P117: Clinical Psychology BIOLOGICAL aspects physiological

Module 1: Introduction to Clinical Psychology of their clients’ problems abnormalities of the brain

A. DEFINITION OF CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY PERCEPTION OF View client’s problems “Fix” the brain by
o The term clinical psychology was first used in print by CLIENTS’ as behavioral, emotional, prescribing medication
LIGHTNER WITMER (1907) as he was the first to operate a PROBLEMS and cognitive. (Noll, 2015)
psychological clinic. Witmer envisioned clinical psychology as a
discipline with similarities to a variety of other fields, specifically APPROACH TO PSYCHOPHARMACOL
PSYCHOTHERAPY
medicine, education, and sociology. TREATMENT OGY
o Clinical Psychology is the aspect of psychological science and
practice concerned with the analysis, treatment, and prevention of
3. CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGISTS vs. SOCIAL WORKERS
human psychological disabilities and with the enhancing of
o Traditionally, social workers have focused their work on the
personal adjustment and effectiveness. (Rodnick, 1985). It uses
interaction between an individual and the components of society
what is known about the principles of human behavior to help
that may contribute to or alleviate the individual’s problems.
people with the numerous troubles and concerns they experience
o Perspective on client’s problems: Products of social ills such as
during their life in their relationships, emotions, and physical
racism, poverty, abuse, etc.
selves.
o Help their clients by connecting them with social services, such
o Clinical Psychology is essentially the branch of psychology that
as welfare agencies, disability offices, or job-training sites.
studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological problems or
o Collaborate with psychologists and psychiatrists in the
disorders.
o The field integrates science, theory, and practice to understand, facilitation of the client’s transition to the community after
leaving an inpatient unit and make sure that needs of housing,
predict, and alleviate maladjustment, disability, and discomfort as
employment, and outpatient mental health services were being
well as to promote human adaptation, adjustment, and personal
met.
development. It focuses on the intellectual, emotional, biological,
psychological, social, and behavioral aspects of human functioning
4. CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGISTS vs. SCHOOL
across the life span, in varying cultures, and at all socioeconomic
PSYCHOLOGISTS
levels.
o School Psychologists work in schools, day-care centers, or
o Clinical psychology involves rigorous study and applied practice
correctional facilities.
directed toward understanding and improving the psychological
o PRIMARY FUNCTION:
facets of the human experience, including but not limited to issues
or problems of behavior, emotions, or intellect. o To enhance the intellectual, emotional, social, and
o The psychological specialty that provides continuing and developmental lives of students.
comprehensive mental and behavioral health care for individuals o Conduct psychological testing to determine diagnoses
and families; consultation to agencies and communities; training, such as learning disorders and ADHD.
education, and supervision; and research-based practice. o Develop programs designed to meet the educational and
emotional needs of students.
B. HOW ARE CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGISTS DIFFERENT FROM o Consult with adults involved in students’ lives (teachers,
OTHER PROFESSIONS? school administrators, school staff, parents) and are
involved to a limited degree in direct counseling with
1. CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGISTS vs. COUNSELING students.
PSYCHOLOGISTS
5. CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGISTS vs. PROFESSIONAL
CLINICAL COUNSELING COUNSELORS
PSYCHOLOGIST PSYCHOLOGIST
CLINICAL PROFESSIONAL
More psychologically PSYCHOLOGIST COUNSELOR
CLIENTELE Less pathological clients
disturbed individuals
EDUCATION Doctorate Degree (PhD) Masters’ Degree
Work more often in
Works in hospitals and Focused on providing
WORK SETTING university counseling
inpatient psychiatric units. services to clients and
centers.
Emphasis on psychological specialize in areas such
SCOPE OF
THEORETICAL Humanistic/ Client- testing and/or conducting as career, school,
Behaviorism TRAINING
ORIENTATION Centered approaches research addiction, couple/
family, or college
Applications of counseling.
Vocational Testing and
INTERESTS psychology to medical
Career Counseling
settings
C. COUNSELING vs. PSYCHOTHERAPY

2. CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGISTS vs. PSYCHIATRISTS A. COUNSELING

⮚ Generally, it refers to short-term consultation that deals with
CLINICAL
PSYCHIATRIST current issues that may be resolved on the conscious level and
PSYCHOLOGIST
tends to be more concerned with practical or immediate issues
Post-Graduate and and outcomes.
DEGREE Doctorate Programs Licensed Medical Doctor ⮚ The counseling process:
(PhD)
o Helps the client process powerful emotions such as grief,
TRAINING Trained to appreciate the Emphasis on the anger, etc.
 ▪
o Deals with immediate causes of stress and anxiety
Todd ensured that their patients were treated in
o Clarify values and identify options when making
a humane and dignified way.
important personal or professional decisions.
o Manage conflicts within relationships ▪ He and his staff emphasized patients’ strengths
o Develop better interpersonal and communication skills rather than weaknesses, and they allowed
o Intentionally change unproductive thoughts and behaviors. patients to have significant input in their own
treatment decisions.
B. PSYCHOTHERAPY
⮚ Typically refers to long-term treatment that usually includes an o DOROTHEA DIX (1802-1887)
o Devoted the rest of her life to improving the lives and
intensive and extensive examination of a person’s psychological
treatment of the mentally ill.
history.
o Her efforts resulted in the establishment of more than
⮚ Psychotherapy is more focused on helping a person understand 30 state institutions for the mentally ill throughout the
his/her life in a profound and reflective manner. United States providing more decent, compassionate
treatment for the mentally ill than they might have
⮚ An evolutionary process that helps a person look at long- otherwise received.
standing attitudes, thoughts, and behaviors that have resulted in
the current quality of one’s life and relationships. 2. LIGHTNER WITMER (1867-1956) AND THE CREATION
⮚ The process goes much deeper to uncover root causes of OF CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
o He founded the first psychological clinic at the University
problems, resulting in more dramatic changes in perspective
of Pennsylvania in 1896.
regarding oneself, one’s life experience, and the world in
o Worked with children whose problems arose in
general.
school settings and were related to learning or
⮚ ULTIMATE GOAL: behavior (Benjamin, 2007; Routh, 2015).
o To empower the individual by freeing him/her from the o Witmer emphasized that clinical psychology could be
grip of unconscious triggers or impulses through increased applied to adults as well as children, or to problems
self-awareness. that had nothing to do with school.
o He founded the first scholarly journal in the field, THE
D. EVOLUTION OF CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC, in 1907.
3. PSYCHOTHERAPY
1. EARLY PIONEERS o In the middle of the 20th Century, PSYCHOTHERAPY
rose to a more prominent place in clinical psychology, the
o WILLIAM TUKE (1732-1822) Psychodynamic approach dominated.
o Visited asylums to get a firsthand look, and he was o In the 1950’s & 1960’s, BEHAVIORISM surfaced as a
appalled by what he saw. fundamentally different approach to human beings and their
o He raised funds to open the York Retreat, a behavioral or emotional problems. The behavioral approach
residential treatment center where the mentally ill emphasizes an empirical method, with problems and
would always be cared for with kindness, dignity, and progress measured in observable, quantifiable terms.
decency. o In the 1960’s, HUMANISTIC THERAPY flourished as
o The York Retreat became an example of humane Roger’s relationship- and growth-oriented approach to
treatment of the mentally ill and initiated the therapy offered an alternative to both psychodynamic and
movement to improve treatment of mentally ill behavioral approaches that many therapists and clients
individuals. found attractive.
o The FAMILY THERAPY revolution took root in the
1950’s.
o PHILIPPE PINEL (1745-1826) o Most recently, interest in COGNITIVE THERAPY, with
o Worked successfully to move mentally ill individuals its emphasis on logical thinking as the foundation of
out of dungeons in Paris, where they were held as psychological wellness, has intensified to the point that it
inmates rather than treated as patients. has become the most popular singular orientation among
o He created new institutions in which patients were not clinical psychologists.
kept in chains or beaten but rather, given healthy
food and benevolent treatment. (breaker of chains) 4. DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROFESSION
o He advocated for the staff to include in their treatment o 1917: American Association of Clinical Psychologists was
of each patient a case history, ongoing treatment founded.
notes, and an illness classification of some kind – o 1919: Transition to the Clinical Section of the APA
components of care that suggested he was genuinely o 1921: Foundation of the Psychological Corporation
interested in improving these individuals rather than o 1940’s: Education and training in clinical psychology
locking them away (Reisman, 1991). became more widespread and more standardized
o Treatise on Insanity (1806) reflected Pinel’s goal of o 1950’s: Proliferation of therapy approaches with new
empathy rather than cruelty for the mentally ill. behavioral and humanistic/existential approaches rivaling
o ELI TODD (1762-1832) established psychodynamic techniques.
o A physician in Connecticut who was inspired by o 1953: Publication of the first Ethical Code of the APA
Pinel’s movement for a more humane treatment of the o 1960’s & 1970’s: Psychotherapy as a recognized part of
mentally ill. American health care.
o He raised funds to open The Retreat in Hartford, o 1980’s: Clinical psychologists enjoyed increased respect
Connecticut in 1824. from the medical establishment as they gained hospital
admitting privileges.
 5. NATIONAL CENTER FOR MENTAL HEALTH relationships between disorders, the prevalence of the
o Established in 1925 through Public Works Act 3258 and course of disorders, or numerous related topics.
was formally opened in 1928.
o Originally called the INSULAR PSYCHOPATHIC f. PROFESSIONAL ISSUES
HOSPITAL o Examine elements of their own profession through
o The pioneer mental health facility in the Philippines empirical research; they study clinical psychologists’
dedicated to delivering preventive, curative, and activities, beliefs, and practices, among other aspects of
rehabilitative mental health care services. their professional lives.

