Protective Coatings Manual

PROTECTIVE
COATINGS
MANUAL
June 2001
Active List of Contents (click on titles) TRAINING
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Reasons for painting
1.2 Key factors for using paint
2. CONSTITUENTS, PRODUCTION AND CONTROL

2.1 Constituents
2.1.1 Binders
2.1.2 Solvents
2.1.3 Pigments
2.1.4 Extenders
2.1.5 Additives
2.2 Production
2.2.1 Premix
2.2.2 Dispersion (Grinding)
2.2.3 Final mix
2.3 Control
3. CLASSIFICATION AND PROPERTIES OF PAINT

3.1 Some basic chemistry
3.2 Classification
3.2.1 Physically drying
3.2.1.1 Solvent-borne paints
3.2.1.2 Water-borne paints
3.2.2 Chemically curing
3.2.2.1 Oxidative curing
3.2.2.2 Two-component curing
3.2.2.3 Other curing mechanisms
3.3 Classification Diagram
3.4 Properties of Individual Binder Types
3.4.1.2 Waterborne paints
3.4.2.3 Other Film-forming Mechanisms
4. PAINTS FOR PURPOSES

4.1 Anticorrosives
4.1.1 Corrosion
4.1.1.1 Corrosion in humid environments
4.1.1.2 Corrosion in acidic environments
4.1.1.3 Galvanic corrosion
Contents TRAINING
4.1.2 Anticorrosives
4.1.2.1 Barrier effect
4.1.2.2 Inhibitor effect
4.1.2.3 Galvanic effect
4.2 Shopprimers/Holding Primers
4.2.1 Shopprimers
4.2.2 Holding Primers
4.2.3 Blast Primers
4.3 Antifoulings
4.3.1 Fouling
4.3.2 Antifouling
4.4 Coating Concrete
4.4.1 What is concrete?
4.4.2 Deterioration of concrete
4.4.3 Concrete as a substrate
4.4.4 Surface preparation of concrete
4.4.5 Coatings for concrete
4.4.6 Constructions
5. SURFACE PREPARATION
5.1 Background
5.2 Contaminants
5.3 Cleaning Processes
5.3.1 Abrasive blasting
5.3.2 Manual and Power Tool Cleaning
5.4 Surface Preparation Standards
5.5 Preparation of other Metals than Steel
6. PAINT APPLICATION
6.1 Planning
6.2 Working conditions
6.3 Microclimate
6.4 Application methods
6.5 Workmanship
7. PRODUCT DATA SHEETS
8. PAINTING SPECIFICATIONS
8.1 Selection of Coatings System
8.1.1 Primary Requirements
8.1.2 Secondary Requirements
8.1.3 Feasibility
8.2 Inspection and Documentation
8.3 Cost
8.4 Allocation of Responsibilities
8.5 The Working Specification
Contents TRAINING
9. PAINT COATING INSPECTION

9.1 Levels of Inspection
9.2 Duties of the Inspector
9.2.1 Before surface preparation
9.2.2 During surface preparation
9.2.3 Before paint application
9.2.4 During paint application
9.2.5 After paint application
9.3 Inspection Equipment
9.4 Records, Reports and Documentation
10. MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR

10.1 Evaluation of Existing Coatings System
10.2 Surface Preparation
10.3 Maintenance Systems
TRAINING
1. Introduction
1.1 Reasons for painting
Based on available figures, a rough estimate suggests that some 30 million tons of
paint is produced in the world every year.
What is all this paint used for? What is the purpose? Why do we paint?
A number of more or less obvious reasons can easily be listed, for instance:
Decoration
Identification
Warning
Camouflage
Safety
Image
Ease of cleaning and decontamination
However, the primary function of the major part of paint produced today is protection.
Paint protects:
Steel against Corrosion

Wood - Rot and weathering
Ship bottoms - Fouling
Commodities - Contamination
(eg in tanks) (eg from steel or corrosion products)
Concrete - Carbonation
Ship decks - Abrasion
The list is not complete, but it does give the major areas where paint would be the first
and often the only practical choice for economical protection.
1.2 Key factors for using paint
Paint protects by creating a thin film between a substrate and environment.
The effective lifetime of a protective coating system depends on a number of factors

few of which actually have to do with the paint as such.
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These factors are:
The substrate (eg steel, concrete)

The environment
The surface preparation (the most important single factor)
The quality of the paint
The application
The thickness of the paint
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2. Constituents, Production and Control
2.1 Constituents
Paint is a liquid material. It consists of a medium (vehicle) which is the actual liquid
part of the paint, pigments and extenders (small insoluble particles dispersed in the
medium); plus various additives (in minor amounts).
Some 500 different raw materials are used in the production of Hempel’s paints.
2.1.1 Binders
The binder, or resin, forms the non-volatile part of a paint's medium; it ensures
adhesion to the substrate and cohesion within the paint film.
Film formation, the manner in which a paint changes from its liquid to its solid
state, is determined by the binder.
2.1.2 Solvents
Solvents serve to liquefy the binder, facilitating production and application of

the paint. They form the volatile part of a paint's medium, and evaporate during
application and film formation.
The choice of solvents influences among others a paint's application proper-

ties and drying time, and is determining its flash point.
2.1.3 Pigments
Pigments give the paint colour and opacity (hiding power), ie hide the under-
lying surface, they are present as solid particles in the dried/cured paint film.
Of particular interest are those pigments that prevent or retard corrosion; and
the bio-active pigments used in antifouling paints.
2.1.4 Extenders (fillers)
Sometimes referred to as non-hiding pigments, the extenders not only serve to

reduce the cost of certain paints; but correctly chosen, they can eg add to the
mechanical strength of a paint film and/or improve the application properties
of the paint. Extenders add to the non-volatile part of a paint.
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2.1.5 Additives
Some additives are used to ensure a better and safer production; others to
ensure shelf life, reduce drying time, prevent runs (sags), or in other ways
enhance desired properties.
2.2 Production
Quality paints are produced in accordance with detailed, tested and proven formulas.
2.2.1 Premix
To start production, part of the binder(s) and solvents, all the pigments and
extenders and possibly some of the additives are mixed to a premix (or
millbase) in a large mixing vat.
Making an optimal millbase is the key point in an efficient production.
2.2.2 Dispersion (grinding)
The millbase can be described as a liquid medium (binder and solvents) plus
insoluble powder, the pigments and extenders. These pigment/extender powders
consist of primary particles cemented together forming small lumps,
agglomerates.
The specified dry film thickness is the upper limit for the size of the agglomer-
ates which is acceptable in a paint - in principle, as the limit often is specified
safely below.
Agglomerates have to be divided into primary particles or at least smaller

agglomerates. This process is the mechanical dispersion, often called the
grinding; the grinding process is one of the most important phases in paint
production.
Also; at the delivery from the raw material supplier the pigment, and extender
agglomerates, often have a firmly attached layer of moisture and air. This
undesired layer must be replaced by the medium, ie the particles must be wetted
by the binder. Poor wetting can eg result in settling in the can and/or floccula-
tion of pigments in the wet paint film.
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The capillary effect of large unwetted pigment,

and extender, agglomerates can literally draw
moisture through the paint film.
A paint film with smaller, wetted agglomerates

have far better water repellent properties.
Reduction of agglomerate size and dispersion of particles are both accom-

plished in the milling operation. The most commonly used machinery for
dispersion/grinding of paint is the high-speed disperser, the ball mill and the
pearl mill:
High-speed disperser
The fastest, but by no means finest, dispersion is
achieved in the high-speed disperser. It works on
the same principle as a kitchen blender
Pearl mill
Undoubtedly the most efficient and most used
grinding mill in modern paint production is the
pearl mill, either the older vertical or the latest
horizontal types.
The millbase is pumped into the mill under

pressure, and is ground by the milling of
numerous small glass beads, the "pearls", set in
motion by a number of rotating discs. Due to
higher pressure, the absence of air in the
mixture and a different discharge arrangement,
the horizontal pearl mill yields a better and faster
grind than the traditional, upright type. The most
common horizontal pearl mill is the Dyno mill.
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2.2.3 Final mix
At the final mixing the rest of the binders and additives are added, the viscosity
is adjusted with solvent and the colour adjusted to match the standard colour
card.
2.3 Control
Quality is monitored throughout the production. A production laboratory checks the

quality of the raw materials before approval for production.
A control laboratory checks the finished paint. Before filling in cans, each batch is
checked for: specific gravity, viscosity, fineness of grind, drying time.
Other control items will be colour (by colour computer), gloss, hiding power, appli-
cation properties, sag index, etc., depending on the type of paint in question.
A counter sample is taken from each batch and stored for 4 years in case of claims on
the specific batch.
At least once a year, 10-15 different paint qualities are called in from every Hempel
factory.
The paints are checked by the corporate Quality Colour Section to ensure a uniform
and high quality in accordance with Hempel's Corporate formulas.
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3. Classification and Properties of Paint

3.1 Some basic chemistry
The properties of the binder in the paint mainly determine the film-forming properties
of a paint (ref. 2.2.1).
A binder is always built up of small units (monomers) to a larger unit, the polymer. If
the polymer consists of more than one type of monomer, it is called a copolymer. If
the polymer is built up of the same monomer, it is called a homopolymer. The number
of monomers in a polymer can vary from 5 to as much as 3500, and in connection with
paint the number is often quite high.
In a dried and/or cured paint film the binder is either found as a bunch of long chains
(the polymer chains) or as closely knitted networks (the polymer chains are connected
by cross-linking).
polymer chains polymer chains

with cross-linking
The size and shape of the binder polymer will influence the properties of the final paint
film. Longer chain molecules and denser network structures will increase toughness
and resistance in the resulting binder, while smaller molecules will result in the best
penetration into the substrate.
3.2 Classification, based on type of binder
The manner in which paint films are formed is determining for many of the key
properties of a paint film. This is the reason why paints are often classified according
to their film formation principles.
Film formation can take place in one of two ways:
• physically drying
• chemically curing
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In physically drying paints the binder molecules in the dry paint film are already
present in the wet paint. There is no change in binder composition or molecule
structure and size. The paint film is formed entirely by evaporation of solvents
(a physical process), leaving the binder molecules as chains coiled up and
intertwined in the coating.
Binders of importance to the paint industry are:
The binders are dissolved in solvents, both the natural binders such as
tar and bitumen and the synthetic types like chlorinated rubber,
acrylic and vinyl.
Film formation
Solvents evaporate. Binder molecules are intertwined and attracted to

each other and to the substrate.
3.2.1.2 Water-borne paints
Water-borne paints are dispersions of small binder particles in water.

Very large binder molecules can be incorporated in the binder phase
by utilising the dispersion technology.
Used in a solvent-borne paint the same size of molecules would result

in too high viscosity, or if diluted to the same viscosity, in a very low
solid content.
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Film formation
Water evaporates. The binder particles deform and coalesce (or melt
together) assisted by coalescing agents (powerful solvent for the
binder particles) - until they form a continuous film, attached to the
surface.
Properties common to physically drying paints:
Ò Solvent borne
• Reversible, ie the coating, even months or years after

application, is soluble in its own or more powerful solvents.
Solvent molecules penetrate in between the binder molecules,
push them apart and dissolve the binder.
Solvent sensitive; consequent to being reversible, these paints

are not resistant to their own or stronger solvents.
• Temperature independent for film formation, since no chemical

reactions are involved in the film formation.
• Thermoplastic, ie physically drying coatings become soft at

elevated temperatures. Like other molecules, the polymers
become more mobile at higher temperatures and, as they are not
cross-linked to each other, they have a certain freedom of move-
ment, resulting in a softening of the coating.
• Excellent recoatability.
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TRAINING
Ò Waterborne
• Reversible to a certain degree, as the coalescing agent or

solvents of the same or stronger dissolution power will be able
to re-dissolve the paint film; however, just adding water will not
result in a re-dispersion of the paint film. Re-dispersion is never
possible.
• Solvent sensitive; consequent to the above, solvents similar or

stronger in dissolution power to the coalescing agent in question
will be able to attack the coating.
• Temperature dependent for film formation, the softening point

where the binder particles are able to melt together, is normally
5°C or slightly higher, minimum application temperature is
10°C.
• Thermoplastic, as for solvent-borne paints.
• Excellent recoatability.
In chemically curing paints the final binder molecules in the dry/cured paint
film are not present in the wet film. The smaller "wet" molecules will during
and after application take part in a chemical reaction whereby new, larger binder
molecules are formed. The film is formed by the cross-linking of the molecules
(polymerization) and often by the evaporation of solvents also.
Binders of importance to the paint industry are:
Binders which are most often dissolved in solvents and which form
the final binder with oxygen in the air, eg oleoresins, alkyds,
modified alkyds.
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Film formation
Binders which are often dissolved in solvents and consist of two

components that react with each other after mixing, forming the final
binder, eg epoxy, polyurethane, unsaturated polyester.
Film formation
3.2.2.3 Other curing mechanisms
Binders can be formed by other chemical reactions or polymerisation

processes, eg
• Reaction between binder molecules and water present as humidity

in the air like zinc ethyl silicate and one-pack polyurethane.
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• Reaction between binder molecules and carbon dioxide in the air

like sodium, potassium and lithium zinc silicates (alkali zinc
silicates).
• Reaction triggered off by high temperature as in the case of silicone

by curing for a few hours at 200°C.
Properties common to chemically curing paints:
• Irreversible, ie the cured coating is not dissolvable.
• Resistant to solvents (consequence to being irreversible).
• Temperature dependent on film formation as the rate of the chemi-

cal reaction taking place during curing is directly related to
temperature, ie there is a temperature limit below which film
formation will not take place.
• Non-thermoplastic. The binder molecules in the tight cross-linking

are not able to vibrate or move even at high temperature, ie the
paint film does not become softer at higher temperatures.
• Critical recoating interval. Recoating must take place before

complete curing has taken place. If curing is completed, the surface
must be mechanically roughened before application of new paint.
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3.3 Classification Diagram

(most important binder types only)
Tars
Bitumen
P Solvent borne
A Chlorinated Rubbers
I Physically Acrylics
N drying Vinyl
T Acrylics
Vinyl acetate copolymer
P Waterborne Vinyl chloride copolymer
A Styrene-butadiene copolymer
I
Oleoresinous
N Oxidation Alkyds
T
Modified Alkyds
P Chemically Epoxies
A curing Two-pack Polyurethane
I Polyesters
N Polyurethane
T Zinc Ethyl Silicates
Others
Zinc Alkali Silicates
Silicones
or as presented in the family tree:
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TRAINING
3.4 Properties of Individual Binder Types
The following is a survey of some of the more important binders used in coatings for
the protection of marine and industrial structures. The properties listed are general and
may, for the actual coating, vary somewhat according to formulation and possible
modification.
Tars and Bitumen
Coal tars are obtained by distillation from coal, formerly from

gasworks, but today, mainly from steel works. They consist of a
mixture of liquid tar oils and solid coal tar pitches.
Bitumen is more often than not the heavy residues from oil distilla-
tions though it may still be found in nature.
As opposed to most other binders used for protective coatings, coal

tars and bitumen are often used without pigmentation. Their high
content of carbon make them virtually opaque and black.
Tars and bitumen are low cost barrier coatings, often specified behind
linings and as maintenance coating in ballast tanks.
General advantages and limitations of tars and bitumen are:
• Excellent water resistance
• Poor weathering, will crack when exposed to sunlight (due to

evaporation of low boiling oils)
• Fair chemical resistance
• Poor solvent resistance
• Excellent penetration and adhesion
• Low cost
• Give rise to bleeding; ie small molecules (the low boiling tar oils)
will migrate to the surface and cause discoloration of any non-black
topcoat
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TRAINING
• Black or very dark colours only

Due to the excellent water resistance of coal tar, it is often used in
combination with other binders, epoxy, vinyl and polyurethane.
Chlorinated Rubbers
As the name indicates chlorinated rubber resin is formed by adding

chlorine to rubber. In the early days only isoprene from natural rubber
was utilised but, nowadays, most of the isoprene is extracted in the oil
industry.
After application and the evaporation of its solvent, chlorinated rubber

leaves a dense but very brittle film. A softening agent, a plasticizer, is
therefore always incorporated in a chlorinated rubber-based paint.
Chlorinated rubber-based paints are used extensively as anticorrosive

coatings, coatings for concrete and other alkaline substrates.
General advantages and limitations of chlorinated rubber coatings

are:
• Good water resistance
• Relatively good weathering
• May yellow and chalk (chlorine content causes yellowing)
• Fair chemical resistance
• Good alkali resistance
• Poor resistance to animal and vegetable oils and fats
• Contain plasticizers (and many properties may depend upon the

type of plasticizer used)
• Contain chlorine (hydrochloric acid is formed at elevated tempera-

tures such as when welding, burning, cutting, etc.)
Acrylics
Acrylic resins are produced by polymerising different acrylic mono-

mers. Through the use of different monomers the properties of the
acrylic resin can be varied to a very large extent. Properties are also
influenced by the often incorporated plasticizer.
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TRAINING
Used on exterior steel work above the waterline.
General advantages and limitations of acrylic coatings are:
• Relatively good water resistance

• Good weathering
• Good colour retention
• Low to fair resistance to animal and vegetable oils and fats
• Usually only fair wetting properties
• Contain plasticizers
• May contain chlorine (in plasticizer)
Vinyl
Vinyl resins are mainly based on a copolymer consisting of vinyl

chloride monomers and vinyl acetate monomers, but other monomers
can occur too.
Vinyl form fairly brittle films, so plasticizers might be incorporated

into vinyl-based paints.
Vinyl-based paints are used on exterior steel work, and when

combined with tar extensively used as anticorrosive primer.
General advantages and limitations of vinyl coatings are:
• Good to excellent water resistance
• Good weathering
• Good chemical resistance
• Resistant to weak solvents
• Fair resistance to animal and vegetable oils and fats
• Usually only fair wetting properties
• Relatively quick drying
• Relatively low solid content and, consequently contain high amount

of (strong) solvents
• May contain chlorine (causes yellowing, forms hydrochloric acid at

elevated temperatures)
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Other kinds of polymerisation than the previously mentioned exist,

where less strong solvents are used to liquefy the binder; their chemi-
cal resistance is lower and they are not solvent resistant. Polyvinyl-
butyral (PVB) is one of these kinds of polymerisation, where the
absence of the monomer vinyl chloride and thereby absence of
chlorine in the binder makes it suitable for shopprimers (welding,
cutting).
3.4.1.2 Waterborne paints
General advantages and limitations of dispersions are:
• Contain only limited amount of high boiling solvents (the coalesc-

ing agent)
• No flash point
• Sensitive to high humidity during application
• Sensitive to low temperatures during storage and application (water

may freeze)
• Poor levelling
Additional properties can be obtained by combining various

monomers into different copolymers as indicated below.
Vinyl acetate copolymer
Used in combination with various plasticizing monomers, vinyl

acetates are mainly used in house paints.
Special properties:
• Relatively good water resistance

• Relatively good colour stability
• Low cost
Acrylic copolymer
The type and number of different acrylic monomers in an acrylic

binder can vary extensively, resulting in tailor-made properties for
each specific binder.
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TRAINING
Acrylic-based paints are used as house paint (especially exterior) and

wood varnish.
As indicated, properties of acrylic binders can be very different, but in

general they have

• Good gloss retention
• Good adhesion to a variety of different substrates
Polyurethane
The reaction product between isocyanate and the hydroxyl containing

binder, ie the polyurethane (ref . 3.4.2.2), is present as complete binder
particles in the dispersion. Paints based on a polyurethane dispersion
are consequently one-component products.
They are used as sole binder or in combination with acrylic as wood

varnish, floor varnish or paint, and paints for plastics.
Special properties are:
• Good adhesion to plastics

• Good abrasion resistance
• Limited resistance to outdoor exposure
• High cost
Vinyl chloride copolymer
Used in combination with plasticizing monomers, eg vinylidene

chloride and acrylic.
Can be used as an anticorrosive primer on steel.

