCE
IMMEDIATE INFERENCE
draws the conclusion from only one proposition.
pass directly from a single premise to a conclusion
PROCESS:
✓ there are only the subject term and predicate term
✓ no middle term
EXAMPLES:
1. All sins are evil acts.
Therefore, all evil acts are sins.
FOCUS:
▪ opposition or relation existing between
A, E, I and O propositions.
CONTRARY
PROPOSITIONS
✓ A vs. E
SUB-CONTRARY
PROPOSITIONS
✓ I vs. O
SUB-ALTERN
PROPOSITIONS
✓ E vs. O
✓ A vs. I
CONTRADICTORY PROPOSITIONS
✓ A vs. O
✓ E vs. I
LAW OF CONTRARY
It is the opposition between (A) and (E) propositions.
CANNOT BE BOTH TRUE.
RULES:
• If one is true, the other is false.
• If one is false, the other is unknown.
(A)All men are mortals. – TRUE ▪ If (A) is true, (E) is false.
(E) No men are mortals. – ______ ▪ If (E) is true, (A) is false.
▪ If (A) is false, (E) is unknown.
(A) All men are angels. – FALSE ▪ If (E) is false, (A) is unknown.
(E) No men are angels. – ______
(E) No men are angels. – TRUE
(A)All men are angels. – ______
(E) No men are mortals. – FALSE
(A) All men are angels. – ______
LAW OF SUB-CONTRARY
It is the opposition between (I) and (O) propositions.
RULES:
• If one is true, the other is unknown.
• If one is false, the other is true.
(I) Some animals are mammals. – TRUE
(O) Some animals are not mammals. – _______
(I) Some animals are flowers. – FALSE
(O) Some animals are not flowers. – _______
(O) Some animals are not mammals. – TRUE
(I) Some animals are mammals. – _______
(O) Some mammals are not animals. – FALSE
(I) Some mammals are animals. – _______
LAW OF CONTRADICTORY
It is the opposition between (A) and (O) propositions & (E)
and (I) propositions.
RULES:
• If the universal proposition is true, the particular
proposition is true.
• If the universal proposition is false, the particular
proposition is unknown.
• If the particular proposition is false, the universal
proposition is false.
• If the particular proposition is true, the universal
proposition is unknown.
SUMMARY
OPPOSITIONS
INFERENCES IF TRUE IF FALSE
BETWEEN
CONTRARY A vs. E False Unknown
CONTRADICTORY A vs. O
False True
E vs. I
Unknown True
CONVERSION
CONVERSION
a form of immediate inference in which the subject and
predicate of a given proposition are transposed without
changing the quality and truth of the proposition
CONVERTEND – old proposition
CONVERSE – new converted proposition
CONVERSION IS LIMITED ONLY TO:
✓ A proposition to I proposition
✓ E proposition to O proposition
RULES:
1. The convertend must be in logical form or reduced to logical
form.
2. The quality and truth of the convertend must be preserved.
3. No term shall be distributed in the converse unless it is
distributed in the convertend. If a term is uses only as
particular in the convertend, it should not be used as
universal in the converse.
TYPES OF CONVERSION
1. SIMPLE CONVERSION- the subject and predicate terms
are interchanged except for its quantity. EXAMPLES:
All dogs are mammals ➔ Mammals are all dogs.
Some IT students are male. ➔ Some male are IT students.
No man is an animal. ➔ No animal is a man.
RULES:
1.Retained the subject of the obvertend
2.Change the quality of the obvertend.
3.Retain the quantity
4.Contradict the predicate of overtend by giving the
negative form of the original predicate or prefixing it by
“non”
Example:
A–E All S is P OBVERTEND
E–A No S is non-P OBVERSE
I–O Some S is P OBVERTEND
O–I Some S is non-P OBVERSE
1. Most businessmen in the Philippines are
Chinese.
2. Some members of the Philippine Azkals are
foreigners.
3. No fish are mammals
4. All language teachers are expert in grammar.
5. All celebrities are not good singers.
POSSIBILITY AND
ACTUALITY
POSSIBILITY
– it signifies a perfection not as yet possessed or realized. It refers to
condition, situation, or state of being that does not yet exist but can exist.