E. RESEARCH IN CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY g.

TEACHING AND TRAINING ISSUES
o Pursue research questions related to how to educate
o REASONS FOR THE CONDUCT OF RESEARCH: those entering the profession.
o Training philosophies, specific coursework,
a. TREATMENT OUTCOME opportunities for specialized training, and the outcome
o A primary reason clinical psychologist has conducted of specific training efforts all represent areas of study.
research is to determine how well their therapies work. o HOW DO CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGISTS DO RESEARCH?

b. EFFICACY vs. EFFECTIVENESS a. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

⮚ Involves the observation of events, development of
o EFFICACY
hypothesis to explain observed events, manipulation of
▪ Refers to the success of a specific therapy in a variables and testing of hypothesis,
controlled study conducted with clients who were ⮚ In clinical psychology, experimental studies take the form
chosen according to particular study criteria.
of RANDOMIZED CLINICAL TRIALS (RCT):
▪ The efficacy of a form of therapy is how well it o Researches test the outcome of a specific,
works “in the lab”, where it is practiced manualized therapy on a specific diagnosis
according to manualized methods and where
outcome for treated individuals is compared via b. QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
clinical trial with outcome for individuals who ⮚ Used by psychologists when there are constraints to the
receive alternate or no treatment.
researcher’s ability to assign people randomly to certain
o EFFECTIVENESS conditions, make specific manipulations, or otherwise
experimentally test certain hypotheses.
▪ Refers to the success of a therapy in actual
⮚ Less scientifically sound than experimental designs but
clinical settings in which client problems span a
are frequently used in clinical psychology and have often
wider range, and clients are not chosen because
yielded very meaningful and important results.
of meeting certain diagnostic criteria.
▪ The effectiveness of psychotherapy is how well it c. BETWEEN-GROUP vs. WITHIN-GROUP DESIGNS
works “in the real world”, or how well it ⮚ BETWEEN-GROUP DESIGN
translates from the lab to the clinics, agencies,
hospitals, private practices, and other settings o Participants in different conditions receive entirely
where clinical psychologists conduct therapy. different treatments
⮚ WITHIN-GROUP DESIGN
c. INTERNAL vs. EXTERNAL VALIDITY
o Involves comparisons of participants in a single
o Internal Validity: Extend to which the change in the
condition to themselves at various points in time.
dependent variable is due solely to the change in the
independent variable ⮚ MIXED-GROUP DESIGN
o Combine aspects of between-group and within-
o External Validity: Generalizability of the result, to group designs
what extent is the same finding valid for different
settings and populations. d. ANALOGUE DESIGNS

o Psychotherapy Outcome Researches: ⮚ Seek to study clinical populations or situations but not
o Minimize any element of the study that may bring into having access to them
question that causal connection between the treatment ⮚ Involves an approximation of the target client or
and the outcome.
situation as a substitute for the “real thing”
d. ASSESSMENT METHODS
e. CORRELATIONAL METHODS
o Clinical psychologists conduct research to evaluate and
improve the assessment methods they use with ⮚ Examine the relationship that exists between two or
clients. more variables

e. DIAGNOSTIC ISSUES f. CASE STUDIES

o Conduct of research to explore issues of diagnosis and
categorization regarding psychological problems ⮚ Involve a thorough and detailed examination of one
o Such studies may examine the validity or reliability of person or situation
existing or proposed diagnostic constructs, the
 ⮚ Include descriptive observations of an individual’s
behavior and an attempt by the researcher to interpret it.

g. META-ANALYSIS
⮚ A statistical method of combining results of separate
studies to create a summation of the findings.

h. CROSS-SECTIONAL vs. LONGITUDINAL DESIGNS

⮚ Cross-sectional designs: Assess or compare a
participant or group of participants at one point.
⮚ Longitudinal designs: Emphasize changes across time,
often making within-group comparisons from one point in
time to another.
Module 2: The Counselor: Person & Professional
▪ They do not hide behind rigid roles or facades, who
I. THE COUNSELOR AS A THERAPEUTIC PERSON they are in their personal life and in their professional
work is congruent.
⮚ Counseling is an intimate form of learning, and it demands a
practitioner who is willing to be an AUTHENTIC PERSON in the
therapeutic relationship and within the context of such a person-to-
person connection that the client experiences growth. o They have a SENSE OF HUMOR.
⮚ THERAPEUTIC ALLIANCE: Connection or relationship ▪ They can put the events of life in perspective and have
between therapist and client. not forgotten how to laugh, especially at their own
⮚ Who the psychotherapist is directly relates to his or her ability to foibles and contradictions.
establish and maintain effective therapy relationships with clients. o They MAKE MISTAKES AND ARE WILLING TO
o The PERSON of the psychotherapist is inextricably
ADMIT THEM.
intertwined with the outcome of psychotherapy.
o Clients place more value on the personality of the therapist ▪ They do not dismiss their errors lightly, yet they do not
than on the specific techniques used. choose to dwell on misery.
⮚ Determinants of therapeutic outcome (contextual factors): o They generally LIVE IN THE PRESENT.
o The alliance
▪ They are not riveted to the past, nor are they fixated on
o The relationship
o The personal and interpersonal skills of the therapist the future.
o Client agency ▪ They are ale to experience and be present with others in
o Extra-therapeutic factors the “now”.

⮚ EFFECTIVITY OF THERAPY/ THERAPEUTIC o They APPRECIATE THE INFLUENCE OF CULTURE.