• Yellowing
Styrene butadiene copolymer
A ratio of approximately 60% styrene monomer and 40% butadiene

monomer is used as binder in anticorrosive high-builds, on areas not
exposed to sunlight.
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• Gets brittle and yellow when exposed in UV-light (sunlight) and

oxygen from the air
• Comparatively low cost.
The key component of paints forming film by an oxidation process, is

a drying oil. Drying oils are natural products, eg linseed oil, soya oil or
fish oil. Drying oil consists of fatty acids combined with glycerol. By
reacting the fatty (drying oil) acid with other components, larger and
more complex molecules are formed, eg phenolic varnishes and alkyd
resins, having more durable properties.
Alkyds
Alkyds are often referred to as being short, medium or long oil alkyds.
Short oil alkyds contain less than 40% fatty acid and are mainly used
in coatings for production-line application. Medium oil alkyds contain
from 40-60% fatty acid, and long oil alkyds more than 60%.
Alkyd paints are used on exterior steel work (above waterline) and in
interior dry rooms.
General advantages and limitations of medium oil alkyds are:
• Poor water resistance after long periods of exposure

• Reasonable to good weathering
• Reasonable to good gloss retention
• Reasonable colour retention
• Poor alkali resistance
• Solvent is mineral spirits, a comparatively weak solvent
• Good penetration and adhesion.
Modified Alkyds
Alkyds may be modified with a wide range of other binders to provide

new binders with specific properties.
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Typical modifications are:
• Styrenated alkyd. Copolymerising alkyd with styrene gives an

alkyd which is faster drying, more chemical and water resistant, but
less tolerant of poor surface preparation.
• Urethane alkyd. Isocyanate modified alkyd resin improves the

drying somewhat, and the components are usually selected to
provide additional hardness. Often used for primers required to
withstand rough handling. Due to their good through-drying proper-
ties, they are favoured as binders in high-builds.
• Silicone alkyd. When the silicone content exceeds 30%, silicone

alkyd is durable and retains it's gloss. Especially used for finishing
coats exposed to intense sunlight.
• Epoxy ester. Epoxy ester is sometimes, but wrongly, referred to as

a one-component epoxy. Epoxy ester is a drying oil modified with
epoxy. This hard synthetic resin is faster drying and has better
water and alkali resistance than alkyds, but it chalks and is
comparatively expensive.
Epoxy esters exhibit good adhesion and good anticorrosive proper-

ties; often used for primers required to withstand rough handling or
forced drying at elevated temperatures.
Binders in this group form their films through a polymerising reaction

between two components, usually referred to as base and curing
agent or hardener, which are mixed together immediately prior to
application.
Epoxy
Epoxy may cure at normal room temperatures through the addition of

curing agent (certain amines or poly amides, or adducts1) of the same).
The curing agent reacts with the epoxy groups in the base resin, build-
ing a three-dimensional network (ref. 3.2.2.2).
1
Pre-reacted amines/poly amides with minor parts of epoxy still leaving reactive
groups in the hardener.
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Certain epoxies containing hydroxyl-groups react with isocyanates,

resulting in low temperature curing properties. The cured film is hard
and wear resistant, but chalks rapidly if exposed to sunlight. This
detracts from the cosmetic appearance, but usually it does not have
any influence on the protective value of the coating.
Amides are the most versatile curing agents, giving ease of application
and good water resistance, while amines provide better chemical resis-
tance, but give shorter pot life and overcoating intervals. Low
temperature curing properties are obtained when curing with adducts
or isocyanates.
Epoxy resins may be produced in different molecular sizes, of which

the smallest are liquid at normal room temperature. These are the
so-called low molecular weight epoxies, used for solvent-free and
solvent-less epoxies.
Epoxy-based paints are specified for the exterior and interior of steel
work, in tanks, as heavy duty and high-build coatings.
General advantages and limitations of epoxy coatings are:
• Good to excellent water resistance
• Good weathering (apart from chalking)
• Tendency to chalking
• Good physical properties, such as toughness, flexibility and
abrasion resistance (especially the solvent-free versions)
• Good heat resistance, up to 120°C in continuous dry service
• Good to excellent chemical resistance (best for amine cured

epoxies)
• Good adhesion to a wide range of materials
• Two-pack (attention to mixing and pot life)
• Curing is temperature dependent.
• Coal Tar Epoxy
Selected coal tars may be mixed with epoxy resin to make coal tar
epoxy; the addition of coal tar lowers the cost and improves water
resistance.
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Since coal tar epoxy first emerged on the market, it has proven
itself to provide the optimum in water resistant coatings systems.
Used as an anticorrosive system below the waterline, and in ballast

tanks.
The solvent resistance of coal tar epoxy is not altogether perfect,

and weathering properties are poor. It has a tendency to bleed into
subsequent coats and recoating intervals are very critical. This may
lead to intercoat adhesion problems unless great care and discipline
is exercised during application.
Polyurethane (two-pack)
Polyurethane is formed through a reaction between isocyanates and

hydroxyl containing binders (eg alcohols), creating a network
structure. They are usually two-pack products, have better weathering
properties and cure at lower temperatures than epoxies (ie in general
down to -10°C, epoxies normally down to 5-10°C). During the curing
process however, polyurethane is much more sensitive to humidity.
(The curing agent, isocyanate, can react with water, resulting in foam
in the applied paint film).
The isocyanates are either aromatic (ie containing a benzene ring) or
aliphatic (without the benzene ring). Both types give tough, wear resis-
tant films with good resistance to chemicals and solvents.
Aromatic isocyanates dry faster than aliphatic, but when used exter-
nally they chalk and yellow rapidly.
Aliphatic isocyanates possess superior colour retention and UV resis-

tance (ie the ultraviolet radiation in sunlight); they are frequently
recommended for exterior finishing coats.
Like epoxies, polyurethane may be produced in a wide range of

molecular sizes, some small enough to allow their use in solvent-free
or solvent-less coatings.
Polyurethane is used as a finishing coat above the water line in epoxy

systems, heavy duty coating, floor and boat finishes.
General advantages and limitations of polyurethane coating are:
• Excellent weathering
• Excellent gloss retention (aliphatic types only)
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• Excellent colour retention (aliphatic types only)
• High abrasion resistance
• Difficult application (low relative humidity and trained painters

required)
• Low temperature curing
• Two components (attention to mixing and pot life)
• Comparatively expensive.
3.4.2.3 Other Film-forming Mechanisms
Humidity curing
Humidity curing binders polymerise and form films through a reaction

with water, usually in the form of vapour contained in the surrounding
air. Binders of interest are ethyl silicate and moisture curing (one-
pack) polyurethane.
• Ethyl silicate dries by the loss of solvent, alcohol, and cures by a

reaction between the silicate and the humidity in the environment.
Since ethyl silicate is used predominantly for zinc silicate coatings,

and its properties, when cured, are similar to those of alkali
silicates, the potassium, sodium and lithium zinc silicates, it is
included with these carbon dioxide curing alkali zinc silicates.
• Polyurethane (one-pack)
The tendency of the isocyanate group to react with water can be
utilised by employing isocyanates with relatively large molecules.
After application the paint or varnish cures by absorbing moisture
from the air.
Moisture curing polyurethane has properties similar to two-pack

polyurethane. Its major limitation is its dependence on humidity in
the surrounding air, plus special care should be exercised in their
storage when they are pigmented - as pigments may contain a
certain amount of moisture.
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TRAINING
Also, the production of moisture curing polyurethane is an exceed-

ingly tricky business. Manufacture often has to take place under a
"nitrogen blanket", to avoid humidity coming in contact with the
binder until curing is desired.
Carbon Dioxide Curing
• Zinc Silicates
Silicate binders owe their special properties to a high content of

silicon-oxide in their composition. In the protective coatings field,
silicate binders are exclusively pigmented with zinc as zinc
silicates. As such they offer the best corrosion protection obtainable
with a paint.
Lithium, potassium and sodium silicates dry by the loss of water

and cure by:
a) a reaction between zinc and silicate, and

b) a reaction between silicate and carbon dioxide in the air
Sodium silicate is, and potassium silicate may be, post-cured. That
is, after drying, the application of an accelerator (a water-based acid
solution) accelerates the curing, which may otherwise take as long
as 5-8 days.
General advantages and limitations of zinc silicate coatings are:
• Excellent weathering
• Excellent abrasion resistance (alkali silicates superior)
• Excellent heat resistance (up to 400°C)
• Resistant within the pH range of 6-9 only
• Excellent solvent resistance
• Require surface preparation of very high standard, both as

regards cleanness and surface profile
• Demanding application conditions (temperature, humidity,

continuous stirring and film thickness)
• Critical recoating (risk of popping and/or poor adhesion)
• Excellent corrosion prevention (through galvanic effect).
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Heat curing
• Silicones
While almost all other polymers (with the obvious exception of

inorganic zinc silicates) have a more or less branched backbone of
carbon atoms, silicones have backbones of alternating silicon and
oxygen atoms and carbon containing side groups.
Condensation at high temperatures, approx. 200°C, produces

networks, and this is the mechanism by which curing is effected.
Special properties of silicones are:
When dried, not cured:
• Poor resistance to mechanical damage, such as impact, abrasion,

etc.
• Low solvent resistance
• Good gloss retention
When cured (200°C for one hour):
• Heat resistance 250°C (and, if aluminium pigmented, up to

600°C for short intervals)
• Good weathering
• Resistant to spillage of mineral, vegetable and animal oils and

fats.
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In general:
• Comparatively expensive.
Silicones can and are being modified with a number of other resins
(typically alkyds, acrylics, etc.) in order to reduce cost and improve
mechanical properties in the uncured stage.
Dispersions
For this brief survey to be complete it must be mentioned that chemi-

cally curing waterborne dispersions do exist, although their penetra-
tion into the market of the heavy duty coating industry so far is not
extensive.
Oxidative curing
Alkyds and modified alkyds with same binder composition as

described under the solvent-borne paints. Mainly used for steel
(agricultural machinery) and in mixture with acrylic for wood preser-
vatives.
Two-component curing
Epoxy-dispersions characterised by
• Good chemical resistance (normally inferior to the solvent-based

epoxies)
• Good abrasion resistance
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4. Paints for Purposes

Most of the important properties of a paint are, as described in chapter 3, determined
by its binder and consequently the manner in which the film is formed.
These general properties cannot be changed basically, but in the formulation of paints
it is possible to enhance, modify or even add to these basic characteristics. The result is
a much wider range of paint "types" than would off hand appear from the generic
classification.
Some of these types are more often referred to by their function or specific purpose,
than by their generic type. In this chapter the following are described:
Anticorrosives
Shopprimers/Holding Primers
Antifoulings
Coating Concrete
4.1 Anticorrosives
4.1.1 Corrosion
In their natural states metallic atoms are most often found in metallic ores as
salts or oxides of said metals.
The metallic atom in the metallic ores will exist on a lower level of energy than
if they are processed into pure metals.
Atoms with a high "unnatural" level of energy will strive to revert to a lower
level of energy and this is the reason for corrosion.
All surfaces exist in equilibrium with their surroundings. Atoms will leave the
surface and other atoms or molecules will enter the surface, a constant process
taking place all over the surface.
Looking at a steel surface, metallic iron atoms (Fe) will strive for a lower level
of energy releasing positive iron ions (Fe++) to the surroundings and leaving
negative electrons (e-) in the steel.
(I) Fe →Fe++ + 2e-
This dissolution of steel will proceed until the loading of negative electrons (e-)
in the steel is so high that the excess electrons will stop further release of
positive iron ions (Fe++).
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In other words the electrochemical reaction, the corrosion process (I) has
stopped due to a high concentration of electrons in the steel..
Only if electrons are removed continuously, will corrosion proceed. In principle,

there are three ways in which excess electrons can be removed:
(1) By a reaction of the electrons with water H2O and oxygen O2 from the
air, resulting in the formation of hydroxyl ions OH-.
(II)
4e- + 2H2O + O2 → 4OH-
(2) By a reaction of the electrons in an acidic environment with hydrogen

ions (H+) resulting in the formation of hydrogen (H2) gas.
2e- + 2H+ → H2
(3) By leading the electrons to a more electropositive, a more noble

material.
4.1.1.1 Corrosion in humid environments
Corrosion in humid environments eg steel immersed in seawater or

exposed in high humidity (above 60% relative humidity) will corrode
according to the sketch.
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Areas where iron ions go into solution (the anodes) and areas where
electrons are consumed in a reaction with the environment (the
cathodes), may continuously change, resulting in a comparatively even
corrosion all over the steel surface.
Electrons travel to the cathodic area, resulting in an electrical current

in the opposite direction.
In an electrolyte of seawater, there is nothing to retard the disso-

lution of iron, and the rate, or speed, of corrosion is almost exclusively
determined by the rate at which oxygen reaches the cathode areas.
Hydroxyl ions (OH-) and iron ions (Fe++), with the addition of oxygen
(O2), react further to form iron hydroxide Fe(OH)2, a major constituent
of rust; the product of corrosion.
In given environments, certain metals will form protective corrosion

products, oxides, that prevent or retard further corrosion. Aluminium
and stainless steel are examples of this.
4.1.1.2 Corrosion in acidic environments
In a very acidic environment (with excess of H+), eg in a diluted

sulphuric acid, steel will corrode evenly while creating hydrogen gas.
The rate of corrosion of steel in an acid solution,

is much higher than in a neutral environment. The
hydrogen gas escapes quickly from the steel
surface, and the corrosion products dissolve in
acid, so no rust layer is formed to retard the pro-
cess.
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4.1.1.3 Galvanic corrosion
As mentioned all metals do not contain the same level of energy. In

other words there is a difference between metals regarding their
tendency to release electrons and dissolve ions.
Metals which are less prone to loose electrons as compared to others,

are said to be more noble metals.
Since steel is less noble (releases electrons more easily) than copper,
metallic contact between the two would cause any excess electrons to
travel from steel to the copper, - and that is to say an electrical
current is running in the opposite direction from copper to steel (or
from cathode to anode). So the rate of corrosion can be expressed by
the electrical current present in the connection between the two
metals.
The cathode will try to release the excess of electrons. In water it will
result in a reaction with water (H2O) and oxygen (O2) producing
hydroxyl ions (OH-) (see formula II page 4.3).
The anode will try to compensate for the lack of electrons by releasing
iron ions (Fe++) to the water, ie corrosion proceeds.
Corrosion of the steel is accelerated through its contact with copper;
the steel suffers galvanic corrosion while the copper is cathodic
protected. The most noble (positive) material will be protected
against corrosion at the cost of the most ignoble (negative) material.
The willingness to release electrons, i.e. to corrode is expressed in the

ranging of materials in the so-called galvanic series.
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Galvanic series of metals and other conductive compounds in

seawater
Noble Graphite
Gold
Titanium
Stainless steel (passive)
Bronze
Copper
Mill scale
Brass
Stainless steel (active)
Iron (steel)
Aluminium
Zinc
Ignoble Magnesium
Even though they are non-metallic, graphite and mill scale are
included in the series, because they willingly partake in the cathodic
reaction.
The crucial issue in corrosion protection is to prevent electrons to

leave the steel surface. Based on the above description of the three
possible corrosion principles, corrosion of steel can be retarded or
prevented by
• keeping O2 and/or H2O from the surface

(and in acidic environment H+)
• adding excess electrons to the steel
These two points are the main obstacles when formulating anti-
corrosive paints.
4.1.2 Anticorrosives
When preventing corrosion with paints, three main principles are employed:
(1) Creating a physical barrier that keeps out charged ions and retards the
penetration of water and oxygen. The so-called BARRIER effect.
(2) Ensuring that water, on its passage through the paint coating, takes up
special compounds inhibiting its corrosive action. This is called the
INHIBITOR effect.
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(3) Ensuring metallic contact between the steel and a less noble metal, (eg
zinc). This results in cathodic protection of the steel by utilising the
GALVANIC effect.
4.1.2.1 Barrier effect
A barrier effect is obtained by applying thick coatings, 250-500 µm, of

paints with very low water permeability. These paints are usually, but
not always, based on bitumen, tar and/or epoxy. Typical representa-
tives are:
• Bitumen
• Coal tar epoxy
• Vinyl tar
• Epoxy.
By adding flake-formed pigments, eg leafing aluminium or micaceous

iron oxide, a barrier effect can be achieved even at low film
thicknesses.
The flake-pigments orientate parallel to the steel surface, so water and

oxygen, when trying to pass through, are forced to pass the more
complicated and longer passage around the pigments.
For permanently immersed steel, the first, and often the only, choice
of protection through coatings, would be to utilise the barrier effect.
If a barrier coating is damaged, the areas of damage lie open for corro-
sion, which can proceed both down, into the steel, and outwards
under the intact coating (underrusting). Thus, where there is a risk of
mechanical damage, additional protection, in the form of cathodic
protection, is often provided.
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4.1.2.2 Inhibitor effect
The rate of corrosion can be reduced by using primers containing

so-called inhibitors. These are soluble or basic pigments designed to
suppress the corrosion process; examples are:
• Zinc chromate2
• Zinc phosphate1
• Zinc metaborate1
• Red lead
• Calcium plumbate
Inhibitors are, and must be, somewhat water soluble. To prevent them
from being washed out of the primer coats, topcoats without inhibitors
are applied to provide the barrier necessary for the inhibitive primer
to last.
Due to the water solubility of the pigments used, primers with inhibi-
tors are not suited for prolonged immersion; such an exposure would
result in blistering and early breakdown of the coating system.
When damaged, a reasonable protection against rust-creeping

(underrusting) is afforded, but the damaged area itself is not
protected.
4.1.2.3 Galvanic effect
Protection of steel through the galvanic effect (cathodic protection)

can be achieved with paints containing large amounts of metallic zinc.
A condition for effective protection is that the paint is formulated to
give metallic contact between the individual zinc particles and
between the zinc particles and the steel.
Typical binders for zinc dust paints are:
• Epoxy
• Ethyl silicate
• Alkali silicate
The very nature of these paints requires an absolutely clean steel

surface and, especially for the zinc silicates, a rather well defined
surface profile if a good and lasting result is to be obtained.
2
These pigments do not contain metallic zinc particles.
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Zinc silicates, when applied, are initially rather porous. After a while,
however, the pores are filled with corrosion products from the zinc
and a barrier is formed.
When damaged, the galvanic effect is re-established at the damage and

protects effectively against rust-creeping (underrusting).
Since the corrosion products of zinc (zinc salts) are slightly water-
soluble, zinc dust paints are not normally suited for permanent water
immersion service, but e.g. zinc silicate, because of its superior
solvent resistance, is a favoured protection in solvent tanks.
4.2 Primers for temporary Corrosion Protection
These primers are often divided in three subgroups, depending on the job in which they
are used:
• shopprimers
• holding primers
• blast primers.
4.2.1 Shopprimers
These primers are often referred to as pre-construction, prefabrication or

pre-treatment primers. They are anticorrosives designed for application in
automated plants, to plates or profiles prior to assembly or construction.
Demands
The special demands to such primers are:
• To provide protection against corrosion during the construction period
• To be spray applicable in a variety of automatic installations
• The time between application and dry to handle, must be very short indeed
• They should not negatively influence the speed of welding or cutting
• They must not evolve noxious or toxic fumes during the welding or cutting
process
• They must not negatively influence the strength of welds
• They should be able to withstand comparatively rough handling
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• They must be non-saponifiable and water resistant
• They should form a suitable base for the widest possible range of coatings
systems.
Properties
Consequent to the requirements listed above, shopprimers possess properties

not normally found in paints designed for other purposes; notably:
They are applied in comparatively low film thicknesses, 15-25 microns, in order
not to interfere with the speed of cutting and welding.
Offering reasonable protection at such low film thicknesses can only be

achieved if the coating follows the contours of the blasted steel, and shop-
primers are designed to do just that.
Inherent in the formulation of shopprimers, therefore, are fast drying and

retarded flow properties. A side-effect of this is low cohesive strength, and
shopprimers applied in excessive film thicknesses have a pronounced
tendency to split when overcoated.
To achieve the desired protection, and avoid immediate or subsequent splitting

of the shopprimer coat, film thickness must be close to that specified by the
supplier. Such exactitude can usually only be achieved in automatic plants.
Types of Shopprimer
The most widely accepted shopprimers are:
• Poly Vinyl Butyral (PVB)

• Epoxy iron oxide
• Zinc epoxy
• Zinc silicate
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A general summary of the more important properties of these shopprimers

can be tabulated as follows:
Type of Shopprimer
zinc epoxy
Property zinc epoxy PVB
silicate iron oxide
two-pack or two-pack or
Delivery two-pack two-pack
one-pack one-pack
Solvent and esters, ketones, water or esters, ketones, alcohols, ketones,
thickeners aromatics alcohols aromatics aromatics
Dry film
15-25 µm 15-25 µm 20-25 µm 20-25 µm
thickness
Anticorrosive
very good excellent good good
properties
Mechanical
very good excellent good good
properties
sometimes sometimes
Recoatabiliy less critical less critical
critical critical
Resistance to not usually not usually
good limited
ICCP* used with ICCP used with ICCP
*ICCP = Impressed current cathodic protection
4.2.2 Holding Primer
If the lifetime of a shopprimer has to be prolonged, a holding primer can be

applied. A major requirement to a holding primer is a no maximum recoating
interval, ie the specified coating system can be applied, whenever construction
work allows.
Holding primers are often made equal with blast primers, which is not entirely
correct.
4.2.3 Blast Primers
Where temporary protection to blast cleaned steel is applied by hand-held spray

gun, eg during maintenance work, one would choose a suitable anticorrosive
with a reasonable long recoating interval, and apply it in a somewhat lower than
usual film thickness.
Anticorrosive primers suitable, and frequently used for this purpose, are often
referred to as blast primers, ideally, they would be based on the same generic
type as the coat to follow.
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4.3 Antifoulings
Painting a vessel's underwater hull serves two main purposes:
• protection of the construction steel