OUTCOMES ▪ They are aware of the ways in which their own culture
o Dependent on the therapeutic relationship and the therapy affects them, and they respect the diversity of values
methods used; it is essential however, that the methods used espoused by other cultures.
support the therapeutic relationship being formed with the
client. ▪ They are sensitive to the unique differences arising out
of social class, race, sexual orientation, and gender.
⮚ PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE
COUNSELORS o They have a SINCERE INTEREST IN THE WELFARE
o They have an IDENTITY. OF OTHERS.
▪ They know who they are, what they can become, what ▪ This concern is based on respect, care, trust, and a real
they want out of life, and what is essential. valuing of others.

o They RESPECT and APPRECIATE THEMSELVES. o They possess EFFECTIVE INTERPERSONAL SKILLS.
▪ They give and receive help and love out of their own ▪ They can enter the world of others without getting lost
sense of self-worth and strength. in this world, and they strive to create collaborative
relationships with others.
▪ They feel adequate with others and allow others to feel
powerful with them. ▪ They readily entertain another person’s perspective and
can work together toward consensual goals.
o They are OPEN TO CHANGE.
o They become DEEPLY INVOLVED IN THEIR WORK
▪ They exhibit a willingness and courage to leave the
AND DERIVE MEANING FROM IT.
security of the known if they are not satisfied with the
way they are. ▪ They can accept the rewards flowing from their work,
yet they are not slaves to their work.
▪ They make decisions about how they would like to
change, and they work toward becoming the person o They are PASSIONATE.
they want to become.
▪ They have the courage to pursue their dreams and
o They MAKE LIFE-ORIENTED CHOICES. passions, and they radiate a sense of energy.
▪ They are aware of early decisions they made about o They can MAINTAIN HEALTHY BOUNDARIES.
themselves, others, and the world.
▪ They are not the victims of these early decisions, and ▪ Although they strive to be fully present for their clients,
they are willing to revise them if necessary. they don’t carry the problems of their clients around
▪ They are committed to living fully rather than settling with them during leisure hours.
for mere existence. ▪ They know how to say no, which enables them to
maintain balance in their lives.
o They are AUTHENTIC, SINCERE, and HONEST.
II. PERSONAL THERAPY FOR THE COUNSELOR
 o An unethical process with which counselors directly attempt
⮚ Orlinsky and colleagues (2005) suggest that personal therapy
to define a client’s values, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.
contributes to the therapist’s professional work:

o As part of the therapist’s training ⮚ VALUE EXPLORATION

▪ Personal therapy offers a model of therapeutic practice o The heart of why many counselor education programs
encourages or require personal therapy for counselors in
in which the trainee experiences the work of a more training.
experienced therapist and learns experientially what is o Personal therapy sessions provide an opportunity for
helpful or not helpful.
therapists to examine their beliefs and values and to explore
o A beneficial experience in personal therapy can further
their motivations for wanting to share their belief system.
enhance a therapist’s interpersonal skills that are essential to
skillfully practicing therapy. B. THE ROLE OF VALUES IN DEVELOPING THERAPEUTIC
o Successful personal therapy can contribute to a therapist’s GOALS
ability to deal with the ongoing stresses associated with
clinical work. ⮚ Counselors have general goals, which are reflected in their

⮚ Norcross (2005) states that lasting lessons practitioners learn from behavior during the therapy session, in their observations of the
client’s behavior, and in the interventions they make.
their personal therapy experiences pertain to interpersonal
relationships and the dynamics of psychotherapy. ⮚ The GENERAL GOALS of counselors must be congruent with
the personal goals of the client.
o Lessons learned are: o The client and the counselor need to explore what they hope
▪ The centrality of warmth, empathy, and the personal to obtain from the counseling relationship, whether they can
work with each other, and whether their goals are compatible.
relationship
o It is essential that the counselor be able to understand,
▪ Having a sense of what it is like to be a therapy client respect, and work within the framework of the client’s world
rather than forcing the client to fit into the therapist’s scheme
▪ Valuing patience and tolerance of values.
▪ Appreciating the importance of learning how to deal ⮚ The INITIAL INTERVIEW can be used most productively to
with transference and countertransference. focus on the client’s goals or lack of them.
o The therapist may begin asking any of these questions:
⮚ Personal therapy can be instrumental in HEALING the HEALER ▪ What do you expect from counseling?
o By becoming clients themselves, counselors gain an
experiential frame of reference in which to view themselves, ▪ Why are you here?
thus providing a basis for understanding and compassion for
▪ What do you want?
clients, for they can draw on their own memories of reaching
impasses in their therapy, of wanting to go farther at the same ▪ What do you hope to leave with?
time, resisting change.
o Participating in a process of self-exploration can reduce the ▪ How is what you are currently doing working for you?
changes of assuming an attitude of arrogance or of being
convinced that they are totally healed. ▪ What aspects of yourself or your life situation would
o Their own therapy can help them avoid assuming a stance of you most like to change?
superiority over others and makes it less likely that they
would treat people as objects to be pitied or disrespected. o The therapist can also reflect on “Why is this person coming
in for counseling?”
III. THE COUNSELOR’S VALUES AND THE THERAPEUTIC
PROCESS ▪ It is the client’s place to decide on the goals of therapy.

A. THE ROLE OF VALUES IN COUNSELING IV. BECOMING AN EFFECTIVE MULTICULTURAL COUNSELOR

⮚ VALUES are core beliefs that influence how people act, both in ⮚ It is an ETHICAL OBLIGATION for counselors to develop
their personal and professional lives. sensitivity to cultural differences if they hope to make
o PERSONAL VALUES influence how people view interventions that are consistent with the values of their clients.
counseling and the way they interact with clients, including
⮚ The therapist’s role is to assist clients in making decisions that are
the way the conduct client assessments, their views of the
goals of counseling, the interventions they choose, the topics congruent with their worldview, not to live by the therapist’s
they select for discussion in a counseling session, how to values.
evaluate progress, and how to interpret clients’ life situations.
A. ACQUIRING COMPETENCIES IN MULTICULTURAL
⮚ BRACKETING COUNSELING