• prevention of undue hull roughness
Corrosion protection of steel is described in section 4.1 "Anticorrosives".
When hull roughness increases, it will inevitably lead to increased resistance to

movements of the vessel, causing lower service speed or increased fuel consumption.
The hull roughness increase is mainly due to the settlement of marine organisms.
Some of the numerous organisms populating the oceans either swim or are carried
about by currents, but quite a few must settle on a hard surface in order to fulfil their
life cycles. These various plants and animals are commonly called fouling.
4.3.1 Fouling
Fouling organisms are estimated to be in the region of 4-5000 different species.
They can be split into two groups:
• micro-organisms
• macro-organisms
Ò Micro-organisms form the primary film - the slime layer.
Micro-organisms are: bacteria, fungi, protozoa and diatoms (the unicellular

algae). The important groups in connection with fouling of ships are bacteria
and diatoms.
Ò Macro-organisms are big enough to be seen with the naked eye.
Macro-organisms are: algae and animals.
Among the algae (seaweed, grass) the most dominant types are:
• green algae
• brown algae
• red algae
Among the animals the most dominant as ship fouling organisms are:
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TRAINING
• hard shell forms:

barnacles
goosenecks
tubeworms
bryozoans
mussels
• soft forms:
hydroids
tunicates
Ò Distribution
The highest concentration of fouling organisms occurs in harbours and

coastal areas where hard naturally surfaces, stones and rocks, are present.
Here the bottom of a ship will easily be infected by algae spores and animal
larvae. Algae spores settle in a matter of hours, whereas animal larvae
normally require a couple of days to settle.
The speed of the vessel, if it is idle and slow steaming, will also influence
the fouling severity.
As a rule of thumb, most fouling organisms will not settle at speeds above
4-5 knots.
The distribution of fouling organisms on a hull is seldom uniform. This is

due partly to the different flow conditions on the hull and partly to differ-
ences in the settling pattern of the organisms.
Thus, there is often a very well defined horizontal division:
The area from the waterline and 1 - 2 metres down is dominated by algae,
and perhaps a few barnacles. This "algae belt" is the area which is first and
most heavily fouled.
Further down the vertical side, some scattered fouling of barnacles,

encrusting bryozoans, tubeworms and goosenecks may occur. The flat
bottom is dominated by hydroids, barnacles, mussels, tunicates, bryozoans,
and in some cases goosenecks.
4.3.2 Antifouling
Antifouling paints prevent fouling by releasing bioactive ingredients that interfere with
the biological processes of the fouling organisms. Bioactive materials used in antifoul-
ing paints today are basically cuprous oxide, organotin compounds and organic
biocides.
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All the biocides incorporated in the paints are soluble in seawater. When
released in a sufficiently high concentration (ie above the threshold value) the
biocides will be lethal to all fouling organisms.
Toxicants are released by different mechanisms and make the basis for the
classification of antifouling paints.
6 main groups are referred to as:
• conventional, soluble matrix antifoulings

• advanced, insoluble matrix antifoulings
• ablative/polishing antifoulings
• tin based
• tin-free self-polishing antifoulings.
• fouling release coatings
Ò Soluble matrix antifoulings are mainly based on gum rosin or rosin deriva-
tives. It is a seawater soluble, mechanically weak binder, which only allow
for a low concentration of bioactive material and only relatively thin
antifouling systems.
Conventional antifoulings work by progressive dissolution and erosion of

the paint film, and in that respect they can be considered as the "ancestor" of
self-polishing antifoulings.
Start of lifetime ½ lifetime End of lifetime
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General properties:
• Protection rather limited, 12 - 15 months only
• Only antifouling type that can be safely applied over soft (bituminous)
primers
• The binder oxidises and is sensitive to sunlight, i.e. the vessel must be
launched/floated soon after application
• Sensitive to oil pollution (both mineral and fish oils)
• Due to the low mechanical strength of the binder, subject to cold flow
Ò Insoluble matrix antifoulings are based on a physically drying, seawater

insoluble binder (eg vinyl or chlorinated rubber). The mechanical strength
of the binder is high, allowing a high loading of antifouling pigments. As
the binder is insoluble in seawater, the toxic particles (pigments) must be in
direct contact with each other in order to be dissolved by the seawater and
release the toxic content.
The release rate is very high at the beginning of the service life, but will
decrease slowly during service, leaving a honeycomb structure (the empty
matrix) consisting of the insoluble binder. This empty matrix contributes to
roughness development.
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TRAINING
At the end of the service life for the specified antifouling, the concentration
of toxicants is so far below the threshold value, that fouling of the hull can
no longer be prevented.
General properties:
• Fouling protection for 18 - 24 months is possible in normal to severe

fouling conditions
• The coating can be re-activated by scrubbing (the empty matrix is

removed enabling the remaining toxicants to dissolve at sufficient rate)
• The empty matrix may be clogged by pollution, blocking off the toxicants
• The empty matrix must be sealed off at re-docking
• The empty matrix contributes to increasing roughness development
Ò Ablative/polishing antifoulings utilise a dissolution/erosion process (also

known from partly the soluble matrix antifoulings, partly the self-polishing
paints). They consist of a large proportion of seawater soluble, non-toxic,
physically drying binder combined with polymeric ingredients which are
able to control the dissolution/erosion rate by a physical process.
The loading of biocides can be regulated, up to the level of a high-

performing, non-polishing antifouling.
In contact with seawater the biocides dissolve together with the soluble
binder. The ingredients controlling the dissolution process are then washed
away in the form of micro-lumps. Shortly after immersion, an equilibrium in
this process is reached, which provides a constant polishing/ablation rate.
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TRAINING
General properties:
• Fouling protection up to 3 years

• Roughness control
• No sealer needed at redocking with same type of antifouling
• Economic release of toxicants
• Non-toxic binder system
• Slightly less expensive than tin based self-polishing antifoulings.
Ò Self-polishing antifoulings are based on a physically drying binder.
It is an organotin copolymer of high mechanical strength.
Organotin compounds have been reacted into a copolymer (the binder),

making an organotin copolymer, which is soluble in seawater. This chemical
reaction controls the dissolution rate at the molecular level, resulting in the
well-known self-polishing effect.
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In addition to the toxicants reacted into the binder further toxicants are
added in the pigment phase, resulting in high performance antifoulings
suitable for even very severe fouling conditions.
The mechanical strength of the binder allows build-up of very thick systems,
and thereby long lifetimes can be obtained, five-year specifications are
common.
Apart from the direct recoatability with itself without the use of a sealer at
dry dockings, the major advantage is the self-polishing and, at the higher
polishing rate, smoothing effect; this results in less maintenance and a
reduction of the hull roughness.
General properties:
• Fouling protection up to five years under severe fouling conditions

possible
• Roughness control; smoothing effect (reduction in roughness) at high

polishing rates
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• No sealer needed at redocking with same type of antifouling
• Contains tin in the binder phase
• Relatively expensive
In recent years the growing environmental awareness within the shipping

industry has highlighted the harmful effects of organotin compounds on
marine organisms in areas with high shipping activity and poor water
exchange. As a result the demand for tin-free antifoulings has increased,
which has lead to the development of tin-free self-polishing antifoulings,
keeping the self-polishing properties known from the tin-based, self-
polishing paints without the use of tin-containing groups in the binder.
Ò Tin-free self-polishing antifoulings are based on a physically drying, self-

regulating binder system.
Various technologies do exist. Hempel's tin free selfpolishing antifoulings

is based on the ions-exchange between a hydrolysable zinc carboxylate
polymer salt and sodium (Na+) in seawater. This mechanism is in many
ways similar one seen in TBT (Tributyltin) selfpolishing antifoulings.
An ion-exchange takes place in the thin surface layer of the antifouling film
where sodium ions from the sea water replace zinc ions in the binder
polymer. Only this activated surface layer consisting of sodium binder parts
is soluble in seawater.
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General properties:
• Fouling protection up to five years possible under severe fouling

conditions
• Tin-free binder system
• Environmentally friendly
• Roughness control, smoothing effect
• No sealer needed at redocking with same type of binder
Fouling Release Coatings. Fouling Release is fouling control technology

which, unlike traditional antifoulings, does not contain any toxic biocides,
therefor is not by definition, an antifouling. Fouling Release coatings
provide a physical barrier as opposed to the chemical barrier of antifouling
coatings.
Fouling Release coatings are generally silicone based and provide a smooth,
low friction, hydrophobic surface, onto which fouling organisms have diffi-
culty settling and adhering.
Organisms which do settle, during extended idle periods for example, can be
easily removed. This is done by “self-cleaning” as the vessel moves through
the water above certain speeds, or by low pressure washing in a dock or by
non-abrasive underwater cleaning.
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Features of Fouling Release Coatings:
• Silicone based, provides the smooth easy clean surface
• Biocide free, therefore environmentally compliant with respect to biocide

regulations
• Chemically inert or non-polishing, therefore the smooth surface is

maintained over the specification lifetime. Maintaining a smooth surface
benefits fuel efficiency. Certain vessel type can show increased speeds
and greater fuel efficiency.
• Copper free, therefore suitable for aluminium vessels
• Light weight
Fouling Release coatings are generally applied onto a suitable anticorrosive

system. A “tie coat” is then applied which provides the adhesion between
the anticorrosive and the “non-stick” top coat.
At present, Fouling Release do have certain limitations. To work effectively

(self-cleaning) the vessel needs to have good balance of speed and activity.
Speeds over 30 knots are necessary if the vessel has low activity, however
vessels which sail in the range 15-30 knots are also suitable if activity is
high and idle periods are short. In addition, the coatings are generally soft in
nature which can make them susceptible to mechanical damage such as
abrasion.
4.4 Coating Concrete
4.4.1 What is concrete?

Concrete is a mix of cement, gravel, aggregate (stone) and water; the amount of
each component in the mix depends upon the type and purpose of the structure
to be cast. The mix hardens through a chemical reaction between the cement
and the water.
Typical properties of concrete are its easy manufacture and casting; high resis-
tance to impact and its compressive strength; tensile strength is obtained by
incorporation of metal bars (rebars) to produce reinforced concrete.
Concrete is very strongly alkaline, having a pH of 12-13 when freshly cast. This
highly alkaline water in the pores of the concrete will react with the surface of
the rebar, forming a protective film of hydrous ferric oxide, which will stay
inactive down to approximately pH 10, i.e. the rebars will not corrode.
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4.4.2 Deterioration of concrete.
For a good many years people thought of concrete as an artificial stone,

indestructible. Time has shown, however, that concrete is indeed perishable.
Although concrete may appear to be a dense, solid and homogeneous material,

it contains numerous pores and cavities which, if not sealed off, will allow
aggressive components to penetrate into the concrete, and thereby contribute to
the breakdown and destruction of the concrete.
Water, although relatively harmless in itself, causes the worst problems, since
almost all destructive mechanisms or reactions depend on the presence of water.
The aggressive components will destroy the concrete in different ways. The
main reasons for deterioration and breakdown of concrete are:
• Water: Without water significant degradation of concrete would be impos-

sible. Water can cause frost damage, it can transport damaging ions, and it
will contribute to the crystallisation of salts.
When water freezes, its volume increases. If the concrete does not contain a
sufficient number of empty pores, the formed ice will cause stress in the
concrete, which again will crack, if the concrete is too weak.
Deterioration is prevented by mixing air into the concrete, and by avoiding
saturation with water.
• Carbonation: Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a gas, which will react with

moisture (H2O) and the alkaline calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) in the
concrete, forming calcium carbonate (CaCO3),
CO2 + H2O + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 + 2H2O carbonation
As a result of this reaction, the pH will decrease. At pH 9 the passive layer

on the surface of the rebars will dissolve and corrosion will start. This
process is called carbonation. The corrosion products require more space
than the steel, and cracking or spalling in the concrete will eventually occur.
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Concrete, pH 12-13 Concrete, pH <9
Corrosion
• Chloride intrusion: Chloride can be introduced in concrete from eg

de-icing salts, marine atmosphere, and industrial effluents, but also from the
components in the concrete. When chloride ions reach the passive layer on
the rebars, the layer breaks down through an electrochemical reaction. Thus
(even at high pH), when sufficiently high concentrations of chloride ions are
present, corrosion starts. This pitting corrosion is one of the main reasons
for deterioration of reinforced concrete.
• Sulphatation: The sulphur dioxide (SO2) present in an industrial atmos-

phere will harm the concrete in much the same way that carbonation does.
Water (H2O) transports sulphur dioxide (SO2), the mix reacts with calcium
hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) in the concrete, forming calcium sulphate (CaSO4)
(gypsum).
SO2 + H2O + Ca(OH)2 → CaSO4 + 2H2O
This will lower the pH, resulting in corrosion of the rebars, and in addition
the formed gypsum will reduce the mechanical strength of the concrete.
• Sulphate swelling: Sulphates, either from surrounding soil or from atmos-

pheric pollution, will react with concrete forming calcium sulphates. These
sulphates can react with aluminates in the concrete, forming calcium alumi-
nate hydrate, which takes up a larger volume than the aluminates.
• Alkali silica reactions: Reaction between reactive silica and alkali ions in
the pore liquid. The alkali metal ions come from the cement or from
de-icing salts. The alkali-silica reactions might result in expansion of the
concrete, and cracking. By decreasing the water content in the concrete, the
deterioration can be decreased.
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• Washing out is dissolution of calcium hydroxide from the cement. Cement

paste contains 25% calcium hydroxide. The washing out will cause
increased porosity in the concrete, resulting in decreased mechanical
strength and the protective influence on the rebar will vanish.
By the correct use of up-to-date concrete technology, we can very much reduce
these causes of damage.
4.4.3 Concrete as a substrate.
As a substrate for paint, concrete differs considerably from steel. The main
points to be aware of, when the painting of new (green) concrete is considered,
are:
• Curing. Uncured concrete is entirely unsuited as a substrate for paint. As a

rule, concrete should be allowed to cure for 28 days (at 20°C). For the first
four to seven days the concrete should be moistcured (covered with Burlap
Kraft paper or 2 layers of 8 mil polyethylene film) followed by 21-24 days
air-dry curing.
• Humidity. Moisture in the surface layer must be below 4% by weight and

not increase after painting to ensure good adhesion of the coating system.
High moisture content in the concrete also lowers the strength of the
concrete.
• Blow holes, cracks and other surface defects must be filled with a cement
based mortar or epoxy filler, which must cure before paint is applied.Plaster
should only be used indoors, as they tend to absorb moisture.
• Laitance, the thin layer of cement sludge that rises to the surface during
vibrating and floating, must be removed as its cohesive strength is too low
to serve as a substrate for the coating system.
• Curing compounds and release agents, often based on wax or paraffin,

must be removed to ensure adhesion of the coating system.
• Efflorescence, the saline particles often formed when fresh concrete is

exposed to air, must obviously be removed before painting can take place.
When coating aged concrete it is important to check the:
• Soundness, hardness of the concrete. Cohesive strength of concrete must be

a minimum of 15 kp/cm².
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• Surface Hardeners may have been applied to existing concrete floors to

reduce dusting; unless such flooring is prepared properly, coating adhesion
is greatly impaired.
4.4.4 Surface Preparation of Concrete
Before the mechanical treatment of the surface takes place, all oil and other
possible contaminants must be removed with a suitable detergent.
Salts and other water soluble contaminants are removed by high pressure fresh
water cleaning.
Various methods can be employed for the mechanical preparation of concrete

surfaces:
Abrasive blasting, open nozzle, dry or wet; high pressure water jetting;
power tool grinding.
Open nozzle dry abrasive blasting cleans effectively at 4-7 bar (60-100 psi)
from a compressor yielding approximately 5 m3/min. (175 cu. ft./min.), but may
result in greater roughness than is desired. Vacuum cleaning prior to the appli-
cation of paint is required.
Open nozzle wet abrasive blasting creates less dust and provides a more
acceptable work environment. It has the same properties as open nozzle dry
abrasive blasting but tends to leave a layer of sand sludge on the surface. This
sludge layer is not suitable as a substrate for paint - and it is almost impossible
to remove.
High pressure water jetting (water blasting) at pressures in the region of 1,000
bar (14,500 psi), is almost as effective as abrasive blasting. It will not
adequately clean exposed reinforcing bars, but will remove laitance without
causing undue roughness.
High pressure fresh water cleaning, at pressures in the region of 100-200 bar
(1,400-2,800 psi), may remove loose deposits like efflorescence and peeling
paint, but has no effect on the concrete itself (cannot remove hardened cement
sludge).
Power tool grinding is effective for the removal of cement sludge layers on
minor areas only; on larger areas it is both more economical and practical to
treat the floors with specially developed grinding machines.
Following the selected surface treatment, the surface should be stable, firm and
dry and suitable for application of the coating system.
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4.4.5 Coatings for concrete
No protective coating will make a poor concrete good. Before specifying a

coating system for concrete, it is necessary to make an investigation and assess-
ment of the structure in question to make sure the right materials are selected
for the job.
Paints to be used on concrete should meet the following requirements:
• repellence against water - water from the outside
• resistance against carbon dioxide diffusion - to avoid any decrease in pH,

and consequently possible corrosion of the rebars penetration control of
water vapour, allowing vapour from concrete to pass, the concrete must be
able to "breathe"
• resistance to alkaline - when a coating is used directly on concrete
Additional important properties can be:
• resistance to sulphur dioxide diffusion rebar corrosion and sulphate swelling
• resistance to chloride diffusion
• flexibility - bridge building effect
• abrasion resistance
• non-skid properties
• resistance to UV light and temperatures
• resistance to chemicals
• ease of application
• ease of maintenance
• adhesion to concrete
• service life
• aesthetics
• toxicity
• etc.
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The importance of these properties depends on the environments, ie the type

and degree of deterioration.
Single coat. If water repellency is the only requirement, impregnation with a

water repellent coating based on silicone can serve as a first and only coat.
Where a full coating system is to be applied, the first coat is a sealer based on
a diluted, low-molecular weight binder.
4.4.6 Constructions
The build-up of paint systems will, as described above, depend on the environ-
ment to which the coating system is exposed eg:
• Open air constructions. Bridges above water level, the exterior of buildings,
and many other constructions exposed to normal atmospheric conditions,
may often be adequately protected by a water repellent.
Where decoration (colour) is desired, an acrylic dispersion paint over an

acrylic sealer would provide a very flexible solution. This would also suit
the requirements for interior, decorative painting.
• Protection. Reinforced concrete demands a coating, which prevents intru-

sion of carbon dioxide, chloride and liquid water.
In addition the coating must be able to "breathe", allowing water vapour to

pass through the coating from both sides.
Experience has shown that paints based on an acrylic binder is the best
suited coating for protection against carbonation (ref. 4.3.2).
For exposure in a polluted atmosphere, an epoxy sealer followed by a full

epoxy, or an epoxy + polyurethane system would provide tough and durable
protection.
• Immersed constructions. Concrete immersed in water or buried in soil is

usually protected by coal tar epoxy, coal tar polyurethane, coal tar, bitumen
or chlorinated rubber coatings systems.
They are applied without a sealer and in thicknesses of up to 500 µm,

coal tar urethane even up to 2 mm.
In water polluted by oil or sewage, a coal tar epoxy or straight

epoxy system would offer better and longer lasting protection than
straight bitumen or chlorinated rubber coating system.
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• Tanks and silos. Should the concrete need to be protected against chemi-
cals or heavily polluted water, such as in some storage facilities, a straight
epoxy system or equal should be chosen.
If exposed to strong sunlight (UV light), or if easy cleaning and decon-

tamination are desired properties, the final coat, or coats, can be an aliphatic
polyurethane.
• Floors. A chlorinated rubber, or solvent free epoxy system, will protect

concrete floors against wear and abrasion. However, where spillage of oils
and some chemicals may occur, chlorinated rubber must be ruled out. For
superior chemical and wear resistance, combined with easy cleaning, an
epoxy and a polyurethane coatings system should be considered.
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5. Surface Preparation
5.1 Background
The protective value of a coating system is proportional to the cleanness of the surface
of the substrate to which the coating system is applied. Experience from practice has
established that some 85% of all paint failures can be traced back to insufficient
surface preparation.
Tests made in connection with the establishment of Swedish Standard, SIS 05 59 00