o The process by which counselors manage their personal ⮚ Effective counselors understand their own cultural conditioning,
values so that they do not contaminate the counseling the cultural values of their clients, and the sociopolitical system of
process. which they are a part.
o Counselors are expected to set aside their personal beliefs
and values when working with a wide range of clients.
⮚ Counselors from all cultural groups must examine their
⮚ VALUE IMPOSITION expectations, attitudes, biases, and assumptions about the
counseling process and about persons from diverse groups.
 o Multicultural counseling is enhanced when practitioners use
⮚ A major part of becoming a diversity-competent counselor
methods and strategies and define goals consistent with the
involves challenging the idea that the values that they hold are life experiences and cultural values of their clients.
automatically true for others.
o Counselors:
B. FRAMEWORK FOR COMPETENCIES AND STANDARDS IN
MULTICULTURAL COUNSELING ▪ Do not force their clients to fir within one counseling
approach, and they recognize that counseling
1. BELIEFS AND ATTITUDES techniques may be culture-bound.
o Effective counselors have moved from being culturally
▪ Can send and receive both verbal and nonverbal
unaware to ensuring that their personal biases, values, or
problems will not interfere with their ability to work with messages accurately and appropriately.
clients who are culturally different from them. ▪ Actively involved with minority individuals outside the
o Cultural self-awareness and sensitivity to one’s own cultural office and are willing to seek out educational,
heritage are essential for any form of helping. consultative, and training experiences to enhance their
ability to work with culturally diverse client
o Counselors are aware of their positive and negative populations.
emotional reactions toward people from other racial and ▪ Consult regularly with other multiculturally sensitive
ethnic groups that may prove detrimental to establishing
professionals regarding issues of culture to determine
collaborative helping relationships.
whether referral may be necessary.
o Counselors:
C. INCORPORATING CULTURE IN COUNSELING PRACTICE
▪ Seek to examine and understand the world form the
vantage point of their clients. a. Learn more about how one’s own cultural background has
influenced his thinking and behaving and take steps to increase
▪ Respect clients’ religious and spiritual beliefs and one’s understanding of other cultures.
values. b. Identify their basic assumptions, as they apply to diversity in
culture, ethnicity, race, gender, class, spirituality, religion, and
▪ Are comfortable with differences between themselves
sexual orientation.
and others in terms of race, ethnicity, culture, and c. Examine the source of knowledge about culture.
beliefs. d. Remain open to ongoing learning of how the various dimensions of
▪ Rather than maintaining their cultural heritage as culture may affect therapeutic work.
e. Be willing to identify and examine your own personal worldview
superior, they can accept and value cultural diversity.
and any prejudices held about other racial/ ethnic groups.
▪ Realize that traditional theories and techniques may not f. Learn to pay attention to the common ground that exists among
be appropriate for all clients or for all problems. people of diverse backgrounds.
g. Be flexible in applying the methods used with clients.
2. KNOWLEDGE h. Remember that practicing from a multicultural perspective can
o Culturally effective practitioners possess certain knowledge make our job easier and can be rewarding for both therapist and
about their own racial and cultural heritage and how if affects client.
them personally and professionally.
V. ISSUES FACED BY BEGINNING THERAPISTS
o They understand the worldview of their clients, and they
learn about their clients’ cultural background and not impose a. Dealing with Anxiety
their values and expectations on their clients from differing b. Being yourself and self-disclosure
cultural backgrounds and avoid stereotyping clients. c. Avoiding perfectionism
d. Being honest about your limitations
o Culturally skilled counselors understand that external e. Understanding silence
sociopolitical forces influence all groups, and they know how f. Dealing with demands from clients
these forces operate with respect to the treatment of g. Dealing with clients who lack commitment
minorities. h. Tolerating ambiguity
i. Becoming aware of your countertransference
o They possess knowledge about the historical background, j. Developing a sense of humor
traditions, and values of the client populations with whom k. Sharing responsibility with the client
they work. l. Declining to give advice
m. Defining your role as a counselor
o Those who are culturally skilled know how to help clients n. Learning to use techniques appropriately
make use of indigenous support systems; in areas where they o. Developing your own counseling style
are lacking in knowledge, they seek resources to assist them. p. Maintaining your vitality as a person and as a professional
Module 3: Clinical Assessment
3. SKILLS AND INTERVENTION STRATEGIES
o Effective counselors have acquired certain skills in working A. REVIEW OF NORMALITY vs. ABNORMALITY
with culturally diverse populations.
⮚ Features of Abnormality:
o Counselors take responsibility for educating their clients o Deviance
about the therapeutic process, including matters such as o Dysfunction
setting goals, appropriate expectations, legal rights, and the o Distress
counselor’s orientation. o Danger to oneself and others
o Faulty Perception or Interpretations of Reality
 ⮚ Harmful Dysfunction Theory (Wakefield, 1992, 1999) ⮚ FEEDBACK
o Harmful: based on social norms o Clinical psychologists provide their clients with the results of
o Dysfunction: failure of the mental mechanism to perform a tests or interviews that have been conducted.
natural function for which it was designed by evolution. o It can come in the form of a face-to-face meeting, a written
o Proposes that in our efforts to determine what is abnormal, report, or other forms.
we consider both scientific data and the social values in the o Most psychologists believe that clients find their feedback to
context of which the behavior takes place. be helpful and positive, even before any type of intervention
is implemented.
⮚ Definition of Abnormality
o Use of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental C. THE CLINICAL INTERVIEW
Disorders, the prevailing diagnostic guide for mental health
professionals. ⮚ GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERVIEWS
o Mental Disorder:
▪ A clinically significant disturbance in cognition, a. AN INTERACTION
- An interview is an interaction between at least two
emotion regulation or behavior that indicates a
persons, each participant contributes to the process, and
dysfunction in mental functioning that is usually
each influences the responses of the other.
associated with significant distress or disability in
work, relationships, or other areas of functioning.
- The interviewer approaches the interaction
purposefully, bearing the responsibility for keeping the
B. ASSESSMENT IN CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
interview on track and moving toward the goal.
⮚ DEFINITION AND PURPOSE
o Clinical Assessment involves an evaluation of an - A good interview is carefully planned, deliberately and
individual’s strengths and weaknesses, a conceptualization skillfully executed, and goal-oriented throughout.
of the problem at hand (as well as possible etiological
b. INTERVIEWS vs. TESTS
factors), and some prescription for alleviating the problem;
- Interviews are more purposeful and organized than
all of these lead us to a better understanding of the client.
conversation but sometimes less formalized or
o Clinical psychologists employ a wide variety of methods,
standardized than psychological tests.
including intelligence tests, achievement tests,
- Psychological testing is the collection of data under
neuropsychological tests, personality tests, and specialized
standardized conditions by means of explicit
measures for targeted variables.
procedures.
- Interviews provide flexibility and a wider opportunity
⮚ THE REFERRAL for an individualized approach that will be effective in
o The beginning of the assessment process. eliciting data from an individual.
o REFERRAL QUESTION
c. THE ART OF INTERVIEWING
▪ What are the reasons behind the client’s problems or - Interviews are often regarded as an art, except in the
difficulties? most structured, formal interviews, there is a degree of
freedom to exercise one’s skill and resourcefulness that
▪ Why was the client referred for assessment? is generally absent from other assessment procedures.

- Decisions such as when to probe, when to be silent, or

⮚ HOW DOES THE CLINICAL ASSESSMENT ADDRESS
when to be indirect or subtle test the skill of the
THE REFERRAL QUESTION? interviewer. With experience, one learns to respond to
o The kinds of information sought are often heavily influenced interviewee cues in a progressively more sensitive
by the clinician’s theoretical commitments. fashion that ultimately serves the purposes of the
o Assessment is not a completely standardized set of interview.
procedures, the purpose of assessment, therefore, is to
describe the client in a way that would address the referral
question.
⮚ CHARACTERISTICS OF ANY ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUE ⮚ THE INTERVIEWER

o VALIDITY a. GENERAL SKILLS (Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-

Flanagan, 2009)
▪ The extent by which the technique measures what it
claims to measure. 1. QUIETING YOURSELF
- Interviewer should be able to quiet down his
internal, self-directed thinking pattern to free them
from being preoccupied with their own thoughts
o RELIABILITY resulting to a struggle in the fundamental task of
listening to their clients.
▪ The extent that the technique yields consistent,
- The voice in the interviewer’s own mind should
repeatable results. not interrupt or drown out the voice of the client.
o CLINICAL UTILITY 2. SELF-AWARENESS
▪ The test is helpful to a clinical psychologist and is - Maximize the interviewer’s ability to know how
he or she tends to affect others interpersonally
beneficial for the client.
and how others tend to relate to him or her.
 - Every interviewer has a distinct combination of should pick up on the client’s vocabulary
idiosyncratic qualities – looks, voice, mannerisms, and, as much as possible, speak in similar
body language, accents, etc.- that may evoke terms.
certain responses from clients.
- Skilled interviewers are mindful of their unique 2. TECHNIQUE
traits, including their cultural assumptions as well - What an interviewer does with clients.
as more superficial characteristics, and consider
their effect on the interview process. a. DIRECTIVE vs. NON-DIRECTIVE STYLES

- DIRECTIVE STYLE
o Interviewers get exactly the information
3. DEVELOPING POSITIVE WORKING they need by asking clients specifically for
RELATIONSHIPS it.
- There is no formula for developing positive o Questions tend to be targeted toward
working relationships during an interview; specific pieces of information, and client
however, attentive listening, appropriate empathy, responses are typically brief.
genuine respect, and cultural sensitivity play o Provide crucial data that clients may not
significant roles. otherwise choose to discuss:
▪ Important historical information
b. SPECIFIC BEHAVIORS
▪ Presence of absence of a particular
1. EYE CONTACT
- Eye contact not only facilitates listening, but it symptom of a disorder
also communicates listening. ▪ Frequency of behaviors
- Requires cultural knowledge and sensitivity on the
part of the interviewer, both as the sender and ▪ Duration of a problem
receiver of eye contact. o Disadvantage:
2. BODY LANGUAGE ▪ Sacrifice rapport in favor of
information; clients may feel as though
3. VOCAL QUALITIES
they did not have a chance to express
- Use pitch, tone, volume, and fluctuation in their
themselves or explain what they
own voices to let clients know that their words
thought was important.
and feelings are deeply appreciated.