(grading cleanness of steel) clearly demonstrated the relationship between surface
cleanness and coating life.
The conventional, oil and alkyd, systems lasted several times longer on a well cleaned
(Sa 3) surface, than on a superficially cleaned surface. For the tougher, more advanced
but also more demanding, coatings of today, the difference in lifetime would be even
more pronounced.
The objectives of surface preparation are:
1) Surface cleanness:
To remove from the surface any substance detrimental to the performance of

paints; the enemies of paint performance are especially mill scale, rust,
soluble salts, dust, oil and grease.
2) Surface profile:
To create a profile, an "anchor pattern", of the substrate, suitable for the

specific coating system to be applied.
5.2 Contaminants
• Mill scale. Surface oxides (mainly iron oxides), mill scale, formed during the hot
rolling of steel, expands and contracts at a rate different to that of steel. It cracks,
breaks and flakes, damaging any coating applied over it. Also, since it is more
noble than steel, mill scale can give rise to galvanic corrosion of the steel.
• Rust. Rust is porous and mechanically weak, too weak to support a paint coating.
Due to its porosity, rust tends to attract moisture, and old rust would always contain
soluble salts (sulphates and chlorides). Paints applied over rust will break down
very quickly.
• Salts. Since no paint coating is completely impermeable to water, soluble salts if

left to swell under the coating - will cause osmotic blistering, adhesion failure and
early corrosion.
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• Oil/grease. Most paint binders are repelled, rather than attracted by oil and grease.
Failure to remove such contaminants can consequently result in poor adhesion and
detachment. Even coatings attracted would fail, due to poor cohesion in the oil and
grease.
• Dust. As opposed to oil and grease, most paints adhere well to dust, but in doing so
will lift the dust from the substrate. The result being detachment of both dust and
paint coating.
• Old paint system. Several reasons will demand removal of the previous paint
system: lack of adhesion and/or cohesion, decision to change to another generic
type, not being compatible with the present.
5.3 Cleaning Processes
For cleaning of structural steel, mechanical cleaning methods like abrasive blasting,
hand or power tool cleaning are by far the most widely used.
Mechanical cleaning methods, however, do not remove oil, grease and salts. The clean-
ing processes must therefore take place in the following succession:
• Degreasing. Oil and grease are most effectively removed by the use of an emulsi-
fier (possibly preceded by scraping and solvent wash). Hot water steam cleaning
and/or scrubbing enhances the effect of emulsifiers. The emulsified contaminants
are removed by high pressure (75-150 bar/1,100-2,200 psi) hosing with fresh, clean
water.
Degreasing with rags soaked in solvent or thinner, tends to redistribute rather than
remove oil and grease.
• Desalting. The degreasing method recommended above will also effectively

remove soluble salt.
Where degreasing is not required, soluble salts are removed by plenty of fresh,
clean water either applied at high pressure or if applied at low pressure supported
by vigorous scrubbing.
For the removal of salts from corroded, badly pitted steel, water blasting with very
fine abrasive is probably the most effective method.
• Removal of rust, mill scale and old paint. When larger constructions are consid-
ered, rust and mill scale are usually removed by mechanical means. Fastest and
most effectively by abrasive blasting.
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The degree of surface cleanness required, is determined by the generic type of paint
to be applied, the aggressiveness of the environment and the projected service
life/maintenance cycle of the structure.
The choice of mechanical cleaning method is usually dictated by factors such as:
condition of substrate, degree of completion of structure, area sizes, accessibility,
availability of equipment and operators etc. The different methods are described in
5.3.1 below.
• Dust is most often removed by clean (without oil and water) high pressure air, but
the best method is vacuum-cleaning.
5.3.1 Abrasive blasting
All blast cleaning methods have in common that an abrading material is

propelled, at high velocity, onto the surface to be cleaned. The following
names and comments upon the most commonly employed blast cleaning
methods.
• Dry blasting
Automatic plants are usually based on a number of centrifugal
wheels, throwing the abrasive onto the work pieces, which are
placed on a moving conveyor.
Production rates are high; humidity and tempera-

ture can be easily controlled, and the dust
problem contained. Automatic blasting plants are
usually coupled to facilties for automatic applica-
tion of shopprimer (shopprimer plants).
However, automatic plants lack flexibility, and

both investment and maintenance costs are high.
Open nozzle dry abrasive blasting uses compressed air as a propellant for
the abrasive. Next to centrifugal blasting, this is the overall fastest and
most effective method for removing rust and mill scale.
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The equipment is mobile , and the method is simple, flexible and easy to
operate.
Efficiency is low, compared to centrifugal blasting, and the risk of

moisture entrapment from the compressed air is always present. The dust
created by open nozzle dry abrasive blasting often creates serious
problems. And, since the equipment is manually operated, great variations
in both quality and rate of work can result.
Vacuum blasting is a method by which the used abrasive and dust are
immediately removed by suction.
The method causes none or only minor dust problems, but is exceedingly
slow.
• Wet blasting
The many methods, and variations of methods, referred to as "wet
blasting" may be conveniently divided into four broad categories:
Wet abrasive blasting (the "original" or traditional method) where water

is added (pressure 5-50 bar/73-725 psi, amount 0.5-10 l/min.) at the
nozzle, to a stream of air propelled abrasive (pressure at nozzle as for open
nozzle dry abrasive blasting, 6-7 bar/90-100 psi).
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A fairly high rate of work can be achieved, the dust problem is reduced
and soluble salts may be removed. However, the operator has one
additional hose to handle, and sludge left on the work piece has to be
washed off after blasting.
Slurry blasting. Small amounts of water, introduced at a control unit

upstream from the nozzle, produces a slurry which is propelled by
compressed air (nozzle pressure around 6 bar/85-90 psi).
A high rate of work, comparable to open nozzle dry abrasive blasting,

reduced dust and the possibility of operating several nozzles from the
same unit, are characteristics of slurry blasting. Costs, however, are higher
than for traditional wet blasting; an additional operator is required and
sludge clean-up may present problems.
Water blasting utilises water, at pressures ranging from 200 to 700 bar
(3,000 to 10,000 psi), as the propellant for the abrasive, which is usually
suction fed into the stream of water.
The method cleans out soluble salts effectively, gives no dust problem and
consumes less abrasive than the previously mentioned methods; but the
rate of work is somewhat lower, the sludge clean-up problem still present
and, at the higher pressures, rather fatiguing for the operator.
Hydroblast (high pressure water jetting) yields a high velocity stream of

water by forcing pressurised (up to 2,800 bar/40,000 psi) water through a
specially designed, small orifice nozzle.
No abrasive is used and the surface is left clean and free from contami-
nants. But high pressure water jetting fails to completely remove mill
scale, and gives no surface roughness. Water consumption is high, the
method is extremely fatiguing for the operator, and last but not least the
method is very slow.
Note: All wet blasting methods contain a tendency to cause flash rust.
This can be delayed by using inhibitors (see below).
Flash rust is acceptable to some paint types when it is firmly adhering to

the substrate.
• Inhibitors
Inhibitors are water soluble chemicals retarding corrosion by passivation
of the steel surface; added to the water in wet blasting, they may delay
flash rusting for hours.
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When drying, inhibitors tend to form crystalline materials which, if not

removed, may cause osmotic blistering. As a rule, inhibitors should not be
used in areas that are to be immersed for any length of time.
• Abrasives
The abrasive giving the required profile and the greatest efficiency should
be chosen; these factors are determined mainly by:
• particle size/size distribution

• hardness
• breakdown characteristics, and
• shape
Size. A large size abrasive will cut deeper but clean slower than a small or
fine abrasive, when comparing same amount of abrasive. Using too fine
abrasive, however, will result in the desired anchor pattern not being
achieved. Grain sizes in the range 0.2-1.8 mm are considered the most
advantageous for cleaning of structural steel.
Hardness. Abrasive hardness influences both surface roughness and the

rate of work. Hard abrasives cut deeper and faster than soft or brittle ones.
The abrasive used must, obviously, be harder than the work piece.
Breakdown characteristics. The manner in which abrasive particles

scatter, and change their shape on impact, may be of little consequence in
open nozzle, field blasting.
In automatic plants, and shops where the abrasive is recycled, it should

have a breakdown rate lowest possible , to be effective. A high rate of
breakdown causes dust, requires extra cleaning of the surface and reduces
the number of times the abrasive can be reused.
Shape. The shape of abrasive particles determine the surface profile.

Shot is round, near-spherical, and gives a dimpled surface profile; it
is particularly effective
on brittle deposits (mill
scale and heavy rusts-
cale).
Grit is angular, sharp edged, and provides an angular surface profile

which is preferred for most paints. Sand and slag are semi angular,
and give a profile
somewhere between
shot and grit.
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Types of abrasive. The most commonly used abrasives are:
• Sand, silica sand or quartz sand, crushed flint, are natural

abrasives; low in cost and effective. Create dust and hazard of
silicosis (this has resulted in prohibition in many countries); not
recycled.
• Metallic abrasives, especially steel shot and grit, are efficient,

hard and dust free. They are costly, and therefore recycled
several times. Care must be taken in storage to prevent rusting.
• Slag abrasives, copper slag, nickel slag, etc. are by- products of
the ore and power industries. They are fast cutting but have a
relatively high breakdown rate, and are not normally recycled.
• Synthetic abrasives, such as aluminium oxide (corundum) and

silicone carbide, are non-metallic but have properties similar to
metallic grit with the advantage of being non-rusting. They are
very hard, low dusting and fast cutting; costly, and therefore
usually recycled. They are preferred in surface preparation of
other metals than steel in shops.
5.3.2 Manual and Power Tool Cleaning
Cleaning by traditional manual and power tool methods is always labour

intensive, and often ineffective. Such methods may be used in maintenance
work or for preparation of steel in non-agressive environments.
• Wire brushing, whether by hand brushes or powered, rotary

brushes, does not remove mill scale, weld spatter, rust scale. It may
remove loosely adhering rust and other physical contaminants but,
if not used with care, will polish rather than clean. Wire brushing is
often preceded by scraping or chipping.
• Disc sanding is more effective than wire brushing, and particularly

suited for the feathering of edges and removal of weld spatter in
maintenance work, but has little effect in corners.
• Grinding tools, fitted with correctly shaped heads, are effective

for rounding edges, cleaning pits, smoothing rough welds and
removing weld spatter, burrs or other protuberances.
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TRAINING
• Chipping and Needle gunning may prove useful for the loosening
or removal of heavy rust scale, but great care should be exercised in
the use of these tools, as they tend to hammer contaminants into
the substrate, make indentations and raise burrs which may be diffi-
cult to cover adequately.
5.4 Surface Preparation Standards
The standards for specifying and assessing surface preparation, both cleanness and
surface profile, are generally well known and recognised
• Cleanness. Based on the former Swedish Standard, SIS 055 900:1967, an ISO
standard has been made for preparation grades (cleanness) ISO 8501-1:1988.
Based on visual comparison, it states four preparation grades for abrasive blasting
and two for hand or power tool cleaning; all correlated to four initial rust grades
A, B, C and D.
Other surface preparation standards exist, the best known, perhaps, being US Steel
Structures Painting Council SP Standard (1952, with later revisions). The
standards are not directly comparable. The variations between them are described
in chapter 7 page 7.14.
• Surface profile influences the performance - especially the adhesion of the paint
applied.
When specifying or describing surface profile, especially three parameters are of

importance:
(1) Surface roughness
The depth of craters in the surface can be expressed as eg
• Rmax, maximum height of the profile. The distance between the highest
point and the lowest point on the profile within the sampling length, l.
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• Rz, ten point height of irregularities. The average value of the absolute
values of heights of five maximum profile peaks and the depths of five
maximum profile valleys within the sampling length, l. (Rz = 1/5 (X1 + -
- - + X10), all values positive).
(2) Roughness profile

The shape of craters:
angular profile (Grit) dimpled profile (Shot)
(3) Density (number of craters per linear inch or cm):

dense (many) open (few)
In practice, comparators are used for the assessment and description of

profile. Roughness comparators are small plates exhibiting definite peak to
valley depth, shape and density of craters. Comparison is both visual and by
touch.
The best know and most widely used comparators are:
• ISO Comparator (ISO 8503)

• RUGOTEST No. 3 (of Swiss origin)
• KEANE-TATOR Surface Profile Comparator (of US origin)
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5.5 Preparation of other Metals than Steel
Preparing metal surfaces, other than steel, for painting, calls for special or
additional considerations.
• Aluminium. Anodised aluminium will not accept paint. The anodising must be
removed completely by abrasive blasting with non-metallic abrasive before
paint can successfully be applied.
• Cast aluminium must be blasted, with a non-metallic abrasive, to a uniform,

evenly grey appearance, and a surface roughness of N 9-10 (Rugotest No.3).
Rolled and extruded aluminium requires degreasing (as previously described),

followed by a thin, 5-10 µm, coat of wash primer for less severe service condi-
tions. Sand papering or light blasting with a fine abrasive, may be required if
exposure is severe.
• Hot-dipped galvanizing. Degreasing and removal of sags, runs and zinc ashes
embedded in the galvanizing can, for more than mild service conditions, be
followed by sand sweeping with fine abrasive. This is the only acceptable
method where epoxy systems are to be applied. Alternatively, a wash primer, for
less severe service conditions, may be used.
Coatings of chromate or oil sometimes applied to hot dipped galvanized work

pieces, to prevent formation of white rust must be removed before any further
treatment.
• Stainless Steel. To ensure the adhesion of paint to stainless steel, thorough

degreasing (as previously described) must be followed by light abrasive sweeping
to give a dense, uniform profile. After abrasive sweep and dedusting, an epoxy
primer is applied. Alternatively, a wash primer, for less severe service conditions,
may be used.
63
Inspection and Painting Specification of Steel Surfaces
Cleaned by Water Jetting.
Inspection and painting specification of steel surfaces cleaned by water jetting is discussed
with reference to NACE 5/SSPC-SP 12 and Hempel's Photo Reference.
Special emphasis is made to illustrate some of the major differences exhibited by water jet-
ting as compared to dry abrasive blasting.
Introduction.
Water jetting is today (year 2000) an established and recognised method for removal of rust
and old paint during maintenance of a paint system, within both industry and marine.
The method is suitable during dry docking / shut-down as well as for on board / in-service
maintenance.
The advantages are of both environmental, economical and technical character:
- No dust contamination of the environment

- Easier, faster and cheaper collection of remains from cleaning
- Cheaper removal of cleaned off rust and paint for destruction
- Sensitive areas (f.ex. valves) can be cleaned without special protection
- Soluble salts are removed very effectively
- No dust contamination of areas to be painted
- Layers of paint can be stripped off one by one
- Old paint can be roughened without risk of crack damages
- Edges to intact paint system can be feathered without risk of crack damages
In order to benefit from the full range of advantages described above, the pressure must for
handheld lances be higher than some 1,700 bars (25,000 psi), delivering 10-20 litres of water
per minute.
The limitations most often put forward are:
- No roughness is created
- The cleaned surface re rusts
- Underside of f.ex. T-bars and low placed stiffeners can not be cleaned effectively
64
The two first statements are as such correct, but by a suitable choice of working procedure, a
suitable planning of the job and a suitable choice of primer coat, the limitations are of no real
importance.
About the last statement, there is today special equipment on the market that does allow a
both effective and safe cleaning of such areas also.
It is also sometimes claimed, that water jetting due to the high pressure is a dangerous clea-
ning method, and in addition tiring for the operator.
Partly true, but firstly is water jetting hardly a more dangerous cleaning method than dry
abrasive blasting is.
Secondly, are the risk of damage and the physical burden by the use of water jetting more
related to the flow of water than to the pressure, as illustrated below:
2,000 bar, 12 lt../min 700 bar, 40 lt../min

Safety distance 1.5 m 6m
Backthrust 125 N ~ 12.5 kg 250 N ~ 25 kg
For hand held lances, a maximum backthrust of 250 N (25 kg) is normally accepted.
However, to take into account the extra tiring work of cleaning under-up, a maximum of
200 N (20 kg) is normally aimed at.
Standards.
The first standard dealing with water jetting made by an independent organisation was issued
in 1995 as a joint NACE/SSPC standard:
Surface Preparation and Cleaning of Steel and other Hard Materials by High and Ultra High
Pressure Water Jetting prior to Recoating.
NACE 5/SSPC-SP 12, 1995. -Ref. (1).
By this, cleaning by water jetting became a more generally accepted method, and the basis
was made to work more systematically with water jetting.
Unfortunately, the NACE/SSPC standard does not include a definition of the degree of flash
rusting (re-rusting), neither does it include photos of cleaned and flash rusted surfaces.
As a remedy to these shortcomings, HEMPEL issued:
HEMPEL'S Photo Reference for Steel Surfaces Cleaned by Water Jetting.

HEMPEL 1997. -Ref. (2).
65
NACE/SSPC expect to issue a revision of NACE 5/SSPC-SP 12 in 2001, also containing a
definition of flash rust degrees and referring to photos.
Furthermore there is within a foreseeable future expected an ISO-standard (ISO 8501-4), also
including photos.
Examples of other standards on the market are listed in the reference list, -ref. (4)-(7).
HEMPEL'S Photo Reference.
To make the photo reference as versatile as possible, a variety of previously coated as well as
non coated, but rusty steel surfaces were selected for cleaning.
The selected surfaces were all found at a shipyard on the Atlantic coast of Europe.
Cleaning by water jetting, and the subsequent re rusting by natural exposure also took place at
this yard to illustrate practical conditions as closely as possible.
The water jetting was carried out by use of a hand held lance with rotating nozzles delivering
12 litres of water per minute at a pressure of 1,800-2,000 bar.
All surfaces are illustrated in the original condition, and in 4 cleaned conditions. The 4
cleaned conditions represent the 4 cleaning degrees defined by NACE 5/SSPC-SP 12, as they
appear immediately after cleaning by water jetting.
Furthermore, are the 2 highest cleaning degrees of the originally rusty surfaces illustrated in 3
flash rust degrees, as they appear after natural exposure of various duration.
HEMPEL'S flash rust degrees:
FR-1 A surface which, after surface preparation, has re-rusted to form a yellow-brown
layer, but in such a small amount that the initial surface condition can just faintly be
seen.
The rust may be evenly distributed or it may appear scattered over the surface.
Furthermore, the rust layer is well adhering and will not readily come off to leave
marks on a dry hand, which is swept over the surface with a gentle pressure.
FR-2 A surface which has re-rusted to form a red-brown layer and in an amount that hides
the initial surface condition.
Furthermore, the rust layer is reasonably well adhering and only minor amounts will
come off to leave marks on a dry hand, which is swept over the surface with a gentle
pressure.
FR-3 A surface which has re-rusted to form a heavy red-brown layer that hides the initial
surface condition completely.
The rust is evenly distributed or it may appear scattered over the surface.
66
Furthermore, the rust is loosely adhering and will easily come off to leave marks on a
dry hand, which is swept over the surface with a gentle pressure.
Inspection.
Cleaning degree. NACE 5/SSPC-SP 12.
Assessment of the cleaning degree by water jetting must be done right after the cleaning, i.e.
before formation of any flash rust.
In the assessment of the cleaning degree, it must be recognised that a water cleaned surface
will not have the same appearance as a surface cleaned by abrasives.
Water jetting can strip the surface from rust and paint, and the substrate will be left with
marks and patterns from previous corrosion activity giving it a non-uniform appearance.
Methods which make use of abrasives will in addition to removal of rust and paint also create
a roughness, and thereby leave the substrate with a uniform appearance.
The minimum acceptable cleaning degree is as a rule of thumb:
- WJ 2 for areas to be immersed during service

- WJ 3 for areas to be atmospherically exposed during service.
Flash rust degree. HEMPEL'S Photo Reference.
Assessment of the flash rust degree must be done immediately before paint application.
In the assessment of flash rust degree it must be recognised that flash rusting can appear
differently on different steel surfaces.
This is particularly the case for the two lowest degrees of flash rust.
The time it takes to reach a particular degree of flash rust depends of the micro climate, the
original condition of the surface, the cleaning degree, the capacity of the equipment and very
much of the way in which the cleaning has been organised.
The maximum acceptable degree of flash rust is:
- FR-2/FR-1 for areas to be immersed during service

- FR-2 for areas to be atmospherically exposed during service.
Painting specification.
At any maintenance job, the paint system has to be chosen with due regard to the obtainable
surface condition and to the existing system.
67
Surface condition.
Cleaning with water jetting may either result in cleaning to bare steel or in cleaning to intact
paint layer - stripping.
The condition of the surface to be repaired will determine which of the scenarios is suitable.
In the case of cleaning to steel, it must be considered that cleaning and painting shall be well
co-ordinated to avoid excessive flash rust.
To achieve this, different procedures may be called for dependent of the area to be cleaned
and painted, and of the temperature and relative humidity at the worksite.
The high pressure used by water jetting, results in a heating of the surface, which again results
in a fast drying - almost without re-rusting.
However, if the heated and dried surface gets wet again, f.ex. from cleaning of adjacent areas,
the surface will re rust very fast.
To ensure minimum formation of flash rust, the cleaning may be organised in such a way that
a given area is kept wet during the time it takes to clean that area.
After cleaning, the area will dry uniformly and application can be done before any noticeable
flash rust has formed.
Any maintenance job will include the operation 'feathering of edges', to ensure that the non
removed paint has good adhesion.
Furthermore, it will normally be necessary to do a 'roughening of remaining paint' prior to
over coating.
Both of these operations can be done by water jetting by gradually increasing the distance,
respectively increasing the distance combined with moving the nozzle faster across the
surface.
It is important to be aware that both operations, when performed by handheld lances, require
a pressure > 1,700 bar.
When water jetting is done by automatic equipment, 'roughening' may be performed at a
somewhat lower pressure because the automatic equipment allows distance and speed to be
regulated very precisely.
Paints.
For a water jetted surface, generally characterised by being 'somewhat flash rusted' and
having a 'low roughness', the first coat of paint must have good wetting and good penetration.
68
Typical examples of such paints are:
- Epoxy mastic
- Coal tar epoxy
- Certain chlorinated rubber types
To ensure wetting and penetration even further, the first coat is advantageously applied
thinned, and in a dry film thickness of 30-50 micron.
In addition to increase wetting and penetration, application of a thin first coat will also assist
the flow of work, as such a thin coat in general can tolerate water spray some 10-20 minutes
after application, and thereby allowing for continuos water jetting on adjacent areas.
Application of the first coat shall in general await the water jet cleaned surface to be dry.
The work flow, however, may in some cases call for application of the first coat on a not fully
dry surface.
In such cases, it is recommendable to use a paint especially formulated for that purpose.
Spot repair.
Local areas with rust, peelings or blistering to steel shall be cleaned to minimum WJ 2 -
minimum WJ 3 for atmospherically exposed areas.
Local areas with only superficial damage, f.ex. peelings or blistering between the coats, shall
be cleaned to minimum WJ 4.
For both types, edges to intact coating shall be feathered, and the area surrounding the spot
shall be roughened.
If a cosmetic full coat is specified after touch-up of the spots, a roughening of the entire area
in question may be relevant.
Refurbishment, type 1.
An old paint system, partly degraded and not immediately suited for overcoating, but with
only local damage to steel.
Areas with damage to steel, shall be cleaned to minimum WJ 2 - minimum WJ 3 for atmos-
pherically exposed areas.
Remaining areas are stripped to intact coating.

Depending of the condition of the existing coating system, the stripping may consist in re-
moving the last coat only, or it may consist in removing everything except the primer.
69
Refurbishment, type 2.
An old paint system, with extensive scattered damage to steel.
The whole area shall be cleaned to minimum WJ 2 - minimum WJ 3 for atmospherically

exposed areas.
After the inevitable re-rusting, the area is cleaned in patches to WJ 2 (respectively WJ 3), and
after drying applied a primer coat, preferably in a thin coat, allowing continuos water jetting
on adjacent areas within a short time after application
For further details, please see ref. (3).
Conclusion.
The condition of a water jetted surface can be characterised precisely through:
- the cleaning degree, NACE/SSPC definition

- the flash rust degree, HEMPEL definition
Knowing the initial condition of the surfaces to be cleaned, and the specified cleaning degree
and flash rust degree, HEMPEL'S Photo Reference makes it possible to illustrate the expected
appearance of the surface immediately after cleaning and immediately prior to painting.
This will be of help to the ones who are to do the cleaning and painting, and will assist in a
smoother co-operation between the parties involved.
By use of the Photo Reference, it is important to be aware, that the appearance of a surface
cleaned by water jetting is not unambiguously related to a given cleaning degree, as is the
case for the appearance of a surface cleaned by abrasive blasting.
The water jetted surface will so to speak show traces of the corrosion history of the surface in
question, whereas such traces will be completely destructed by an abrasive blasting.
To utilise the advantages of water jetting as a surface preparation method during maintenance
both effectively and safely, attention must be paid to both the flow of water and the pressure
of water.
For handheld lances, experience shows that the pressure shall be > 1.700 bar, and that the
flow of water shall be 10-20 lt../ min.
A suitable painting specification and working procedure, is of importance during any paint
job to ensure a satisfactory result.
When the surface preparation is done by water jetting, a suitable working procedure plays an
even bigger role, and shall be chosen to allow application prior to formation of excessive
re-rusting.
70
References:
(1) NACE 5/SSPC-SP 12, 1995.