4. VERBAL TRACKING
- Effective interviewers can repeat key words and - NON-DIRECTIVE STYLE
phrases back to their clients to assure the clients o Allow the client to determine the course of
that they have been accurately heard. the interview; without direction from the
- Skilled interviewers can monitor the train of interviewer, a client may choose to spend a
thought implied by clients’ patterns of statements lot of time on some topics and none on
and are thus able to shift topics smoothly rather others.
than abruptly. o Provide crucial information that interviewers
5. REFERRING TO THE CLIENT BY THE PROPER may not otherwise know to inquire about.
NAME o Disadvantage:
- Inappropriately using nicknames or shortening ▪ Fall short of gathering specific
names are presumptuous mistakes that can
information; interviewers may finish
jeopardize the clients’ sense of comfort with the
the interview without specific data that
interviewer.
are necessary for a valid diagnosis,
- The initial interview is an ideal opportunity to ask
conceptualization, or recommendation.
clients how they would prefer to be addressed and
to confirm that it is being done correctly.
b. SPECIFIC INTERVIEWER RESPONSES
c. COMPONENTS OF THE INTERVIEW - What the interviewer chooses to say

1. RAPPORT 1. OPEN- AND CLOSED-ENDED QUESTIONS

- A positive, comfortable relationship between
- Open-Ended Questions
interviewer and client.
o Building blocks of the non-directive
- When clients feel a strong sense of rapport with
interviewing style
interviewers, they feel that the interviewers have
o Allow for individualized and
“connected” with them and the interviewers
spontaneous responses from clients.
empathize with their issues.
o The responses tend to be relatively
- How to establish rapport?
o Interviewers should try to put the clients at long, and although they may include a
lot of information relevant to the
ease, especially early in the interview
client, they may lack details that are
session.
important to the clinical psychologist.
o Acknowledge the unique, unusual situation
of the clinical interview. - Close-Ended Questions
o Notice how the client uses language and o Used for directive interviews
then following the client’s lead; interviewers
 o Allow for far less elaboration and self-
▪ Outpatient or inpatient treatment
expression by the client but may yield
quick and precise answers. ▪ Further evaluation (by another

2. CLARIFICATION psychologist, psychiatrist, or health

- Purpose of clarification is to ensure that the professional)
interviewer has an accurate understanding of ▪ Other options
the client’s comments.
- It does not only enhance the interviewer’s d. PRAGMATICS OF THE INTERVIEW
ability to “get it”, but they also communicate
to the client that the interviewer is actively ⮚ NOTE TAKING
listening and processing what the client says. o Written notes are more reliable than the
interviewer’s memory.
3. CONFRONTATION
- Interviewers use confrontation when they ⮚ AUDIO AND VIDEO RECORDINGS
notice discrepancies or inconsistencies in a
⮚ INTERVIEW ROOM
client’s comments
- Like clarification but focus more on the ⮚ CONFIDENTIALITY
apparent contradictory information provided
by the clients.
e. TYPES OF INTERVIEWS

1. INTAKE INTERVIEWS
4. PARAPHRASING - Purpose is to essentially determine whether to
- Used to assure clients that they are being “intake” the client ti the setting where the
accurately heard interview is taking place.
- When interviewers paraphrase, they typically - Determines whether the client needs treatment;
restate the content of the clients’ comments, if so, what form of treatment is needed and
using similar language. whether the current facility can provide that
- Paraphrasing does not usually break new treatment, or the client should be referred to a
ground but maintains the conversation by more suitable facility.
assuring the client that the interviewer is - Typically involve detailed questioning about
paying attention and comprehending. the presenting complaint.
2. DIAGNOSTIC INTERVIEWS
5. REFLECTION OF FEELING - At the end of a well-conducted diagnostic
- Echo the client’s emotions interview, the interviewer can assign DSM
- Reflections of feelings intend to make clients diagnoses confidently and accurately to the
feel that their emotions are recognized, even client’s problems.
if their comments did not explicitly include - Include questions that relate to the criteria of
labels of their feelings. DSM disorders
- Reflecting a client’s feelings often involves
an inference by the interviewer about the a. STRUCTURED INTERVIEW
emotions underlying the client’s words. - A predetermined, planned sequence of
questions that an interviewer asks a
6. SUMMARIZING client.
- Involves tying together various topics that - Constructed for specific purposes such as
may have been discussed, connecting diagnostic purposes.
statements that may have been made at - Advantages:
different points, and identifying themes that o Produce a diagnosis based explicitly
have recurred during the interview. on DSM criteria, reducing reliance
- Summarizing lets the clients know that they on subjective factors, i.e.,
have been understood but in a more clinician’s clinical judgment and
comprehensive, integrative way than inference.
paraphrasing. It conveys to the client that the o Highly reliable
interviewer has a good grasp on the “big o Standardized and uncomplicated in
picture”. terms of administration.
- Disadvantages:
c. CONCLUSIONS
o Format is usually rigid, which can
- Take several different forms, depending on the
inhibit rapport and the client’s
type of interview, the client’s problem, the setting,
opportunity to elaborate or explain
or other factors.
as he or she wishes.
- May be essentially like a summarization or the
o Typically, do not allow for inquiries
interviewer might be able to go a step further by
into important topics that may not
providing an initial conceptualization of the
be directly related to DSM criteria,
client’s problem that incorporates a greater degree
i.e., relationship issues, personal
of detail.
history, and problems that fall
- Conclusions may:
below or between DSM diagnostic
o Consists of a specific diagnosis made by the
categories.
interviewer based on the client’s response to
o Require a more comprehensive list
questions about specific criteria
of questions than is clinically
o Involve recommendations:
 necessary, which lengthens the
⮚ The MSE is NOT intended as a meticulous, comprehensive
interview.
diagnostic tool but rather it is for a brief, flexible administration,
- STRUCTURED CLINICAL INTERVIEW for primarily in hospitals and medical centers requiring no manual
DSM-V DISORDERS (SCID) (First, 2015; or other accompanying materials.
First, Gibbon, Spitzer, Williams, & Benjamin,
E. CRISIS INTERVIEWS
1997; First, Spitzer, Gibbon & Williams, 1997)
o A comprehensive list of questions that ⮚ A special type of clinical interview and can be uniquely
directly ask about specific symptoms of the challenging for the interviewer.
many disorders included in the DSM
o Each question in the SCID has one-to-one
⮚ They are designed not only to assess a problem demanding
correspondence with a specific criterion of a
DSM diagnosis. urgent attention but also to provide immediate and effective
intervention for that problem.
b. UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW
- Involves no predetermined or planned ⮚ Can be conducted in person but also take place often on the
questions telephone via suicide hotlines, crisis lines, and similar services.
- Improvise, interviewers determine their
questions on the spot, seeking
information that they decide is relevant ⮚ Key Components:
during the interview. o Quickly establishing rapport
o Expressing empathy
c. SEMISTRUCTURED INTERVIEW
- Some clinical psychologists blend both
⮚ For suicidal clients:
structured and unstructured approaches.
- Partially structured but may include o Providing an immediate, legitimate alternative to suicide
unstructured segments, typically at the can enable the client to endure this period of very high
beginning of the interview, which allows distress and reach a later point in time when problems may
clients to describe in their own words the feel less severe or solutions may be more viable.
current problem and any relevant history. o Some interviewers ask clients to sign or verbally agree to
- After the unstructured segments, an suicide prevention contracts. These contracts essentially
interviewer may ask a succession of require the client to contact the interviewer before
targeted questions to address specific committing any act of self-harm.
diagnostic criteria. o Issues to be assessed:

D. MENTAL STATUS EXAMINATION (MSE) ▪ How depressed is the client?

⮚ Employed most often in medical settings ▪ Does the client have suicidal thoughts?

▪ Does the client have a suicidal plan?