Surface Preparation and Cleaning of Steel and other Hard Materials by High and
Ultra High Pressure Water Jetting prior to Recoating.
(2) HEMPEL'S Photo Reference, 1997

HEMPEL'S Photo Reference for Steel Surfaces Cleaned by Water Jetting.
(3) HEMPEL'S Recommended Painting Specification, 1998

HEMPEL'S Recommended Painting Specification for Steel Surfaces Cleaned by
Water Jetting.
(4) STG Guide No 2222, 1992

Definition of preparation grades for high-pressure water jetting.
(5) International Paints, 1995.

Hydroblasting Standards.
(6) JP/DFR-1, 1995. Jotun Paints.

Degrees of Flash Rusting. Guidelines of visual assessment of Flash Rusting.
(7) NF T 35-520. AFNOR 1997.

Preparation de surface d'acier deja revetue.
(8) SSPC-VIS(I)/NACE No 7, 1998.

Interim Guide and Visual Reference Photographs for Steel Cleaned by Water Jetting.
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6. Paint Application
A good result of paint application depends on 5 factors:
• Proper planning
• Proper working conditions
• Favourable microclimate
• Correct choice of application method
• Operator skill
6.1 Planning
Based on the painting specification, a time schedule reflecting the progress of surface
preparation and paint application should be established.
In the schedule, adequate allowance must be made for the erection and moving of
scaffolding and the time required for rigging, moving and maintaining lighting and
possibly ventilation equipment. Drying, curing and recoating intervals, including
pot life of mixed two-pack products should be considered in the schedule. Antici-
pated temperatures and weather conditions must be considered.
It should be considered whether possible construction or cleaning work may delay the
application of paint or cause damage to, or contamination of, the painted surface.
Rate of work calculations should be based on past experience, with similar painting
crew on similar construction and under similar conditions.
6.2 Working conditions
All areas to be painted should be easily accessible and adequate working light
provided. Adequate working light has an intensity of 500-1,000 lux corresponding to
the light intensity required for reading ordinary newsprint.
Under closed or confined working conditions, ample ventilation must be provided,

both for safety generally (eg risk of explosion), and to ensure drying of the paint.
Retarded drying may result in immediate sagging and running or solvent
entrapment, which impairs the anticorrosive properties and the mechanical strength of
the coating. Inadequate ventilation will also result in prolonged drying and increased
recoating intervals.
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6.3 Microclimate
By microclimate is understood the climatic conditions in that small, well defined area,
where paint gets in contact with the surface of the substrate.
• Temperature of substrate. To avoid condensation and subsequent detachment, the

surface temperature should be above the dew point (minimum 3°C/5°F). At
temperatures in the region of 0°C or below ice may form on the substrate.
• Dew point. The dew point is the temperature at which the humidity in the air will
condense, and settle as moisture on the substrate.
• Ambient temperature. Chemically curing paints and dispersions have specific

requirements to temperature, allowing the paint to dry cure. Minimum application
temperature will vary depending on generic type of paint.
• Relative humidity. With very few exceptions, paints perform best when applied
below 85% relative humidity (RH), and some paints, eg many polyurethane paints,
require even lower relative humidity during application and curing if they are to
perform as designed.
• Temperature of paint. The pot life of mixed two-pack products is determined by

the temperature of the paint, not the air. Also viscosity and spray-ability are influ-
enced by the temperature of the paint.
Beware; solvent-free epoxies may tend to become very warm after mixing in the
can.
The chemical reaction can develop a high amount of heat, which scarcely leaves the
paint in the can.
6.4 Application Methods
Choice of application method will influence not only the rate, but also the quality of
paint work. Major advantages and limitations of the most commonly employed appli-
cation methods are given in the following:
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• Brush
Advantages. The brush is a versatile, low cost tool; old fashioned, perhaps,
but still often the most suitable for painting complex objects, such as lattice
structures, pylons, rods, small diameter piping, etc.
Brush application tends to displace dust, and to

some extent even moisture, from the surface; this
makes brush application particularly well suited for
application of first coat of primer.
For rough or pitted surfaces, the penetration offered

by brush application, when done correctly, is not
surpassed by any other application method.
Limitations. The greatest limitation to brush application is that the method

is slow and therefore labour intensive.
Not all paint types are suited to be applied by brush; high builds (paints
applicable in 80 micron/3,2mils dry film thickness and more in one coat)
being particularly unsuited.
Brush application generally requires much greater skill of the operator

than any other application method.
• Roller
Advantages. Low cost tool, mobility and independence of a power source,

are advantages that the paint roller has in common with the brush.
Roller application is particularly advantageous on

broad, even surfaces and on wire netting.
Limitations. Regardless of operator skill, roller appli-

cation leaves a thin, uneven film, often with misses
and pinholes; for this reason, and because penetration is
very poor, the roller should never be considered for
application of the first coat of primer.
Thick coats are particularly difficult to obtain, and roller application is there-
fore not a method that can be recommended for high builds.
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• Air spray. All spray application systems are based on

the paint being atomised (broken up into minute
droplets) and then deposited on the work piece.
In air spray, compressed air at about 3 bar/45 psi is used

for atomisation of the liquid paint. The result is a very
fine, almost mist-like, atomisation.
Advantages: The low pressure and mist-like atomisation of air spray

enables the skilled operator to achieve superior finishes; painting of motor
cars, furniture, refrigerators, etc. are examples of this.
From a protective coatings point of view, the main advantage of air spray is
that it will apply waterborne zinc silicates (lithium, potassium and sodium
silicates), which airless spray will not, at least not for any length of time.
Limitations: Limitations stemming from the fine atomisation and low

pressure are risk of overspray and dry spray, much paint fog and, often,
loss of material. Low pressure, combined with the emission of a large
volume of air, also results in poor penetration and, with the exception of
waterborne zinc silicates, air spray cannot be recommended for application
of the first coat of primer.
• Airless spray. In airless spray atomisation is achieved

through the sudden release from high pressure, as the
liquid is forced through a narrow orifice.
The high pressure is afforded by a hydraulic pump, usually

driven by compressed air, but air has no part in the atomi-
sation of the liquid.
Advantages: Major characteristics of airless spray are a very high rate of

work and the ability to successfully apply high-build paints.
Airless spray offers good penetration and is well suited for application of
the first coat of primer provided the output pressure and the distance
between nozzle and work piece are correct (30-40 cm/12-16 in).
Limitations: Airless spray does introduce a certain element of hazard, due

to the very high operating pressures which, at the nozzle, may be as high as
300 bar/4,500 psi.
Because of the high pressure, operators are often tempted to spray at exces-
sive distances (sometimes several metres/yards from the work piece). This
causes overspray and/or dry spray with subsequent loss of material, thin
films and poor film formation; the end result being reduced protection.
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• Air-mix spray. The desire to combine the high quality finish of air spray
with the high output of airless spray has led to air-mix spray.
In principle, air-mix spray is an airless using compressed air to assist the

atomisation at the nozzle.
The penetration and the rate of work are better than for air spray, and the
finish almost as good. Compared to airless spray, the method is slower and
the equipment more complex.
• Electrostatic spray. Electrostatic spray is based on the law that particles of
opposite polarity attract one another. The work piece may be positively
charged (earthed), and the paint particles negatively charged through the
gun, being connected to a generator.
The electrical charge to the paint

particles may be applied by either of
two processes:
• The paint is electrically atomised

and charged as it leaves the edge of
a spinning bell or disc.
• The electrical charge is applied to

paint particles already atomised.
Advantages: Overspray, and consequent loss of paint, is greatly reduced.

Very even and exact film thicknesses can be achieved; outside corners and
edges receive full film thickness and, because of a "wrap around" effect, the
risk of misses and holidays is greatly reduced.
Limitations: Inside corners and recesses cannot, because of the Faraday

shielding effect, be adequately coated. The equipment is rather expensive.
Not all paints can be applied electrostatically and, to obtain optimum results,
paints often have to be specially formulated for this application method.
• Pluri-component spray. The introduction of modern high performance

coatings of two, or more, components, high viscous with no or little solvent,
and with a short pot life of only minutes, has necessitated the development
of pluri-component spray systems.
The components, two or more, are either mixed immediately upstream from
the gun, in the gun itself or, indeed, immediately in front of the gun nozzle.
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Metering of the components,

which because of high viscosity
often have to be preheated, is
ideally by individual piston pumps
driven by the same hydraulic (air)
motor.
For some high duty coatings, this

is the only application method
feasible. But cost of equipment is
high, and operators need to be
skilled and experienced in its use
and maintenance. Depending on
how the components are formu-
lated, it may be difficult to check,
whether the paint has been mixed
in the correct proportion, when
leaving the nozzle.
6.5 Workmanship
Some care and attention, workmanship, are required if the paint applied is to form the
adherent, coherent and continuous protective coating desired.
The tip orifice size and atomising pressure should be those best suited for the type of
paint to be applied. This to avoid excessive "orange peel" structure, runs, sags, and
generally uneven film thicknesses. Guidelines for pressure and orifice size would be
individual for the paint in question.
Fan width should be that appropriate for the work piece and its configuration;
overspray and loss of material or a lower rate of work, may otherwise result.
Filters, on both pump and gun, should be clean and intact, to avoid stoppages and loss
of time.
The correct distance between substrate and gun tip is about 30 cm/12 inches, and
certainly never more than 45 cm/18 inches. This ensures optimum penetration and
freedom from dry spray.
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paint not landing on the substrate.

paint droplets just wet enough to adhere, but too dry
to flow and form a continuous film.
The gun should be held perpendicular to the

substrate at all times, also at the end of each gun
pass.
To ensure an even and uniform thickness, spray

passes should be laid at an even speed, each pass
overlapping the preceding pass by 50%, and the
trigger released at the end of each pass.
If an adequate (specified) film thickness is to be

achieved, without going too far above target,
constant monitoring is called for. The wet film thick-
ness should be monitored frequently during applica-
tion. This is normally done by the operator by use of
a wet film gauge (made of steel) which can be read
easily.
Where very high and uniform film thicknesses are required, cross spraying should be
employed.
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7. Product Data Sheets

The product data sheets issued by paint manufacturers will ideally contain all the infor-
mation required by both specifier and user to obtain the full potential of the individual
products.
For certain advanced products, typically zinc silicates, some tank coatings, etc., the
product data sheet would be accompanied by special application instructions.
It would be wrong, as some do, to regard the product data sheet as advertising. It is not!
It contains information vital to the user, the specifier, the applicator, and the paint
coatings inspector.
Since most data sheets are designed to contain a maximum of technical data in a
minimum of space, some data may of necessity be brief and could be misinterpreted
unless the manufacturer's Guide to Product Data Sheets is consulted. Explanatory
notes to the HEMPEL product data sheets make up this chapter.
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EXPLANATORY NOTES TO
PRODUCT DATA SHEETS
The product data sheets comprise descriptions of the products, product data, and guidelines/recommendations for their use.
The purpose is to contribute to the best possible results when using the products.
PRODUCT NAMES, QUALITY NUMBERS, AND SHADE NUMBERS.
PRODUCT NAMES: Generally the proprietary name of a Hempel paint is a collective name denoting the group
and the generic type to which it belongs, thus:
Physically drying:
HEMPATEX® : Chlorinated rubber, acrylic (solvent-borne)

HEMPANYL® : Vinyl, vinyl copolymer
HEMUCRYL® : Acrylic (water-borne)
Chemically curing:
HEMPALIN® : Alkyd, modified alkyd (oxidatively drying)

HEMPADUR® : Epoxy, modified epoxy (solvent-borne, solvent-free)
HEMUDUR® : Epoxy (water-borne)
HEMPATHANE® : Polyurethane (isocyanate)
GALVOSIL® : Zinc silicate
Note: Where a proprietary name is not used the product name is preceeded by
HEMPEL'S.
QUALITY NUMBERS: Each Hempel product is identified by a 5-digit quality number. The first two digits relate
to the principal function and the generic type. The third and fourth digits are serial
numbers. The fifth digit identifies specific formulas with the same product, e.g. high
temperature curing/low, medium temperature curing, conformity to local legislation.
Therefore, the first four digits define the end-user performance, ie the dried, cured paint
material. The fifth digit usually relates to the conditions of application, however, may also
be used purely for logistic reasons.
First digit Function
0---- Clear varnish, thinner
1---- Primer for steel and other metals
2---- Primer for non-metallic substrates
3---- Paste product, high-solids material
4---- Intermediate coating, high-build coating used with/without

primer and finishing coat
5---- Finishing coat
6---- Miscellaneous
7---- Antifouling paint
8---- Miscellaneous
9---- Miscellaneous
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Second digit Generic type
-0--- Asphalt, pitch, bitumen, tar
-1--- Oil, oil varnish, long-oil alkyd
-2--- Medium to long-oil alkyd
-3--- Short-oil alkyd, styrenated alkyd, epoxyester, silicone alkyd,

urethane alkyd
-4--- Miscellaneous
-5--- Reactive binder (non-oxidative), one or two-component
-6--- Physically drying binder (solvent-borne) (other than - 0 - - -)
-7--- Miscellaneous
-8--- Aqueous dispersion, thinner
-9--- Miscellaneous
Example: HEMPADUR 15570: 1---- Primer for steel

-5--- Reactive binder
- - 57 - Serial number
----0 Standard formula
SHADE NUMBERS: Hempel paints are supplied in colours identified by a 5-digit, standard shade number as
follows:
White : 10000
Whitish, grey : 10010-19980
Black : 19990
Yellow, cream, buff : 20010-29990
Blue, violet : 30010-39990
Green : 40010-49990
Red, orange, pink : 50010-59990
Brown : 60010-69990
Example:
HEMPALIN PRIMER 12050-50410: 50410 = red shade
Hempel’s standard shade numbers do not directly correlate to official colour standard
numbers. However, colours corresponding to specific official standard colours may be
established.
Frequently used colours/shades are displayed in HEMPEL’s colour cards.
The fifth digit may be used to identify specific formulas with the same shade, but a
different type of pigments used, eg conformity to (local) legislation. 0 indicates a standard
formulation, 6 lead-containing pigments.
Note: The shades of primers, many intermediates and antifoulings may fluctuate as a
distinct shade is not important for such products.
Description: A short description of the product with emphasis on generic type, pigmentation, principal
properties, and certain limitations.
Recommended use: The purpose(s) for which the product is designed or particularly well suited. The product
may be specified for other uses in tailormade paint systems for specific purposes.
Service temperature: Indicates the maximum temperature that will have no immediate detrimental effect on the
paint.
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A service temperature constantly near the maximum will result in a shorter lifetime of the
specified paint system compared to the lifetime anticipated when operating at normal
temperatures. If service temperatures are often fluctuating between normal temperatures
and near maximum temperatures this will result in an additional decrease in the
anticipated lifetime of the paint system ("accelerated ageing").
Most paints will change appearance when exposed to high temperatures, either by a direct
change of colour or by loosing gloss.
Approvals, certificates: A list of official and semi-official certificates and approvals.
Other certificates and approvals than listed may be available from the nearest HEMPEL
office.
Availability: Delivery of certain products require notice in advance for logistic reasons. This is
indicated by the expression “Local availability subject to confirmation”.
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
Finish: The appearance of the paint film after drying under optimum conditions in laboratory,
given as high gloss (>90), glossy (60-90), semi-gloss (30-60), semi-flat (15-30), or flat
(<15). All figures are in gloss units and according to ASTM D 523-67 (specular gloss, 60
degree geometry). The actual appearance will depend on the conditions during
application and drying/curing.
The finish indicated in the product data sheet is according to optimal conditions (ie
application and measurements under standardized laboratory conditions).
Colours/shade nos: See SHADE NUMBERS. Certain physical constants may vary from one colour to
another.
Volume solids: The Volume Solids (VS) figure expresses in percentage the ratio:
Dry film thickness
Wet film thickness
The stated figure has been determined as the ratio between dry and wet film thickness of
the coating applied in the indicated thickness under laboratory conditions, where no paint
loss has been encountered.
For selected paints not drying too fast an alternative airless spray procedure is:
A paint is applied by airless spray in the indicated thickness to a smooth, degreased steel
panel. Application and drying/curing conditions of the paint are (approx) 23°C/73°F and
50% RH. A number of wet film thickness measurements are taken immediately after
application followed by a similar number of dry film thickness measurements 7 days
(approx 23°C/73°F, 50% RH) after application.
Volume solids are usually slightly higher than the theoretical value, which is found by a
calculation based on the paint composition taking specific gravity and solid content of
each individual raw material into consideration.
Volume solids take into account that small amounts of solvents are usually retained, and
that air may be entrapped in the dry paint film either in the form of vacuoles or as
interstices in zinc silicates.
Volume solids are in better agreement with practical measurements of dry film thickness
than the theoretical value.
Theoretical spreading rate: The theoretical spreading rate of the paint in a given dry film thickness on a completely
smooth surface is calculated as follows:
Volume solids% x 10 = m 2 /litre
Dry film thickness (micron)
or
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Volume solids% x 16.04 = sq.ft./US gallon

Dry film thickness (mils)
1 mil is rounded off to 25 micron - the exact value is 25.4 micron.
In the product data sheet the Theoretical spreading rate is stated for an indicated dry film
thickness (dft) that is usually specified for the product. Some products may be specified
in different dry film thicknesses for different purposes affecting the spreading rate
accordingly. Theoretical spreading rate cannot be given for paint materials used for
saturation of an absorbing substrate, wood, concrete, etc.
The Practical spreading rate is not given in the product data sheet as the variation is too
great to be represented by one single figure.
Consumption factor: The practical consumption is estimated by multiplying the theoretical consumption with a
relevant Consumption Factor (CF).
The Consumption Factor depends on a number of external conditions and cannot be

stated in the product data sheet as the variation is too great to be represented by one
single figure.
Area x CF
Practical consumption = Theoretical spreading rate
The variation in the Consumption Factor is largely attributed to the following:
1) Waviness of paint film:
In order to ensure the specified minimum film thickness, a manually applied paint
film will unavoidably a) show some waviness of the surface and b) a thickness
distribution with an average value somewhat higher than the specified dry film
thickness in order to fulfil eg an 80:20 rule. This leads to a higher consumption than
theoretically calculated.
2) Complexity and size/shape of the surface to be calculated:
Complex, odd-shaped and small-sized surfaces are virtually impossible to paint

without overspray and will therefore lead to higher consumption than theoretically
calculated from the area square in question.
3) Surface roughness of the substrate:
Surface roughness of the substrate gives a "dead volume" to be filled up or in the case
of shopprimers a "surface area ratio" greater than one and will therefore cause a
higher consumption than theoretically calculated for a smooth substrate.
4) Physical losses:
Factors such as residues in cans, pumps and hoses, discarded paint due to exceeded
pot life, wind loss, etc. will all contribute to a higher consumption.
The Practical spreading rate thus varies with method of application, skill of the painter,
shape of the object to be painted, texture of the substrate, film thickness applied, and
working conditions.
In any case it is not beneficial to stretch the paint as much as possible, but rather to try to
obtain the specified thickness of the applied paint on the entire area.
Flash point: The lowest temperature at which a liquid liberates sufficient vapour to form a mixture
with the air near its surface which, if ignited, will make a small flash, but not catch fire.
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The flash points of HEMPEL’S paints are measured according to the Setaflash method
(closed cup). For two-component products flash points are normally given for the mixed
products. The figures are given as a guidance with a view to local regulations for
precautions against fire during use.
Adding THINNER to a paint may change the flash point of the diluted material.
Specific gravity: The weight in kilogramme per litre at 25°C/77°F. An equivalent figure is given in lbs per
US gallon.
For two-component products the specific gravity is given for the mixed product.
The specific gravity may in practice vary in an interval of a few percent compared to the
theoretical value indicated in the product data sheet.
Dry to touch: Drying time in the product data sheet is “dry to touch” unless otherwise indicated.
For shopprimers a more relevant figure for "dry to handle" is given.
Drying times refer to a temperature of 20°C/68°F, 60-70% relative humidity, with

adequate ventilation.
"Dry to touch": A slight pressure with a finger does not leave a mark and the
surface does not feel sticky
"Dry to handle": The paint surface is suffiently hardened to be handled with care
without coming off/being damaged.
The drying process until "dry to touch" is - for solvent (or water) containing paints - first
and foremost dependent on ventilation. Furthermore it depends on the temperature and on
the film thickness of each coat applied.
All surfaces should be ventilated. It should be noted that waterborne paints have higher
requirements to ventilation than do solventborne paints.
In the case of physically drying paints, drying time is also influenced by the number of
coats, the total film thickness of the system and the film thickness per coat. As a rough
rule of thumb, twice the film thickness of a given single coat will require approx 4 times
the drying time with the same amount of ventilation. This goes for both solvent and
waterborne paints.
It should be stressed that when apply applying more coats, entrapped solvents may result
in a softer film than if only one coat is applied. This is especially relevant in the case of
physically drying paints.
Also temperature has much infuence on the drying/curing time. A temperature drop to
10°C/18°F will roughly require twice the drying time for physically drying paints.
Fully cured: The curing time is given for two-component products at a (steel) temperature of
20°C/68°F and provided adequate ventilation. The curing is accelerated at higher
temperatures and retarded at lower temperatures. For some products the curing times at
different temperatures are given as a table in the product data sheet/in the Application
Instructions. For products where the curing time is given at 20°C/68°F only, the
following rough rule of thumb can be utilized:
The curing time is roughly halved at an increase in temperature of 10°C/18°F, and

doubled at a decrease in temperature of 10°C/18°F.
Curing will stop almost completely below the temperature stated under application
conditions as the lowest temperature at which the paint should be applied.
V.O.C.: The calculated weight of volatile organic content in gramme per litre. An equivalent
figure is given in lbs per US gallon.
Alternatively, VOC can be indicated by a measured value.
For water-borne paints, two VOC figures are indicated:
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1. VOC calculated on total wet paint.
2. VOC calculated omittting the water content in the wet paint (according to ASTM D
3960).
Shelf life: The time the product will keep in good condition when stored under cover in original,
sealed containers under normal storage conditions. Shelf life is indicated only if it is one
year or less at 25°C/77°F. It will decrease at higher temperatures, eg will be almost
halved at 35°C/95°F.
If no specific limitation is given, a paint should not be stored for more than five years at
25°C/77°F or three years at 35°C/95°F for one-component products and three years at
25°C/77°F or two years at 35°C/95°F for two-component products from the date of
production.
Long-term storage and storage at high temperatures may require careful remixing of the
paint prior to application due to (slight) sediment in the can.
If storage conditions are unknown and in any other case in doubt about suitability of a
paint material this can be rather easily verified by checking the following:
a. no corrosion of the inside unopened, undamaged cans
b. apparent viscosity in can: after remix, paint must not appear gelatinous or require
excessive thinning prior to proper application
c. application in specified film thickness: a uniform, closed paint film is to be

demonstrated
d. drying time to be within the limit specified in the product data sheet
The date of production is indicated in the first 3 digits of the batch number:
The first digit indicates the year of production, the second and third digits indicate the
month of production.
APPLICATION DETAILS
Mixing ratio: Two-component, chemically curing products are supplied as BASE and CURING
AGENT in the correct mixing ratio. The mixing ratio must be strictly adhered to, also
when sub-dividing. As a general rule, add the CURING AGENT to the BASE 30
minutes (induction time) before use (at 20°C/68°F), unless the pot life is (very) short,
and stir well. This is especially of importance when applying paints to low-temperture
surfaces. In certain cases, more specific advice is given as to induction time.
It is very important for two component products that the prescribed amount of CURING
AGENT is added to the BASE. In order to ensure this the indicated thinner may in most
cases beneficially be used to flush the CURING AGENT can. Once the material has been
mixed the curing will proceed. Therefore, only the quantity needed within the pot life of
the mixture should be mixed at a time.
Application method: Gives the possible or recommended method(s) of application. As a general rule, the first
coat of a rust-preventing primer should be applied by brush or airless spray to obtain best
possible wetting and penetration into the substrate.
Application by brush or roller usually demands more coats applied to achieve the
specified film thickness than application by airless spray equipment.
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Thinner (max.vol): HEMPEL’S paints are delivered in such a way, that they are ready for application at
20°C/68°F by brush or airless spray after stirring (for two-component products after
mixing of BASE and CURING AGENT). This goes for a given normal application range
of dry film thickness. If the paint is too thick, eg in cold weather or for special purposes
eg application in lower film thickness, the THINNER(S) indicated under this heading
may be added to give the required viscosity. The amount of thinner to be added, depends
on prevailing temperature, spray method, etc. The usual maximum percentage is indicated
for the respective application method. If more thinning is deemed necessary under special
circumstances, consult nearest HEMPEL office.
Adding a small percentage of thinner will give no measurable difference in the film
thickness. There are cases, however, when a higher degree of thinning is necessary and
justified. It should then be kept in mind that adding thinner increases the quantity of
liquid paint without contributing to the solids content. Consequently, a proportionally
higher wet film thickness must be applied when adding any significant amount of thinner
in order to obtain the specified dry film thickness.
VS% after thinning = VS% x 100

% THINNER added + 100
Example: If 0.5 litre of THINNER is added to 20 litres of paint, then %

THINNER added equals
0.5 x 100
20 = 2.5%
VS% after thinning equals

VS% x 100
102.5
Note: Avoid unnecessary eg habitual thinning.
Pot life: Roughly speaking, the pot life for solvent-borne paints depends on the paint temperature
as follows:
The pot life is halved at an increase in temperature of 10°C/18°F, and doubled at a

decrease in temperature of 10°C/18°F.
For HEMPADUR products the pot life is usually shorter for application by airless spray
than for brush application. This is due to the fact that the anti-sagging properties are
gradually lost after expiration of the pot life indicated for airless application. Thus the
high dry film thickness usually specified by airless spray application is only obtainable
within the pot life indicated for airless application.
Note: Pot life cannot be extended by thinning.
In the case of water-borne, two-component epoxy products this rule of thumb will not
fit. The temperature's influence on the pot life is noted in the relevant data sheets.
Nozzle orifice: A typical nozzle orifice (or a range of nozzle orifices) is indicated.
Nozzle pressure: A nozzle pressure generally suitable is given.
Note: Airless spray data are offered as a guidance and are subject to adjustment to suit the
work at hand.
Cleaning of tools: Normally the indicated HEMPEL THINNER can be used for cleaning of tools after use.
Where special cleaning agents are recommended it is indicated on the product data sheet.
Tools used in connection with waterborne paints may be difficult to clean. Therefore, it is
especially important to follow the instructions stated in the product data sheets.
Indicated film thickness, dry: Dry film thickness (dft) is indicated in a thickness frequently used in specifications.
Note: Several products are specified in different film thicknesses for different purposes.
Checking of dry film thicknesses is, generally, done with gauges calibrated on smooth
reference steel panels. Shopprimers are controlled according to a special procedure,
which is available at your nearest Hempel office.
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Indicated film thickness, wet: Wet film thickness (wft) is indicated in multiple of 25 micron (1 mil) in order to facilitate
the practical measurements with the wet film thickness gauge (comb gauge). These values
are rounded off to the multiple of 25 which is regarded most relevant in each case.
Recoat interval: The time required or allowed to pass at 20°C/ 68°F or the relevant temperature range for
the product in question before the subsequent coat is applied. The intervals are related to
the temperature, film thickness, number of coats, type of future (in service) exposure and
will be affected correspondingly. For maximum intervals the temperature in this context
is the highest surface temperature during the period. For some products the interval is
more critical in regard to intercoat adhesion than others. If the maximum interval is
exceeded it may be necessary to roughen the surface to ensure adhesion of the next coat.
On the other hand, for some paint types the interval may not be critical in respect of
adhesion, but a primer coat should not be left unprotected for too long in an aggressive
environment.
If nothing else is mentioned the indicated intervals refer to recoating with the same paint.
Other paints of different types may require other (recoating) intervals.
Minimum and any maximum intervals should always be adhered to if the paint system is
to provide maximum protection.
Furthermore, beware of undesired influence of moisture and carbon dioxide on epoxy and
polyurethane paints, which especially occurs at low temperatures and high humidity. This
will result in a greasy surface preventing any adhesion of the subsequent coat.
After exposure of any painted surface in polluted environment thorough cleaning by high
pressure fresh water hosing or another appropriate measure is always recommended
before recoating.
Different minimum and maximum recoating intervals are given for certain products
depending on the later exposure, ie
• In atmospheric conditions mild

medium
severe
• In water
Details about recoat intervals are stated in the relevant painting specification.
SURFACE PREPARATION: The recommended degree of cleaning of the surface before painting. The degrees of
cleaning refer to ISO 8501-1:1988. Pictorial Surface Preparation Standards for Painting
of Steel Surfaces, unless otherwise indicated.
For some products a minimum surface profile is mandatory. The profile so specified is
given with reference to one or more of the roughness comparators: Rugotest No. 3,
Keane-Tator Comparator, or the ISO Comparator.
For previously painted surfaces the method and degree of preparatory cleaning is
generally indicated.
APPLICATION CONDITIONS: If climatic or other limits, beyond what is dictated by normal good painting practice,
apply to the use of a particular quality of paint, this is indicated under this heading.
As a general rule, paint should never be applied under adverse weather conditions. Even
if the weather seems fit for painting there will be condensation if the temperature of the
substrate is at or below the dew point (the temperature at which the atmospheric humidity
condenses, e.g. as dew). To compensate for fluctuations the temperature of the surface
should be at least a few degrees above the dew point during painting and drying. 3°C/5°F
is often quoted as safe.
Beware of ice on the surface at temperatures below the freezing point.
In confined spaces it may be necessary to remove solvent vapours or water vapours by

providing an adequate amount of fresh air constantly during application and drying, both
for reasons of safety and health, and to assist evaporation.
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Keep the paint temperated (room temperature) when applying during winter. If not, the
paint will require excessive thinning leading to an increased risk of sagging. Viscosity in
any paint will increase if the temperature decreases.
PRECEDING COAT: Recommendations of some preceding paint(s) known to be compatible with the product.
No limitation is implied. Other compatible products may be specified depending on the
purpose. In this context, shopprimers are regarded an integral part of the surface
preparation.
SUBSEQUENT COAT: Recommendations of some subsequent paint(s) known to be compatible with the product.
No limitation is implied. Other compatible products may be specified depending on the
purpose.´
REMARKS: Under this heading other relevant data or information are included.
SAFETY: Under this heading general safety precautions when handling or working with the
product are given. Packings are provided with applicable safety labels which should be
observed. In addition, Material Safety Data Sheets, national or local safety regulations
should always be followed.
ISSUED: Month and year of issue, current formula.
Note: The product data sheets are subject to change without notice and automatically
void five years from issue.
Additional notes and definitions of some expressions used in the product data sheets:
Surface cleaning*
Low pressure water cleaning (LP WC): up to 340 bar/5000 psi
High pressure water cleaning (HP WC): 340-680 bar/5000-10.000 psi
High pressure water jetting (HP WJ): 680-1700 bar/10.000-25.000 psi
Ultra-high pressure water jetting (UHP WJ): above 1700 bar/25.000 psi
*As defined in "Joint Surface Preparation Standard NACE No. 5/SSPC-SP 12, 1995".
Note: Wet abrasive blasting may be performed with low or high pressure fresh water to
which a relative small amount of abrasives is introduced, and in some cases inhibitors are
added to prevent flash rusting (however, as a general rule it is recommended not to use
inhibitors when cleaning areas to be immersed during service. Surplus of inhibitors may
lead to osmotic blistering).
A blast primer is a paint used for short term protection of a newly blast cleaned steel
surface of an assembled structure in order to ease the working procedures. In this context
blast primers are often regarded an integral part of the surface preparation.
A holding primer is a paint used to prolong (hold) the protective lifetime of a

shopprimer till the specified paint system proper can be applied.
To apply a mist coat or flash coat is a two step application procedure used to minimize
popping when painting on a porous substrate. At first, one or two spray passes are applied
very thin to expel the air from the pores. As soon as this thin coat has flashed off, the
film is built up to the specified film thickness.
A tie coat is a layer of paint which improves the adhesion between coatings of different
generic types, eg to "bridge" between conventional and advanced coatings, or between
epoxy and physically drying paints.
A sealer coat is a layer of paint which is used to seal off (fill the pores of) porous
surfaces such as zinc silicates and empty, insoluble matrix of certain antifoulings. In this
connection it prevents disturbance of the balance between binder and active pigments of
the new antifouling. Furthermore, certain paints may be used as sealer coats to minimize
popping of the following coat(s) when painting a porous substrate.
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When a paint is mentioned to be resistant to spillages and splashes of certain chemicals

it is understood to be limited in both area and time. The spilt chemical must be removed
as soon as possible and not remain on the surface more than 1-2 days.
When stating both metric and US figures the US figures may be rounded off when an
exact figure is of less importance.
SURFACE PREPARATION STANDARDS
Among the several existing official and unofficial standards for cleaning of steel
preparatory to painting, one - viz.
The old SWEDISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION:

Surface Preparations Standards for Painting Steel Surface (SIS 055900 - 1967) has
gained prominence and acceptance across the frontiers. So much so that it has served as a
model for and has even been adopted direct as national standard in other countries. Its
cleaning degrees Sa 2, Sa 2½, etc. being practically universally recognized, they are
referred to throughout this book in recommendations for cleaning of steel.
The Swedish Standard, as it was usually called, was first to employ pictorial
representations of the specified cleaning degrees. It is now superseded by
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ISO 8501-1:1988. Yet with the same photos as used
by the SIS standard plus additionally four photos (flamecleaning) from the German
standard DIN 55928, Part 4, Supplement 4.
Other prominent standards, notably
STEEL STRUCTURES PAINTING COUNCIL (U.S.A.):

Surface Preparation Specifications (SSPC-SP 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, and 10)
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION; Surface Finish of Blast-cleaned steel for

Painting: (BS 4232 but now superseded by BS 7079)
and
DIN 55928, Protection of steel structures from corrosion by organic and metallic
coatings; preparation and testing of surfaces (Germany) do also concern with the
equipment, materials and procedures used to achieve the specified finish.
The British Standard BS 4232 used drawings to indicate the (Second and Third quality)
finishes, whereas the American and the German Standard use the same photos as ISO
8501-1:1988. Yet, DIN 55928 includes photos of secondary surface preparation too.
Except for BS 4232 they all take into account the state of the raw steel surface before
cleaning, and grades the result accordingly:
A: Steel surface largely covered with adherent mill scale but little, if any, rust.
B: Steel surface which has begun to rust and from which the mill scale has begun to
flake.
C: Steel surface on which the mill scale has rusted away or from which it can be
scraped, but with slight pitting visible under normal vision.
D: Steel surface on which the mill scale has rusted away and on which general pitting
is visible under normal vision.
A surface preparation method using high pressure water for cleaning is getting more
common. The best definition of terms and surface preparation standards are presented by
"Joint Surface Preparation Standard NACE No. 5/SSPC-SP 12" from 1995.
For comparison of the standards see the following pages. The text of the individual
Standards are quoted literally.
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ISO 8501-1:1988
Designation Description
Sa 3 Blast-cleaning to visually clean steel.

When viewed without magnification, the surface shall be free from visible oil, grease and
dirt, and shall be free from mill scale, rust, paint coatings and foreign matter. It shall
have a uniform metallic colour. See photographs A Sa 3, B Sa 3, C Sa 3 and D Sa 3.
Sa 2½ Very thorough blast-cleaning.

dirt, and from mill scale, rust, paint coatings and foreign matter. Any remaining traces of
contamination shall show only as slight stains in the form of spots or stripes. See
photographs A Sa 2½, B Sa 2½, C Sa 2½ and D Sa 2½.
Sa 2 Thorough blast-cleaning.
dirt, and from most of the mill scale, rust, paint coatings and foreign matter. Any residual
contamination shall be firmly adhering (see note 2 below). See photographs B Sa 2, C Sa
2 and D Sa 2.
Sa 1 Light blast-cleaning.
dirt, and from poorly adhering mill scale, rust, paint coatings and foreign matter (see
note 2). See photographs B Sa 1, C Sa 1 and D Sa 1.
Notes:
1. The term "foreign matter" may include water-soluble salts and welding residues.
These contaminants cannot always be completely removed from the surface by dry
blast-cleaning, hand and power tool cleaning or flame cleaning; wet blast-cleaning
or hydrojetting may be necessary.
2. Mill scale, rust or a paint coating is considered to be poorly adhering if it can be

removed by lifting with a blunt putty knife.
St 3 Very thorough hand and power tool cleaning.

As for St 2, but the surface shall be treated much more thoroughly to give a metallic
sheen arising from the metallic substrate. See photographs B St 3, C St 3 and D St 3.
St 2 Thorough hand and power tool cleaning.

When viewed without magnification, the surfaces shall be free from visible oil, grease
and dirt, and from poorly adhering mill scale, rust, paint coatings and foreign matter (see
note 2). See photographs B St 2, C St 2 and D St 2.
Notes:
1. For descriptions of surface preparation methods by hand and power tool cleaning,
including treatment prior to, and after, the hand and power tool cleaning
procedure, see ISO 8504-3.
2. Preparation grade St 1 is not included as it would correspond to a surface

unsuitable for painting.
BS 7079-1990 Replaces BS 4232-1967. BS 7079-1990 is identical to ISO 8501-1: 1988.
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SSPC
SSPC-SP-5 1.1 A white Metal Blast Cleaned surface, when viewed without magnification,
shall be free of all visible oil, grease, dirt, dust, mill scale, rust, paint,
oxides, corrosion products, and other foreign matter.
1.2 ACCEPTABLE VARIATIONS IN APPEARANCE THAT DO NOT AFFECT

SURFACE CLEANLINESS as defined in Section 1.1 include variations caused
by type of steel, original surface condition, thickness of the steel, weld metal, mill
or fabrication marks, heat treating, heat affected zones, blasting abrasive, and
differences in the blast pattern.
1.3 When painting is specified, the surface shall be roughened to a degree suitable for
the specified paint system.
1.4 Immediately prior to paint application the surface shall comply with the degree of
cleaning as specified herein.
1.5 SSPC-Vis 1-89 or other visual standards of surface preparation may be specified
to supplement the written definition.
SSPC-SP-10 2.1 A Near-White Blast Cleaned surface, when viewed without magnification,
oxides, corrosion products, and other foreign matter, except for staining
as noted in Section 2.2.
2.2 Staining shall be limited to no more than 5 per cent of each square inch of surface
area and may consist of light shadows, slight streaks, or minor discolorations
caused by stains of rust, stains of mill scale, or stains of previously applied
paint.
2.3 ACCEPTABLE VARIATIONS IN APPEARANCE THAT DO NOT AFFECT

SURFACE CLEANLINESS as defined in sections 2.1 and 2.2 include variations
caused by type of steel, weld metal, mill or fabrication marks, heat treating, heat
affected zones, blasting abrasives, and differences in the blast pattern.
2.5 Immediately prior to paint application, the surface shall comply with the degree of
SSPC-SP-6 3.1 A Commercial Blast Cleaned surface, when viewed without magnification,
oxides, corrosion products, and other foreign matter, except for staining,
as noted in Section 3.2.
3.2 Staining shall be limited to no more than 33 per cent of each square inch of
surface area and may consist of light shadows, slight streaks, or minor
discolourations caused by stains of rust, stains of mill scale, or stains of
previously applied paint. Slight residues of rust and paint may also be left in the
bottoms of pits if the original surface is pitted.
3.3 ACCEPTABLE VARIATIONS IN APPEARANCE THAT DO NOT

AFFECT SURFACE CLEANLINESS as defined in Sections 3.1 and 3.2
include variations caused by type of steel, original surface condition, thickness of
the steel, weld metal, mill or fabrication marks, heat treating, heat affected zones,
blasting abrasive, and differences in the blast pattern.
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SSPC
SSPC-SP-6, cont. 3.4 When painting is specified, the surface shall be roughened to a degree
suitable for the specified paint system.
SSPC-SP-7 4.1 A Brush-Off Blast Cleaned surface, when viewed without magnification,
shall be free of all visible oil, grease, dirt, dust, loose mill scale, loose
rust, and loose paint. Tightly adherent mill scale, rust, and paint may
remain on the surface. Mill scale, rust, and paint are considered tightly
adherent if they cannot be removed by lifting with a dull putty knife.
4.2 The entire surface shall be subjected to the abrasive blast. The remaining mill
scale, rust, or paint shall be tight.
SSPC-SP-2 5.1 Hand tool cleaning is a method of preparing steel surfaces by the use of
non-power hand tools.
5.2 Hand tool cleaning removes all loose mill scale, loose rust, loose paint, and other
loose detrimental foreign matter. It is not intended that adherent mill
scale, rust, and paint be removed by this process. Mill scale, rust, and paint are
considered adherent if they cannot be removed by lifting with a dull putty knife.
5.3 SSPC-Vis 1-89 or other visual standards of surface preparation agreed upon by
the contracting parties may be used to further define the surface.
DIN 55928 is not quoted (translated) but is fully in line with ISO 8501-1:1988 (except
for the extra standards as mentioned on page 10).
Comparing the standards, no doubt that Sa 3 and SSPC-SP-5 are identical in their
demands to surface cleanliness. Also Sa 2½ and SSPC-SP-10 seem identical.
Concerning Sa 2 and SSPC-SP-6 these differ slightly, SSPC-SP-6 expressing more

demands to quality. SSPC-SP-6 requires remnants being stains only. Sa 2 states "residual
contamination shall be firmly adhering".
Note: For SSPC the written specification takes preference - for ISO 8501-1:1988, the
photos.
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Joint Surface Preparation Standard NACE No. 5/SSPC-SP 12:
Surface preparation and cleaning of steel and other hard materials by high and ultrahigh
pressure water jetting prior to paint application.
WJ visual preparation grades:
WJ-1 Removal of all previously existing visible rust, coatings, millscale and foreign matters to
a uniform matt metal finish.
WJ-2 UHP WJ cleaning to a uniform matt finish with at least 95% of the surface area being free
of all previously existing visible residues and the remaining 5% only containing
randomly dispersed stains of rust, coatings and foreign matters.
WJ-3 HP WJ or UHP WJ to a uniform matt finish with at least two-thirds of the surface being
free of all visible residues (except millscale) and the remaining one-third only containing
randomly dispersed stains of previously existing rust, coatings and foreign matters.
WJ-4 Uniform removal of all loose rust, millscale and loose coatings.
SC-1 An SC-1 surface is free from all detectable contaminants as determined by using available
field test equipment whose sensitivity approximates laboratory equipment. Contaminants
relevant in this standard are chlorides, iron-soluble salts and sulphates.
SC-2 An SC-2 surface has less than 7 microgram/cm² chloride contamination, less than 10
microgram/cm² of soluble ferrous ions and/or less than 16 microgram/cm² sulphate
contamination as verified by field or laboratory analysis using reliable, reproducible test
equipment.
SC-3 An SC-3 surface has less than 50 microgram/cm² chloride and sulphate contaminants as
verified by field or laboratory analysis using reliable, reproducible test equipment.
Definition of flash rust degree (Hempel standard):
Qualitative description
HEMPEL defines:
FR-1 A surface which, after surface preparation, has rusted to form a yellow-brown layer, but
in such a small amount that the initial surface condition of the cleaning can just be faintly
seen.
Furthermore, the rust layer is well adhering and will not readily come off to leave marks
on a dry hand, which is swept over the surface with a gentle pressure.
FR-2 A surface which has rusted to form a red-brown layer and in an amount that hides the
initial surface condition of the cleaning.
Furthermore, the rust is reasonably well adhering and only minor amounts will come off
to leave marks on a dry hand, which is swept over the surface with a gentle pressure.
FR-3 A surface which has rusted to a heavy red-brown layer that covers the surface completely.
The rust is evenly distributed over the surface. Furthermore, the rust is loosely adhering
and will easily come off and will leave significant marks on a dry hand, which is swept
over the surface with a gentle pressure.
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Quantitative description
With the purpose of establishing a reference, HEMPEL has developed a tape test to
distinguish between the different flash rust degrees FR-1, FR-2 and FR-3, as defined
above.
Procedure
1. Select a spot on which to perform the test.
2. Attach a piece of tape (as specified in ASTM D 3359) in a length of at least 5 cm