⮚ Its primary purpose is to quickly assess how the client is
functioning at the time of the evaluation. ▪ How much self-control does the client currently
appear to have?
⮚ It DOES NOT delve into the client’s personal history, nor is it ▪ Does the client have definite suicidal intentions?
designed to determine a DSM diagnosis definitively.
F. INTELLECTUAL AND NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL
⮚ Its yield is usually a brief paragraph that captures the ASSESSMENT
psychological and cognitive processes of an individual “right ⮚ Knowledge of a client’s level of cognitive functioning, including
now”- like a psychological snapshot.
both strengths and deficits, can help a clinical psychologist with
diagnosis and treatment of many presenting problems.
⮚ The format for the MSE is not completely standardized, so it
may be administered differently by various health professionals 1. INTELLIGENCE TESTS
(psychiatrists, clinical psychologists, and other mental health - The most widely accepted intelligence tests endorse a
professionals) hierarchical model of intelligence, as indicated by the fact
that they yield a single overall intelligence score as well as
more specific index, factor, or subtest scores.
⮚ The main categories covered:
o Appearance - WECHSLER INTELLIGENCE SCALES:
o Behavior/ Psychomotor activity o Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV)
o Attitude toward examiner o Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-V)
o Affect and mood o Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of
o Speech and thought Intelligence (WPPSI-IV)
o Perceptual disturbances
o Orientation to person, place, and time
o Memory and intelligence
o Reliability, judgment, and insight
- STANFORD-BINET INTELLIGENCE TEST (SB-5)
o Covers the entire age range in a single version (2 –
89 years old)
 o Commonly used by clinical psychologists who may - BRIEF NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL MEASURE
be testing clients at the extremes of intelligence
range. o BENDER VISUAL-MOTOR GESTALT TEST
(BENDER-GESTALT-II) 3 years - older
2. ACHIEVEMENT TESTS
▪ The most used neuropsychological screen
- Achievement is what the person has accomplished,
especially in the kinds of subjects that people learn in among clinical psychologists.
school, such as reading, spelling, writing, or math. ▪ The test is remarkably brief on average it takes
- Produce age- or grade-equivalency scores as well as
only 6 minutes to administer.
standard scores.
- Commonly used for specific learning disorder ▪ If it is already established that the client being
- WECHSLER INDIVIDUAL ACHIEVEMENT TEST evaluated has or is strongly suspected to have a
(WIAT-III) neuropsychological problem, it is likely that
o A comprehensive achievement test for clients ages 4 the clinical psychologist will select a more
to 50 years. comprehensive battery.
o Measures achievement in four broad areas: reading,
math, written language, and oral language. o REY-OSTERRIETH COMPLEX FIGURE TEST
▪ Brief pencil-and-paper drawing task, but it
3. NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS
- Intended to measure cognitive function and dysfunction involves only a single, more complex figure.
▪ Features the use of pencils of different colors at
- In some cases, these tests are used to localize impairment
to a specific region of the brain various points in the test; the examiner can
trace the client’s sequential approach to the
- Such tests are especially useful for targeted assessment of complex copying task.
problems that might result from a head injury, prolonged ▪ Includes a memory component, in which
alcohol or drug use, or a degenerative brain illness.
clients are asked 3 to 60 minutes after copying
- Used to make a prognosis for improvement, plan the form to reproduce it again from memory.
rehabilitation, determine eligibility for accommodations at
school or at work, and establish a baseline of o REPEATABLE BATTERY FOR THE
neuropsychological abilities to be used as a comparison ASSESSMENT OF NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL
later. STATUS (RBANS)
▪ Focuses on a broader range of abilities than
- FULL NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL BATTERIES
o HALSTEAD-REITAN does either the Bender-Gestalt or Rey-
NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL BATTERY (HRB) Osterrieth

▪ A battery of 8 standardized neuropsychological ▪ Tests visuomotor abilities, verbal skills,

tests attention, and visual memory.

▪ Suitable for clients of age 15 years and above, ▪ The subtests involve such tasks as learning a

but alternate versions are available for younger list of 10 words presented orally, naming
clients. pictures of various objects, recalling an orally
presented list of numbers, recalling a story told
▪ Essentially, its primary purpose is to identify 20 minutes earlier, and copying of visual
people with brain damage identified, including figures.
specific cognitive impairments or physiological
regions of the brain that may be deficient. o WECHSLER MEMORY SCALE (WMS-IV)

▪ The findings of the HRB can help in diagnosis ▪ A memory test often used to assess individuals
and treatment of problems related to brain aged 16 to 90 who are suspected of having
malfunction. memory problems due to brain injury,
dementia, substance abuse, or other factors.
o LURIA-NEBRASKA ▪ Assess both visual and auditory memory across
NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL BATTERY (LNNB)
its seven subtests as well as immediate and
▪ Like the HRB in that it is wide-ranging test of delayed recall.
neuropsychological functioning ▪ WMS-IV offers a shorter version for adults
▪ It consists of 12 scales, with a similar range to over 65 years of age to minimize the impact of
quantitative data. fatigue on test results.
▪ Rely on qualitative written comments from the
examiner about the testing process; these
comments describe what the examiner observe
d about the client, such as:
G. PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT AND BEHAVIORAL
● Problems comprehending the test ASSESSMENT

● How or why the client is missing items

⮚ MULTIMETHOD ASSESSMENT
● Unusual behaviors
 o Personality is best assessed by using multiple methods, 4. CALIFORNIA PSYCHOLOGICAL INVENTORY
including tests of different types, interview data, (CPI)
observations, or other sources. - Emphasizes the positive attributes of personality
o Each method offers a unique perspective, and although (independence, self-acceptance, empathy, tolerance,
some may be more enlightening than others, it is the responsibility, and flexibility)
integration of multiple methods that ultimately proves - Accentuates the strong and healthy rather than the
most informative. pathological aspects of human behavior.
- Strengths-based assessment
⮚ EVIDENCE-BASED ASSESSMENT
5. BECK DEPRESSION INVENTORY-II
o Clinical psychologists who practice evidence-based - Widely respected and used example of tests that are
assessment select only those methods that have strong brief and focus exclusively on one characteristic.
psychometrics, including reliability, validity, and clinical - BDI-II is a self-report, pencil-and-paper test that
utility. assesses depressive symptoms in adults and
adolescents.
⮚ CULTURALLY COMPETENT ASSESSMENT
o Every culture has its own perception of “normal” and its ⮚ PROJECTIVE PERSONALITY TESTS
own variations of “abnormal” as well. o Based on the assumption: People will “project” their
o OVERPATHOLOGIZING personalities if presented with unstructured, ambiguous
stimuli and an unrestricted opportunity to respond.
▪ Viewing as abnormal that which is culturally normal.
1. RORSCHACH INKBLOT METHOD
▪ TASK OF THE CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGIST
- Hermann Rorschach’s Hypothesis: Adult patients’
● Appreciate the meaning of a behavior, thought, responses would reveal their personality
characteristics.
or feeling within the context of the client’s
- Administration occurs in two phases: Response
culture, which may differ from the context of
and Free Association
the psychologist’s own culture.
2. THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST
⮚ OBJECTIVE PERSONALITY TESTS - TAT cards feature interpersonal scenes with
o Unambiguous test items, offer clients a limited range of which clients are tasked to create a story to go
along with each scene.
responses, and are objectively scored.
- Measures INTERPERSONAL TENDENCIES
o Use questionnaires that clients complete with pencil and
paper, involve a series of direct, brief statements or 3. SENTENCE COMPLETION TESTS
questions and either true/false or multiple-choice response - The ambiguous stimuli are the beginnings of
options in which clients indicate the extent to which the sentences, the assumption is that client’s
statement or question applies to them. personalities are revealed by the endings they add
and the sentences they create.
1. MINNESOTA MULTIPHASIC PERSONALITY
- ROTTER INCOMPLETE SENTENCES
INVENTORY-2 (MMPI)
BLANK
- The most popular and the most psychometrically
o Include 40 written sentence “stems” referring
sound objective personality test used by clinical
to various aspects of the client’s life, each
psychologists.
stem is followed by a blank space in which
- Focuses on various types of
the client completes the sentence.
PSYCHOPATHOLOGIES
- Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory- H. BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT
Adolescent (MMPI-A) was designed for clients
aged 14 to 18 years old ⮚ Client’s behaviors do not indicate underlying issues or
problems; instead, those behaviors are the problems. The
2. MILLON CLINICAL MULTIAXIAL INVENTORY- behavior a client demonstrates is a sample of the problem itself,
IV not the sign of some deeper, underlying problem.
- Like MMPI but emphasizes on PERSONALITY
DISORDERS ⮚ BEHAVIORAL OBSERVATION
- Features separate clinical scales corresponding to o Systematic observation of a client’s behavior in the natural
each of the 10 current personality disorders and environment.
clinical scales for other forms of personality o Taking a direct sample of the problem at the site where it
pathology, many of which have been considered for occurs
inclusion as disorders in DSM by are currently o Keeping a record of events that occur immediately before
omitted. and after the target behavior.

3. NEO PERSONALITY INVENTORY-REVISED

(NEO-PI-R)
- Sought to create a personality measure that assesses
“normal” personality characteristics
- Five-Factor Model of Personality (OCEAN)
Module 4: Ethics in Clinical Psychology  The MOST FUNDAMENTAL and
UNIVERSALLY RECOGNIZED
A. DEFINING PROFESSIONAL ETHICS AND CODES ETHICAL PRINCIPLE that cuts across
OF CONDUCT geographical and cultural boundaries, and
 PROFESSIONAL ETHICS are principles that professional disciplines.
govern the behavior of a person or group in an  Recognize the inherent worth of all human
environment. Like values, professional ethics provide beings, regardless of perceived or real
rules on how a person should act towards other people differences in social status, ethnic origin,
and institutions in such an environment. gender, capacities, or other such
 ETHICAL PRINCIPLES underpin all professional characteristics.
codes of conduct; they differ depending on the
profession but there are still UNIVERSAL  Respect for:
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES. o Uniqueness and diversity regardless of
o UNIVERSAL ETHICAL PRINCIPLES perceived or real differences
 Honesty o Customs and beliefs (except when
 Trustworthiness customs and beliefs contravene respect
 Loyalty for dignity of persons or causes harm)
 Respect for Others o Free and informed consent, as
 Adherence to the Law culturally defined and relevant for
 Doing Good and Avoiding Harm to Others individuals, families, groups, and
 Accountability. communities
o Privacy of individuals, families,
 CODES OF CONDUCT: groups, and communities
o Draw on professional ethical principles as the o Protection of confidentiality of personal
basis for prescribing required standards of information of individuals. Families,
behavior for members of a profession. groups, and communities
o They seek to set out the expectations that the o Fairness and justice in the treatment of
profession and society have of its members. persons and people.
o It provides guidelines for the minimum standard
of appropriate behavior in a professional context. II. COMPETENT CARING FOR THE WELL-
o They sit alongside the general law of the land and BEING OF PERSONS AND PEOPLES
the personal values of members of the profession.  Working for the benefit and above all, of
o Provide benefits to: doing no harm to them.
 The public, as they build confidence in the  Maximizing benefits, minimizing potential
trustworthiness of the profession. harm, and offsetting or correcting harm.
 The clients, as they provide greater  Competent Caring: Application of
transparency and certainty about how their knowledge and skills that are appropriate to
affairs will be handled. the nature of a situation within the social and
 Members of the profession, as they provide cultural context.
a supporting framework for resisting  Establish interpersonal relationships that
pressure to act inappropriately, and for enhance potential benefits and reduce
making acceptable decisions in what may be potential harm
‘grey areas”.  Adequate self-knowledge of how one’s
 The profession as a whole, as they provide a values, experiences, culture, and social
common understanding of acceptable context might influence one’s actions and
practice which builds collegiality and allows interpretations.
for fairer disciplinary procedures.
 Others dealing with the profession, as the  Competent caring thru:
profession will be seen as more reliable and o Active concern for the well-being of
easier to deal with. individuals, families, groups, and
communities
B. PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION OF THE o Ensuring that no harm is done to
PHILIPPINES – CODE OF ETHICS (2017) individuals, families, groups, and
communities
A. ETHICAL PRINCIPLES FOR o Maximizing benefits and minimizing
PSYCHOLOGISTS AND PSYCHOMETRICIANS potential harm to individuals, families,
groups, and communities
I. RESPECT FOR THE DIGNITY OF o Correcting or offsetting harmful effects
PERSONS AND PEOPLES that have occurred as a result of their
activities
 o Developing and maintaining promotion of the well-being of society
competence and all its members
o Self-knowledge regarding how their o Promote the highest ethical ideals in the
own values, attitudes, experiences, and scientific, professional, and educational
social contexts influence their actions, activities of its members
interpretations, choices, and o Adequately train its members in their
recommendations ethical responsibilities and required
o Respect for the ability of individuals, competencies
families, groups, and communities to o Develop its ethical awareness and
make decisions for themselves and to sensitivity and to be as self-correcting
care for themselves and each other. as possible

III. INTEGRITY B. GENERAL ETHICAL STANDRARDS AND

 Vital to the advancement of scientific PROCEDURES
knowledge and to the maintenance of public 1. Resolving ethical issues
confidence in the discipline of psychology 2. Standards of professional competence
 Based on honesty, and on truthful, open, and 3. Human relations
accurate communication; includes 4. Confidentiality
recognizing, monitoring, and managing 5. Advertisement and public statements
potential biases, multiple relationships, and 6. Records and fees
other conflicts of interest that could result in
harm and exploitation of persons or peoples. C. COMPETENCIES

 Integrity entails:  Boundaries of Competencies

o Honesty, and truthful, open, and o Based on education, training, supervised
accurate communication internship, consultation, study, or
o Avoiding incomplete disclosure of professional experience.
information unless complete disclosure o Make appropriate referrals where their
is culturally inappropriate or violates existing competencies are not sufficient to
confidentiality or carries the potential ensure effective implementation of provision
to do serious harm to individuals, of their services.
families, groups, and communities o Provide service for which they do not have
o Maximizing impartiality and existing competencies with closely related
minimizing biases prior training or experience and a reasonable
o Not exploiting persons or peoples for effort to obtain the competences required by
personal, professional, or financial gain undergoing relevant research, training,
o Avoiding conflicts of interest and consultation, or thorough study.
declaring them when they cannot be o Take reasonable steps to protect their clients
avoided or are inappropriate to avoid. when requested to make available their
services.
IV. PROFESSIONAL AND SCIENTIFIC
RESPONSIBILITIES TO SOCIETY  Providing services in emergencies
 Maintaining competence
 Psychology as a profession has the  Bases for scientific and professional judgments
responsibility to contribute knowledge about  Delegation of work to others
human behavior and to the persons’  Personal problems and conflicts
understanding of themselves and others and
using such knowledge to improve the D. CONFIDENTIALITY
condition of individuals, families, groups,
and communities.  Maintaining Confidentiality
 The discipline has the responsibility to: o Safeguard any information divulged by the
o Increase scientific and professional clients, regardless of the medium where it
knowledge to promote well-being of was stored.
society and all its members o The professional has the duty to make sure
o Use psychological knowledge for that this information is secured and is not
beneficial purposes and to protect such placed in areas, spaces, or computers easily
knowledge from being misused, used accessible to other unqualified persons.
incompetently, or made useless
o Conduct its affairs in ways that are  Limitations of Confidentiality
ethical and consistent with the o Limitations of confidentiality may be due to
regulated laws, institutional rules, or
 professional or scientific relationship or in o Information gathered from school, hospital,
cases where the client is a minor or is legally office, or organization becomes part of the
incapable of giving informed consent. institution where it was obtained.
o Professionals shall explain explicitly to the
client all anticipated uses of the information  Duty to Warn
they will disclose. o Born from the Tarasoff Case
o Release information to appropriate o Clinical psychologists have understood that
individuals or authorities only after careful there are limits to their confidentiality
deliberation or when there is imminent agreements with clients and that they have a
danger to the individual and community. In duty to warn people toward whom their
court cases, information should be limited clients make credible, serious threats.
only to those pertinent to the legitimate
request of the course. C. INFORMED CONSENT
o If the psychological services, information, or  Ensures the person with whom the psychologist
products is coursed through an electronic is working the opportunity to become
transmission, it is the duty of the psychology knowledgeable about the activities in which they
practitioners to inform the clients of the may participate, and it facilitates an educated
risks to privacy. decision and refuse to consent if they so choose.