(2") and rub thoroughly with a fingertip - not a nail - to make the tape adhere
firmly.
3. Peel off the tape and place it on a piece of white paper for reference.
4. Repeat steps 2. and 3. 9 times on exactly the same spot using a new piece of tape
each time.
Assessment (after the 10th piece of tape)
The flash rust degree is assessed on the basis of the amount and type of rust present on
the 10th piece of tape and on the appearance of the test-spot relative to that of the
adjacent areas.
HEMPEL defines:
FR-1 No rust on the tape.
No or only a slight change of the test-spot.
FR-2 Slight localized red-brown rust on the tape.
A significant change of the test-spot, possibly showing localized areas of black rust.
FR-3 Significant, uniform red-brown rust on the tape, also showing grains of black rust.
A significant change of the test-spot, also showing localized areas of black rust.
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ABRASIVE BLASTING, SURFACE PROFILE
Not only inorganic zinc coatings and solventfree coatings, but most paint systems require
a roughened substrate surface to obtain proper adhesion. The surface profile of the
roughened substrates is characterized by a surface roughness and a roughness profile,
which must be itemized separately in specifications for surface preparation.
During field work the anchor pattern is conveniently assessed by visual or tactile
comparison, using standardized comparators. Such comparators are e.g. Rugotest No. 3,
Keane-Tator Surface Profile Comparator, and ISO 8503 surface profile reference
comparators.
Surface roughness: In connection with surface preparation, roughness is defined as the irregularities in
surface texture, which are caused by blastcleaning.
The roughness can be characterized by several roughness values. Most often the
roughness is designated by the maximum height of the profile (peak-to-valley height),
RZ . Sometimes the arithmetical mean deviation of the profile RA, previously known as
CLA- and AA-values (Centre Line Average and Arithmetical Average, respectively), is
used. Designations in boldface are according to ISO Standard.
Because these values may have very different numerical values assigned to them for a
given surface, it is very important to distinguish between them.
It is also important to note that roughness comparison specimens may use different
roughness values. Rugotest No. 3 uses roughness numbers according to ISO 1302 and
2632/II, which are assigned to RA values. Keane-Tator Surface Profile Comparator uses
the maximum average peak-to-valley height, which ressembles RZ, while ISO surface
profile reference comparators uses the designations “Fine”, “Medium”, and “Coarse”.
Although it is not possible to calculate RA values from RZ and vice versa, a working
group of the international Standards Sub-Committee TC 35/SC 12 has established that a
good approximation for RZ is RA x 6.
Roughness profile: Roughness profiles can be characterized as round or sharp edged. Steel shot produces a
round profile, while not worn down steel grit as well as most mineral abrasives give a
sharp edge.
When a roughness profile is given in Hempel’s Product Data Sheets it is normally a

sharp profile.
Because optical effects play a role when judging a surface by means of comparators, both
Rugotest No. 3, Keane-Tator Surface Profile Comparator, and ISO surface profile
reference comparators have different scales for different profiles.
Rugotest No. 3 has specimens for round and sharp profiles collected in one comparator.
For greater roughness values there is even a division in fine and coarse grained finish.
Keane-Tator Surface Profile Comparator has three different discs, designed by S (sand),
G/S (steel or metallic grit), and SH (shot), respectively. ISO Comparators are obtainable
either as a “G” version or a “S” version for use on gritblasted and shotblasted surfaces,
respectively.
The disc corresponding to the abrasive used must be selected for comparison.
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8. Painting Specifications
Good specifications are difficult to write; and painting specifications are more difficult than
most because of the many variables involved.
In addition to being a reliable guide for owner, contractors and supplier, a good painting
specification should also be practical, ie it should be possible to carry out the work with the
material specified and achieve the anticipated result.
Any specification is a compromise, a compromise between the desired and the possible. To
arrive at the most favourable and practical compromise, decisions must be based upon an
examination and evaluation of:
• Coatings and systems to be employed

• The possibility of applying the selected coatings under the given circumstances
• The degree of quality control required
• Cost
• Allocation of charge and accountability.
8.1 Selection of Coatings System
The first step in compiling a painting specification is the selection of a suitable coating
system. Easier said than done; and in fact more a question of elimination than of
selection.
If we include blends and modifications, the paint specifier has today more than 200
different coatings to choose from. In a three-coat system this would give some 8
million possible permutations!
To arrive at the optimum coatings system for a given structure, a three-step analytical
study is recommended.
First: Analyse Primary Requirements
Analyse the structure, location by location; what should each location be

protected against? What must the coating system be resistant to? And what
is the anticipated or desired lifetime?
Answers to these questions would lead, not only to one or more generic
types of coatings, but also to approximate total film thickness and surface
preparation requirements.
Next: Analyse Secondary Requirements or wishes (eg colour, gloss, ease of

cleaning etc.) An analysis of these, perhaps less important demands or
wishes, would further limit the choice of suitable generic types.
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Finally: Study the Feasibility of successfully applying the coating or coatings left,
under the anticipated conditions, and within the allocated budget.
Not an easy task; it takes time and requires knowledge, experience and analytical skills,
but is imperative for optimum return on investment.
The following lists some of the more crucial points to be considered by the paint speci-
fier.
8.1.1 Primary Requirements
Protection
What are the protection requirements of the various parts of the structure?
Some of the major protection requirements to keep in mind are:
• Corrosion prevention
• Prevention of the settlement of fouling organisms
• Protection of commodities against contamination
• Prevention of the general deterioration of construction materials other than
steel (eg concrete)
Resistance
The exposure of the various locations on the structure must be considered:
Ò Water
• condensation
• sea water (incl. polluted)
• brackish water
• fresh water
• sewage
Ò Oil/fat
• Solvents
Ò Alkali/acid
Ò Abrasion/impact
Ò Temperature (eg welding)
Ò UV light (weather)
Ò Industrial atmosphere
Ò Etc.
Anticipated life of structure

This, from a paint point of view, is the expected (or practically possible) time
from completion to first major maintenance operation.
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Substrate
Ò Steel. The initial condition of the steel should be known, and the following
taken into consideration:
• Rust grades (in relation to surface preparation, coatings system and
environment)
• Defects in the steel (inclusion, laminations, etc.)
• The possible need for dressing/treating rough or sharp edges, welds, weld
spatter, arc strikes, weld smoke, etc.
Ò Concrete. Also for concrete the initial condition of the substrate should be
known and the following taken into consideration:
• State of curing
• Cracks and holes to be repaired with mortar or filler
• Mechanical strength of the concrete
• Contamination of the surface and possible migration, eg of oil, into the
concrete
• Protrusions and form joints
• Location of reinforcement bars
• Humidity
• Moisture, eg from soil absorbed through capillary action
Ò Coated. For surfaces previously coated, compatibility with the chosen

protective system must be taken into consideration.
Surface Preparation
A good painting specification prescribes the methods for removal of contami-
nants such as salts (always present on rusty steel) and oil or grease.
Before prescribing mechanical cleaning, the specifier should focus on:
• Abrasive blasting methods

• Abrasives (possible limitations to type or size)
• Cleanness and surface profile
• Possible use of manual or power tools
• The possible need for employing bronze tools
• Degrees of cleanness obtainable by the use of hand/power tools
• Limitations due to burrs, indentations or burnishing
• Methods of removing dust and detritus, from both substrate and the location
generally
For concrete structures, surface preparation serves as much to create a surface,

firm enough to support the chosen coatings system, as it does to clean the
substrate. The specifier should focus on:
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• Degreasing method
• Flame volatilising
• Blast cleaning methods, both wet and dry
• Acidic etching
• High pressure water jetting
• Power tool cleaning
• Possible repair of reinforcement bars
• Possible repair of cracks or filling of holes occurring as a result of surface
preparation
• Methods for the removal of dust, etc.
Based on these considerations, the outcome should be selection of generic

type/types, allocated surface preparation and film thickness.
8.1.2 Secondary Requirements
The choice of coatings if there is any choice left at all at this stage can be further
limited when considering the additional requirements dictated by the very
function of the structure; these could be:
• Light or heat reflection

• Flexibility
• Anti-skid properties
• Fire proofing
• Non-toxic and/or odourless
• Safety colours
• Gloss and gloss retention
• Colour and colour retention
• Ease of cleaning and decontamination
• Ease and frequency of maintenance
• Polishing
• Etc.
8.1.3 Feasibility
The paint specifier possessing adequate knowledge of paint technology and a

reasonable amount of practical experience, will now have chosen (for each
major area or location on the structure) the best possible coating system.
This is not as far too many would believe the end of the painting specification.
Now comes the hard and tedious work of determining whether the chosen
coatings systems can be applied and applied correctly.
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Logistics. Are the coatings chosen available at all?
• Distance from supplier to end user

• Means of transportation and supply reliability
• Storage, both space and conditions
Environmental constraints. Allowance may have to be made for:
Ò Safety, health and environment (eg special local legislation)
Ò Anticipated climatic conditions during work, anticipate the effect on:
• pot life of two-pack products

• drying and curing time
• recoating intervals
• application characteristics
Handling. The handling, transport, storage and erection of parts or preassem-

bled modules of a structure, should cause the specifier to contemplate:
• Repair and touch-up of possible transport damage

• Shop painting versus site painting
• Temporary protection during erection
Working conditions. Due considerations must be given to the possible need

for:
• Staging
• Working light
• Dehumidifiers
• Forced ventilation
Application. Consider:
• Equipment to be used for the application of each individual coat

• Application conditions (ie possible temperature, humidity or other
restrictions)
• Intercoat cleanness
• Possible need for stripe coating
• Etc.
Joints. Some joints, eg friction bolted joints, may require special treatment, and
allowance should be made for this.
Time. How much time is available for surface preparation and paint
application? To what degree can other "behind schedule" trades be expected to
delay painting? And can the job be done in the time available?
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Workforce. For the specifying designer or engineer, there are many aspects of
both main and sub-contractors to be considered, for the painting contractor,
mainly these:
• Adequacy of workforce (also to meet peak demands if work is behind

schedule)
• Adequacy of equipment (sufficient in number, correct type, standard of
maintenance)
• Skill of workers (ratio between skilled workers, labourers, foremen and

supervisors)
• Reputation
8.2 Inspection and Documentation
The compromise coatings system that the specifier is left with, having applied all the
foregoing considerations, may require a greater or lesser degree of quality control.
Some of the important questions to be answered at this stage are:
• Level of inspection required
• Standards and references to be employed
• Type and amount of documentation desired
• Levels of authority (owner/consultant/main contractor/

painting contractor/inspector/operative)
8.3 Cost
Cost must be seen in relation to the expected life of the structure, the amount and
frequency of maintenance, and the cost of possible downtime in connection with
maintenance painting.
Comparatively easily calculated are the costs of:
• Cleaning (labour, equipment, blasting media, compressed air, etc.)

• Painting (labour, equipment, paints, etc.)
• Insurance and guarantee
• Quality control/inspection
• Erection and maintenance of painting shops or stations
• Heating, ventilation, dehumidification
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• Staging and the possible protection of the environment

• Transport
• Administration and management
Less easily calculated are the costs of:
• Dressing of defects, repair and touch up
“Uexpected" costs to be aware of include:
• Stoppages due to unfavourable weather

• Delays caused by other trades
• Faulty material or poor workmanship
• Labour disputes
• Complaints
8.4 Allocation of Responsibilities
Responsibilities can now be allocated. They span from who is responsible for the
removal of spent abrasives, to who pays the telephone bill. From who provides the
heaters and who pays for fuelling the heaters, to who is responsible for checking paint
quantities and qualities.
Allocation of responsibilities is obviously a matter for the contract and not the painting
specification. But many of the critical, and costly, areas where responsibility must be
allocated can be pinpointed only by the author of the painting specification.
8.5 Finally: The Working Specification
A painting specification has a much wider readership than most other specifications;
it spans from the owner and his engineers over consultants, suppliers and main contrac-
tors, to sub-contractors and their operatives.
The art of writing a working specification, ie a painting specification that is actually

workable, is to extract, from all the foregoing conclusions, that which is relevant for
the painting contractor and his operatives. Then to formulate it in clear, concise and
preferably brief terms.
The less paper a paint foreman is given to read, the greater the chance that he will
actually read it. A one-sheet painting specification is ideal. Much of what has other-
wise been considered, evaluated and desired upon in the foregoing, is really for inclu-
sion in the General Conditions of Contract.
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ISO 12944
CORROSION PROTECTION OF STEEL

STRUCTURES BY
PROTECTIVE PAINT SYSTEMS
- a new specification tool for coating specifiers,

painting contractors and applicators
103
ISO 12944: "Corrosion Protection of Steel Structures
by Protective Paint Systems"
Introduction
The satisfactory performance of paint coatings for protection of steel structures against corrosion is
determined by
• the choice and formulation of the products used in differently classified environments; and
• the standard of workmanship and execution of the contract
Agreement between the client and the contractor as to the specifications to be applied is essential to
the satisfactory execution of the work. The paint producer may also introduce specifications, or they
can be made in accordance with national standards, such as BS 5493, DS/R 454, DIN 55928/5 or
similar.
There has, however, been a long-felt wish world-wide to standardise coating specifications and
workmanship. Therefore, the secretariat of the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO)
founded working groups with representation of the national suppliers and users of protective coatings.
The work is now concluded and the result is found under the heading:
ISO 12944: "Corrosion Protection of Steel Structures by Protective Paint Systems"
ISO 12944 Description
The new standard consists of eight parts:
-1 General Introduction
-2 Classification of Environments
-3 Design Considerations
-4 Surface Preparation
-5 Protective Paint Systems
-6 Laboratory Performance Testing Methods
-7 Executions and Supervision of Paint Work
-8 Development of Specifications for New Work and Maintenance
The different parts are described in the following.
104
ISO 12944-1 General Introduction
The 12944-1 describes the extents and restrictions of the standard, and emphasises that the standard
only covers corrosion protection of steel structures by protective paint systems.
Protection against eg
• micro-organisms (marine fouling, fungi, bacteria, etc.)

• chemicals (acids, alkali solvents, gases, etc.)
• mechanical action (abrasion, impact, etc.)
• fire
is not covered by ISO 12944.
Other important restrictions are
• steel items less than 3 mm in thickness

• reinforced concrete and concrete in general
• high alloy steel (stainless steel)
are not covered as well.
The following types of substrates are covered
• uncoated steel (carbon or low alloy) surfaces

• thermally sprayed steel surfaces
• hot dipped galvanised surfaces
• zinc-electroplated steel surfaces
• sheradized steel surfaces
• steel surfaces primed with prefabrication primer
The coating systems are paints which dry and cure at ambient conditions.
Not covered are
• powder coating
• stoving enamels
• heat cured paints
• coatings of more than 2 mm in dft
• linings of tanks and pipelines
• products for chemical treatment of surfaces (eg rust converters)
Additionally, this General Introduction Part mentions considerations of durability, health and safety,
and emphasises that paint suppliers preferably should be ISO 9000 - quality certified.
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ISO 12944-2 Classification of environments
ISO 12944-2 describes the corrosion stresses produced by the atmosphere and by different types of
water and soil. Furthermore, it defines atmospheric corrosion categories and indicates the corrosion
stresses to be expected in situations where steel structures are immersed in water or buried in soil.
The corrosion stresses to which a steel structure is exposed represent one essential parameter
governing the selection of appropriate protective paint systems in accordance with ISO 12944-5.
The various atmospheric corrosive environments are classified in Table 1.:
Classification of environments
ISO 12944-2
Corrosion Examples of typical environments (informative only)
Categories Exterior Interior
C1: very low Inside, heated building with
- neutral atmospheres.
Offices, shops, schools, hotels.
C2: low Atmospheres with low level of Unheated buildings where
pollution. Mostly rural areas. condensation may occur.
Depots, sport halls.
C3: medium Urban and industrial Production rooms with high
atmospheres, moderate humidity and some air pollution.
sulphur dioxide pollution. Food processing plants, laundries,
Coastal areas with low breweries, dairies.
salinity.
C4: high Industry and coastal areas with Chemical plants, coastal ship- and
moderate salinity. boat yards.
C5-I: very high, Industry with high humidity Buildings or areas with almost
industry and aggressive atmosphere. permanent condensation and with
high pollution.
C5-M: very high, Coastal and offshore areas Buildings or areas with almost
marine with high salinity. permanent condensation and with
high pollution.
Table 1
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ISO 12944-3 Design Considerations
This part of the Standard gives information on basic design criteria for steel structures for the purpose
of improving their resistance to corrosion. It gives examples of suitable and unsuitable designs (see
Fig. 1.), indicating which structural elements and combination of elements are likely to cause
accessibility problems when applying, inspecting and maintaining paint systems.
Design Considerations
Examples
Bad Better Best
Fig. 1
In addition, design features which will facilitate the handling and transport of steel structures are
discussed.
ISO 12944-4 Types of surface and surface preparation
ISO 12944-4 describes different types of surface to be protected and gives information on surface
preparation methods such as mechanical, chemical and thermal cleaning. It deals with surface
preparation grades, surface profile (roughness), assessments of prepared surfaces, temporary
protection of prepared surfaces for further coatings, preparation of existing metal coatings, and
environmental aspects. As far as possible reference is made to the basic International Standards (e.g.
ISO 8501-1) on the surface preparation of steel surfaces before application of paints and related
products. ISO 12944-4 is intended to be read in conjunction with ISO 12944-5 and ISO 12944-7.
ISO 12944-5. Paint and varnishes - Protective paint systems for steel structures
The paint specification part of the standard describes different generic types of paints and related
products on the basis of their chemical composition and type of film formation process. It gives
examples of various paint systems that have proved suitable for structures exposed to corrosive
stresses and corrosion categories described in ISO 12944-2, reflecting current knowledge on a
world-wide scale. ISO 12944-5 is intended to be read in conjunction with ISO 12944-6. Table 2.
shows an example from the standard of a paint system in corrosion category area C3:
Paint system for corrosion category ISO 12944-2:C3: Medium

Intermediate and top Expected durability in
Priming coat Coating system
Surf. coats C3
No.
prepar. No. of NDFT No. of NDFT No. of Total Medi-
Binder Type Binder Low High
coats micron coats micron coats NDFT um
ISO EP,
Sa 2½ ESI Zn 1 80 2-3 120 3-4 200
S3.29 PUR
Table 2
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The system described, S3.29, is a 200 micron dft 3 or 4 coat system with ethyl zinc silicate as a
primer, followed by 1 to 2 coats intermediate epoxy, and finished with a PU paint. The expected
durability listed for this system is more than 15 years before first major maintenance job is to be
carried out - the steel surface is then expected to be Ri 3 according to ISO 4628-3. The corresponding
expected durability for the "low" and the "medium" category is 5 years and 5-15 years respectively.
Please note that the expected durability is not a guarantee time. Guarantees have to be made
separately for each single project, as required.
In Enclosure 1. a copy of all the recommended painting specifications for corrosion area C3 are
enclosed as an example.
One important feature of the Part 5. specification is that all dry film thicknesses are multitudes of 40
microns. This makes it more simple and useful.
Another feature is the heading found in the specification sheets: "The paint systems given in the
following table are only examples out of many possible combinations having the same performance".
This allows specification also with systems found from own experience and standards, however
fulfilling ISO 12944-6.
ISO 12944-6 Laboratory Performance Testing Methods
The laboratory test method standard is to be used when the performance of protective paint systems is
to be assessed. It is particularly intended for paint systems for which sufficient practical experience is
not yet available; and covers testing of paint systems designed for application to new steel prepared
by blast cleaning, to hot-dipped galvanised steel and to thermally sprayed metallic coatings.
Atmospheric environments and immersion in water (fresh, brackish or sea water) are also covered.
The laboratory test compliance requirements are (table 3):
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Laboratory performance test methods
ISO 12944-6
Standards
ISO 2812-1 ISO 2812-2 ISO 6270 ISO 7253
Environment Durability Chemical Water Water Hot Salt
Class Resistance1) Immersion Condensation Spray
Low - - 48 h -
C2 Medium - - 48 h -
High - - 120 h -
Low - - 48 h 120 h
C3 Medium - - 120 h 240 h
High - - 240 h 480 h
Low - - 120 h 240 h
C4 Medium - - 240 h 480 h
High - - 480 h 720 h
Low 168 h - 240 h 480 h
C5 - I Medium 168 h - 480 h 720 h
High 168 h - 720 h 1440 h
Low - - 240 h 480 h
C5 - M Medium - - 480 h 720 h
High - - 720 h 1440 h
Low - - - -
Im 1 Medium - 2000 h 720 h -
High - 3000 h 1440 h -
Low - - -
Im 2 Medium - 2000 h 720 h
High - 3000 h 1440 h
Low - - -
Im 3 Medium - 2000 h 720 h
High - 3000 h 1440 h
Table 3
1)
The purpose of the chemical resistance test is not the assessment of anti corrosive properties, but the
ability of a system to withstand highly industrial environment. It is the reason why this (procedure and
duration) remains the same whatever the durability range is. See ISO 12944-6 for range of chemicals.
Correlation exists between the various corrosion categories; eg a system with a durability class of
"high" in category C4 will be "medium" in C5-M - see Table 3.
An important exception from this ISO 12944 part 6 is that waterborne systems are not to be included
in the tests. They require special test conditions, eg cyclic tests.
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ISO 12944-7 Execution and supervision of paint work
ISO 12944-7 describes how paint work is to be carried out in the workshop or on site. It
describes methods for the application of coating materials. Handling and storage of coating
materials before application, and inspection and follow-up of the resulting paint system, are
also covered. Surface preparation is covered by ISO 12944-4.
ISO 12944-8 Development of specifications for new work and maintenance
This part is a guidance how to prepare technical documents describing every aspect that has to
be taken into account when a steel structure is to be protected against corrosion. For the
convenience of the user, ISO 12944-8 distinguishes between project specification, paint
system specification, paint work specification, and inspection and testing specification.
Various annexes deal with particular aspects, such as planning of the work, reference areas
and inspection, and offer models and forms intended to facilitate the work. The other parts of
ISO 12944 are the basis for ISO 12944-8.
Discussions about Part 5 "Painting Specifications”
The tables list both the high VOC and multi-layer systems (see Enclosure 1, System S3.05: 3
to 5-layer alkyd system, dft 200 micron); and the more modern systems with low solvent
emission (VOC), eg two-layer hybrid systems (high solids solvent-borne epoxy + waterborne
acrylics, System S3.15).
Since 1996, a new ISO-working committee on alternative protective systems for steel have
been established. The objective of the committee work is to expand Part 5 with specifications
and test regimes for paint systems in corrosion category C5-M, particularly designed for
offshore and related structures. The members of the committee all agree that the number of
present systems found under C5-M in ISO 12944-5 is inadequate, and their quality assessment
in ISO 12944-6 is unsatisfactory. The committee at present seeks to expand the C5-M systems
and include cyclic and fingerprint tests in ISO 12944-6 as well.
Summary
The new ISO standard is a new tool for all who are concerned with corrosion of steel, and
who want to prevent it and its effect. The standard can provide uniformity in a vast selection
of special and in-house painting specifications. The number of paint systems found in Part 5
of the standard will be able to fulfil and comply with even the most individual requirements.
110
Additionally, the standard can become a support to coating specifiers, in particular the
newer and less experienced. In Table 4. the normal order of a specification job is
described, and the table - or its origin, ISO 12944 Part 1, Annex A - becomes a
valuable record:
Guidelines for using ISO 12944 for a given project

Action Part No.
i. Analyse or estimate the corrosion of the environment -> Part 2
ii. Establish special conditions which may affect the choice of the paint Part 5
system ->
iii. Examine the design of the structure (corrosion traps, galvanic Part 3
corrosion, access) ->
iv. (Maintenance) Assess the condition of the surface -> Part 4
v. Identify suitable paint systems -> Part 5
vi. Select the optimum paint system considering laboratory tests, expected Part 5,
durability and surface preparation -> Part 6
vii. Take care of the environment and minimise health and safety risks -> Part 1,
Part 8
viii. Draw up a work plan and select a method of application ->
Part 7
ix. Establish inspection programmes for routines before, during and after
the job -> Part 7,
Part 8
x. Establish a maintenance programme covering the service life of the
structure -
Source: ISO 12944 Part 1, Annex A
Table 4
In this way the standard can be used as a check list, as it covers all parts of a painting job.
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9. Paint Coating Inspection

Provided the painting specification is a good and workable one (see the foregoing chapter),
quality assurance is simply a question of ensuring that the specification is being followed.
The higher the demands to protection, the more advanced the coating system and painting
specification. This in turn increases the demands to the execution of the work and
consequently the degree of quality control/paint coating inspection.
9.1 Levels of Inspection
Three levels of inspection are recognised. British Standard, BS 5493:1977, defines

them as follows:
(1) Full inspection. All operations observed by a coating inspector and passed as
complying with the specification before the next stage is started. (For larger
projects this may require a team of coating inspectors).
(2) Intermittent inspection. Part of all operations observed by a coating inspector

and passed as complying with the specification before the next stage is started.
(3) Occasional inspection. All operations observed initially by a coating inspector

for setting standards of workmanship. Ad hoc visits by a coating inspector
thereafter.
9.2 Duties of the Inspector
The duties of the paint coating inspector are to
• Prevent errors and mistakes to occur.

• Correct errors and mistakes, should they occur.
This is by no means as simple and easy as it sounds. The multitude of tasks belonging
to paint coating inspection may be conveniently divided according to the progress of
work. Five distinct phases, some of them recurrent, require the coating adviser's
attention.
9.2.1 Before surface preparation
Before the start of any surface preparation, it is important to examine

• working conditions such as lightening of and access to the surface to be
treated
• rust grade of surface (eg A, B, C or D according to ISO 8501-1:1988)
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• contamination of surface, ie water, oil, grease, soluble salt, and others

which will not be removed by mechanical cleaning
• equipment to check if possible oil and water are separated correctly
• blasting media, purity and soluble salts
• adhesion of old coating system if present
Depending on the actual situation and the job to be done, several additional
checks may be relevant:
• welds
weld slag
weld smoke
weld spatter
anti-spatter agent
weld porosity
rough and uneven welds
arc strikes
• sharp edges
• excessive pitting
• lamination
• corrosion traps
• concrete
state of curing
humidity
hydrostatic pressure
laitance
efflorescence
spalling, cracks and similar
• blasting equipment
• blast hoses
• compressor
• nozzles
At this point, it may be advisable also to check if paint is delivered, and type
and colour of the paint are correct.
9.2.2 During surface preparation
Checks to the extent possible are made on
• equipment
• cleanness of surface
• surface profile, surface roughness and roughness profile if steel is to be
prepared
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9.2.3 Before paint application
Main areas on which the coating inspector should focus on before any paint
is applied would be:
• working conditions
lightening
access
ventilation
• application equipment
type
adequacy
condition
• microclimate
surface temperature
air temperature
relative humidity
dew point
• paint to be applied
quality and quantity
colour
shelf life
time at storage
But many other checkpoints may be relevant in specific cases:

type of thinner
type of curing agent
mixing
stirring
storage temperature
paint temperature
and the surface to be painted may also be checked for:
roughness
cleanness
curing (drying state of previous coat)
thin spots or misses
equipment for:
capacity and type
length and condition of hoses
condition of pumps and guns
nozzles
spray fan
paint heater
dehumidification
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9.2.4 During paint application
Most of the checkpoints from previous phases are still valid in this phase
and in addition attention should be paid to:
• wet film thickness

• workmanship, eg possible pinholes, holidays, dry-spray, etc.
• drying/curing of paint
• recoating interval
9.2.5 After paint application
After completion of the application, check must be made on:

• opacity
• total dry film thickness
but also
• microclimate to secure drying/curing
• film formation
pinholes
mud cracking
sagging
misses
dry-spray
orange peel
• adhesion/cohesion
• damages (eg mechanical)
• smoothness
should be checked in specific cases.
9.3 Inspection Equipment
From the listing of the paint coating inspector's duties and main checkpoints, it should
be evident that his most vital equipment is his eyes and ears, his common sense and a
wide experience in paints and allied technologies.
Some checkpoints, however, demand a degree of accuracy not easily afforded by the
human senses, and electronic measuring instruments are called for. But not all the
tools of the inspection trade are that sophisticated.
• Fresh water, when sprinkled on a suspect surface will reveal whether oily or fatty
substances are present or not. And, by the way, if the water does not dry off
(evaporates) within ten to fifteen minutes that surface has a temperature at or
below the dew point.
• An electric torch and an angled mirror with telescopic handle enable the coating
inspector to look into things in a surprisingly thorough manner.
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• Standards to aid the assessment of surface preparation degree, notably:
Ò International Standard ISO 8501-1:1988

Ò British Standard BS 4232
Ò American SSPC SP Standards
• Comparators for determining surface roughness and roughness profile.
Most commonly employed are:
Ò ISO Surface Profile Reference Comparator (ISO 8503)

Ò Rugotest No. 3 (Swiss origin)
Ò Keane Tator Surface Profile Comparator (US origin)
• Tape for checking and documenting dust or other deposits.
• Thermometers for reading temperatures of air, substrate and in some cases paint
.
• Hygrometer or sling psychrometer, for measuring relative humidity.
• Dew point calculator or table, for determining the dew point.
• Wet film gauge of the comb type and made of steel, not plastic, for measuring
and monitoring wet film thicknesses.
• Dry film gauge for measuring dry film thicknesses. The permanent magnet type
("banana") gauge may suffice for less critical work, but where accuracy of
measurement is important, an electronic dry film thickness gauge should be
employed.
• A sharp knife is a useful tool for opening blisters, evaluate adhesion/cohesion,

etc.
• Flash light magnifier for closer examination of blast cleaned areas, deteriorated
coatings, etc.
• Camera for recording and documentation purposes.
• Small plastic bags/containers for gathering samples (eg blasting media).
• Pad and pencil for making sketches and notes, also, if at all possible, well
designed record or report forms for the job at hand.
Special Equipment
Special, less frequently used, inspection equipment worth mentioning, could be:
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TRAINING
• Pinhole detector, used when checking the dried/cured system for continuity (free
from pinholes, macropores, misses and holidays). The high voltage types, up to
about 15 kV, reveal also inadequate overpeak protection.
• Protimeter to indicate the degree of moisture in concrete.
• Adhesion tester (Elcometer 106 or Saeberg) to check or assess adhesion/

cohesion.
• Roughness gauge (BMT-AHR) to determine the average hull roughness on the

underwater hull of ships.
This listing of standard and special inspection equipment does not claim to be absolute
or complete, but in the hands of a skilled and experienced paint coating inspector, the
equipment listed will assist in completing and documenting all vital checks.
9.4 Records, Reports and Documentation
In some sectors of industry, the amount of paper associated with a new structure or
construction quite often seems to have the same weight and volume as the construction
to which the papers refer. How much really is necessary?
The degree of detail to be recorded and reported by the paint coating inspector,
depends on the level of inspection demanded by the painting specification and its
intentions.
The documentation provided by the inspector is a historical record; it may be used for
insurance purposes, for the settling of disputes, and as a basis for future specifications.
Hence there are some minimum demands to the contents of such records.
Minimum. To be at all meaningful and useful, records should as an absolute minimum

contain the following information:
• Identification of area (s) / location (s) inspected

• Date and time
• Weather/ambient/microclimatic conditions
• Information on systems being applied (brand, type, colour, extent and location)
• Quality control checks carried out and their results
• Errors observed and corrected
• Compliance with or deviation from the painting specification
• Advice and recommendations given (not least those to be confirmed by the attend-
ing engineer/owners representative)
Full inspection. Where full inspection is warranted, it is customary also to record

items such as:
117
TRAINING
• Condition of surface before preparation

• Condition of surface after degreasing and desalting
• Condition of surface after preparation/immediately prior to paint application
• Hours worked, down time, delays and their causes (progress of work)
• Time between surface preparation and paint application
• Actual recoating intervals
• Standard of workmanship
• Equipment and techniques used (includes working conditions, working light,
ventilation, scaffolding, dehumidification, etc.)
• Full details of all tests and measurements made and the type of instruments used
• State of drying and/or curing at given intervals and prior to application of subse-
quent coat
Special. At times it may prove useful to have recorded also:
• Handling and/or stacking procedures after painting

• Appropriate information about contractors
• Safety precautions observed
• Means employed for the protection of the environment
118
TRAINING
10. Maintenance and Repair

Most structures are designed for a life well beyond that of their protective coatings systems
and, sooner or later, protection must be restored.
Operators of processing plants, rigs, ships and many other structures, are becoming
increasingly aware of the role of coatings maintenance in trouble-free operations of their
structures, and realise the advantages of providing preventive maintenance in advance of
failure.
When. The maxim for economical maintenance of protective coatings is: "Do it before it is
too late".
The need for maintenance or repair may present itself through:
• Mechanical breakdown (e.g. due to corrosion)

• Conspicuous defects in the paint film (such as flaking, rust spots, etc.)
• Early discovery of paint film ageing (eg chalking or loss of opacity) at planned, periodical
inspections.
The economy of timely maintenance, as opposed to major repairs or complete recoating,

becomes very evident when considering what is involved.
What. Coating repair and maintenance necessitate some or all of the following operations:
• Cleaning and degreasing of the surface

• Removal of corrosion products and damaged coating
• Feathering of edges
• Possibly flatting down/roughening of intact coating
• Removal of dust, salts and other impurities
• Application of a suitable paint system to full and adequate film thickness
The amount of work involved is determined by the condition of the existing

coatings system.
10.1 Evaluation of Existing Coatings System
Evaluation of existing coatings systems is normally subdivided into 4 groups:
Intact, basically sound coatings with only slight deterioration but no signs of
corrosion.
119
TRAINING
a) If recoating is desired (for reasons of appearance), cleaning and possibly flatting

down (roughening) of the surface should be followed by the application of one
or two finishing coats.
b) If recoating is not required; wash down only. This to remove soot, salts and
other corrosion promoting impurities.
Coatings showing noticeable signs of ageing (chalking or exposing previous coat)

but free from rust.
Cleaning, as described under a), above, and the application of one undercoat and one or
two finishing coats, will prolong the life of the protective coatings system
considerably.
Coatings exhibiting blisters and/or pinhead rusting less than Re 53.
a) If the paint film, apart from damaged areas, is otherwise sound and adequate;
spot clean broken down areas and touch up to full film thickness.
b) If the paint film is thin, inadequate; apply, after cleaning and touching up, one
full coat of undercoat and one or two finishing coats.
Coatings exhibiting rusting or other damages as Re 5 or worse.
Remove all coating and corrosion products by suitable means, and apply a new system.
10.2 Surface Preparation
The method of surface preparation chosen for maintenance and repair, is determined by
location, area size and system to be applied.
In addition to what has already been said about surface preparation (chapter 5), special
attention should be paid to the roughening (flatting down) of intact coatings and the
preparations for spot repair.
• Roughening. When chemically curing paints have thoroughly cured, fresh paints
cannot, as a rule, get a firm enough grip to secure adhesion; and roughening of the
old coating becomes necessary.
3
Re 5 refers to the European Scale of Degree of Rusting for Anticorrosive Paints.
Re 5 being equal to 8% of the area having broken down.
120
TRAINING
For smaller areas, flatting down with emery paper may suffice; in some cases hard
wire brushing may do the job. But for larger areas, abrasive sweep blasting (grit
sweep blasting) would probably prove the most economical method.
The belief that grit sweep blasting is abrasive blasting at five to eight times the
normal speed is wrong, and the method detrimental to the coating. Too large parti-
cles, at too high velocity, hit the coating too hard and with too great a distance
between them. This results in deep pits - possibly through to the steel - and star
cracks impairing an otherwise adequate intercoat adhesion.
Grits sweep blasting, when done correctly, is not necessarily faster than blasting,
but it does save the application of a new, complete coatings system.
In grit sweep blasting, the nozzle is held at a

more oblique angle to the work piece than in
abrasive blasting. The particle size is smaller
(0.2-0.8 mm) and the pressure at the nozzle
reduced to about 2 bar/30 psi.
This all results in a dense but not very severe

impact of abrasives on the coating to be
roughened.
121
TRAINING
• Spot cleaning. Far too often problems occur at the border between existing
coating and spot repairs. The problems usually manifest themselves as either
premature rusting, or the lifting and curling of the paint film. Such problems are
avoided by:
• Cleaning to bare metal, not just the visible corroded area, but also adjacent
area, where corrosion (underrusting), although not yet visible, may have
started.
• Feathering (tapering) the edges of intact coating and, if it is of the chemically

curing type, roughening of adjacent area.
Where spot-blasting is employed, it must be realised that feathering and roughening

cannot be effected in one operation. Fractures and damages as previously described,
would occur. If a change of abrasive, or blasting procedure, is impracticable, feathering
and roughening may be done by disc sanding.
10.3 Maintenance Systems
Repair and maintenance would, ideally, be with paints identical to those originally
applied. This may not always be practical or the existing system has proved inadequate
for its intended purpose and an alternative maintenance system is called for.
• Compatibility. In addition to those listed in chapter 8, an important consideration

is that of compatibility. With the many types, and modification to types, of paints
on the market today, it is good advice to consult with the supplier before a change
in the maintenance specification is decided. However, some very general rules
can be suggested:
• Physically drying paints should not be overcoated with paints of the chemically
curing type.
• Chemically curing paints, with the exception of oil and oleoresinous, can
normally be overcoated with physically drying paints.
• The solvent power of the paint being applied should as a rule be no stronger
than that of the existing coating.
• It is advisable to conduct a test on a small patch, to check both adhesion and

solvent action.
• Other considerations. Primers chosen for touching up manually cleaned repair

areas should be well penetrating and, on non immersed areas, of the inhibitor type
(see chapter 4). They should be applied by brush, and preferably in two coats
within the same working day.
122
TRAINING
Building up to full film thickness with undercoat, and the application of finishing
coat, can then be done by whatever method is convenient.
If at all possible, repair and maintenance should be rationalised to the degree that
one specification is valid for the entire structure or even plant. This is to prevent a
comparatively simple operation from becoming a nightmare of different cleaning
procedures, paint types, thinners, etc.
123

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PROTECTIVE

2. CONSTITUENTS, PRODUCTION AND CONTROL

3. CLASSIFICATION AND PROPERTIES OF PAINT

4. PAINTS FOR PURPOSES

7. PRODUCT DATA SHEETS

9. PAINT COATING INSPECTION

10. MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR

Steel against Corrosion

1.2 Key factors for using paint

Paint protects by creating a thin film between a substrate and environment.

The effective lifetime of a protective coating system depends on a number of factors

These factors are:

The substrate (eg steel, concrete)

2. Constituents, Production and Control

Solvents serve to liquefy the binder, facilitating production and application of

The choice of solvents influences among others a paint's application proper-

2.1.4 Extenders (fillers)

Sometimes referred to as non-hiding pigments, the extenders not only serve to

Making an optimal millbase is the key point in an efficient production.

2.2.2 Dispersion (grinding)

Agglomerates have to be divided into primary particles or at least smaller

The capillary effect of large unwetted pigment,

A paint film with smaller, wetted agglomerates

Reduction of agglomerate size and dispersion of particles are both accom-

The millbase is pumped into the mill under

2.2.3 Final mix

Quality is monitored throughout the production. A production laboratory checks the

3. Classification and Properties of Paint

polymer chains polymer chains

3.2 Classification, based on type of binder

Film formation can take place in one of two ways:

3.2.1 Physically drying

Binders of importance to the paint industry are:

3.2.1.1 Solvent-borne paints

Solvents evaporate. Binder molecules are intertwined and attracted to

3.2.1.2 Water-borne paints

Water-borne paints are dispersions of small binder particles in water.

Used in a solvent-borne paint the same size of molecules would result

Properties common to physically drying paints:

• Reversible, ie the coating, even months or years after

Solvent sensitive; consequent to being reversible, these paints

• Temperature independent for film formation, since no chemical

• Thermoplastic, ie physically drying coatings become soft at

• Reversible to a certain degree, as the coalescing agent or

• Solvent sensitive; consequent to the above, solvents similar or

• Temperature dependent for film formation, the softening point

• Thermoplastic, as for solvent-borne paints.

3.2.2 Chemically curing

Binders of importance to the paint industry are:

3.2.2.1 Oxidative curing

3.2.2.2 Two-component curing

Binders which are often dissolved in solvents and consist of two

3.2.2.3 Other curing mechanisms

Binders can be formed by other chemical reactions or polymerisation

• Reaction between binder molecules and water present as humidity

• Reaction between binder molecules and carbon dioxide in the air

• Reaction triggered off by high temperature as in the case of silicone

Properties common to chemically curing paints:

• Irreversible, ie the cured coating is not dissolvable.

• Resistant to solvents (consequence to being irreversible).

• Temperature dependent on film formation as the rate of the chemi-

• Non-thermoplastic. The binder molecules in the tight cross-linking

• Critical recoating interval. Recoating must take place before