 Recording  IN RESEARCH:
o Obtain permission from clients or legal o Psychologists should inform prospective
representatives before recording the voices participants about numerous aspects of the
or images of the clients and explain all study, including its purpose, procedures, and
anticipated uses of the recordings. length of time it may require; any
predictable risks or adverse effects;
 Minimizing Invasions of Privacy incentives for participation; and the right to
o In conducting consultations with colleagues decline or withdraw from participation.
or make written and oral reports, the
professional should only reveal information  IN ASSESSMENT:
that is relevant to the consultation. o Professionals should offer information about
o Psychology practitioners shall discuss the nature and purpose of the assessment;
confidential information they obtained in the any relevant fees; the involvement of other
course of their work for appropriate parties, if any; and limits of confidentiality.
educational, scientific, medical, and
professional purposes such as research,  IN PSYCHOTHERAPY:
intervention, and case consultations. o Professionals should inform clients/ patients
as early as is feasible in the therapeutic
 Disclosures relationship about the nature and anticipated
o Professionals should take reasonable steps to course of therapy, fees, involvement of third
ensure that information to be disclosed will parties, and limits of confidentiality and
not be misused, misunderstood, or provide sufficient opportunity for the client/
misinterpreted to infringe on human rights, patient to ask questions and receive answers.
whether intentionally or unintentionally. o Professionals should be able to give the
o Disclose confidential information only when client opportunities to ask questions and
the client or legal representative gave their receive answers and it is the chance to begin
consent unless it is prohibited by law. to establish a collaborative relationship with
o Disclose confidential information only with the client.
a written permission from the client, with
knowledge as to the nature of information D. ETHICAL DECISION MAKING (Fisher, 2017)
that will be disclosed and to whom it will be  Prior to any ethical dilemma arising, make a
provided. commitment to doing what is ethically
o Disclose information with consent of the appropriate.
client or legal representative only when it is  Become familiar with the Psychological
mandated by law or permitted by law for Association of the Philippines Code of Ethics.
valid purposes.  Consult any law or professional guidelines
relevant to the situation at hand.
o When confidential information needs to be  Try to understand the perspectives of various
shared with schools, organizations, social parties affected by the actions you may take.
agencies, or industry. Consult with supervisors, colleagues, etc. for
additional input and discussion.
 Generate and evaluate your alternatives.
  Select and implement the course of action that o Release the data to clients on request unless
seems most ethically appropriate. there is reason to believe that the data will
 Monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of course be misused or will harm the client.
of action.
 Modify and continue to evaluate the ethical plan, G. ETHICS IN CLINICAL RESEARCH
as necessary.
 Minimize harm to participants, steer clear of
E. BOUNDARIES AND MULTIPLE plagiarism, and avoid fabrication of data, among
RELATIONSHIPS other things.

 MULTIPLE RELATIONSHIPS  EFFICACY OF PSYCHOTHERAPY

o The client as the psychologists’ friend, o Conduct the therapy in question with one
business partner, family member, group of participants, whereas a second
acquaintance, etc. group does not receive this therapy.
o Occurs when a psychologist is in a o Essential to inform participants before they
professional role with a person and: consent to the study that some of them may
 At the same time is in another role with not receive the treatment being studied or
the same person any treatment at all.
 At the same time is in a relationship
with a person closely associated with or
related to the person with whom the
psychologist has the professional
relationship
 Promises to enter into another
relationship in the future with the
person or a person closely associated
with or related to the person.
o A professional refrain from entering into a
multiple relationship if the multiple H. CONTEMPORARY ETHICAL ISSUES
relationship could reasonably be expected to
impair the psychologist’s objectivity, a. TECHNOLOGY AND ETHICS
competence, or effectiveness in performing
his or her functions as a psychologist, or  Online (Open-Source) Psychological Tests
otherwise risks exploitation or harm to the o Questionable validity or reliability, and
person with whom the professional the feedback they provide may be
relationship exists. inaccurate and distressing to clients.

F. ETHICS IN CLINICAL ASSESSMENT  Online Therapy Practices

o Concerns about confidentiality and
 Test Selection client identity that does not exist when
o Professional’s competence the clinical psychologist works with the
o Client’s culture, language, and age client in person.
o Test reliability and validity
b. ETHICS IN SMALL COMMUNITIES
 Test Construction  Rural areas and small towns or even
o Establish adequate reliability and validity within large cities, professionals can
o Minimize test bias find themselves living and working in
o Accompany the test with a coherent, user- small communities defined by
friendly test manual ethnicity, religion, or sexual
orientation, or on military bases, at
 Test Security small colleges, or in similar settings.
o Professionals should make the efforts to  Multiple relationships are perhaps the
protect the security and integrity of the test most distinctively difficult ethical issue
materials they use. for clinical psychologists in small
communities. Those working in small
 Test Data communities may not be able to live in
o Raw data the client provided during the one population and practice in another,
assessment – responses, answers, and other so keeping personal and professional
notes the psychologists may have made. aspects of their lives entirely separate
may prove impossible.
Module 5: Psychological Intervention  At this stage, clients are changing their maladaptive
behaviors, emotions, and/or their environment.
A. PSYCHOLOGICAL INTERVENTION DEFINED
5. MAINTENANCE (keeping up change)
a. PSYCHOLOGICAL INTERVENTION  At this stage, the client works on preventing relapses and
 A method of inducing changes in a person’s behavior, on furthering the gains that have been made during the
thoughts, or feelings in the context of a professional action stage.
relationship – a relationship sought by the client or the
client’s guardians. 6. TERMINATION
 Therapy is undertaken to solve a specific problem or to  The client has made the necessary changes, and relapse is
improve the individual’s capacity to deal with existing no longer a threat.
behaviors, feelings, or thoughts that are debilitating.
 In some cases, the focus may be more on the prevention of B. FEATURES COMMON TO MANY THERAPIES
problems than on remedying an existing condition or on other
instances, the focus is less on solving or preventing problems  SUPPORTIVE FACTORS
than it is on increasing the person’s ability to take pleasure o Lay the groundwork for changes in clients’ beliefs and
in life or to achieve some latent potential. attitudes which lead to behavioral change
o Such as positive relationship, trust, learning factors, action
b. PSYCHOTHERAPY factors, etc.
 A form of treatment for problems of an emotional nature in
which a trained person deliberately establishes a a. THE EXPERT ROLE
professional relationship with a patient with the object of  It is assumed that the therapist brings to the therapy
removing, modifying, or retarding existing symptoms, of situation something more than acceptance, warmth,
mediating disturbed patterns of behavior, and of promoting respect, and interest.
positive personality growth and development.  Competence can come from a long, arduous period of
 Psychotherapy is a planned, emotionally charged, confiding training.
interaction between a trained, socially sanctioned healer and  Mutual understanding and mutual acceptance of the
a sufferer. During this interaction, the healer seeks to relieve different roles to be played to maintain mutual respect.
the sufferer’s distress and disability through symbolic  Equality between therapist and client need not deny the
communications, primarily words but also sometimes bodily importance of training, knowledge, and experience that
activities. will assist therapists in their efforts to resolve the patient’s
problems.
c. WHAT PROBLEMS ARE AMENABLE TO CHANGE?
b. THE RELEASE OF EMOTIONS/ CATHARSIS
 DEPTH OF A PROBLEM (Seligman, 1994)  Psychotherapy is an emotional experience.
o Explain the “changeability” of a variety of conditions or  Catharsis is a vital part of most psychotherapies; its depth
behaviors and intensity will vary depending on the nature and
o Level of depth of a problem depends on: severity of the problem and on the particular stage in
 Innate/ biologically determined therapy.
 Difficulty to disconfirm the belief underlying it  Although some forms of psychotherapy certainly place
 Powerful underlying belief more reliance on emotional expression than do others but
there are other forms of psychotherapy in which catharsis
 STAGES OF CHANGE (Prochaska & Norcross, 2002) is not likely to be a desirable goal rather the goal may be
to gain better control over the expression of one’s
 Conceptualization of the change process: emotions.
o Highlights to clinicians that not all clients are at the
point where they are ready to commit to make changes.
The goals in therapy involve “moving” the client c. RELATIONSHIP/ THERAPEUTIC ALLIANCE
through the precontemplation, contemplation, and  The nature of the relationship, or therapeutic alliance
preparation stages to the action stage. between patient and therapist, is the single element most
o Because certain “processes” characterize each stage, responsible for the success of psychotherapy.
clinicians should attempt to use only those interventions  The effective therapist is someone who can be accepting,
that match or complement the processes of that stage, nonjudgmental, objective, insightful, and professional all
at the same time.
1. PRECONTEMPLATION (not ready)  The ability of therapists to rise above their personal needs
 At this stage, the client has no intention of changing his or and to respond with professional skill in a nonjudgmental
her behavior soon. atmosphere of confidentiality, understanding, and warmth
 Clients at this stage of change have typically come in for is probably a major reason for the success and persistence
treatment because of outside pressure to do so. of psychotherapy in the society.

2. CONTEMPLATION (getting ready) d. ANXIETY REDUCTION/ RELEASE OF TENSION

 At this stage, a client is aware that a problem exists but  Initially, it is important that the anxiety accompanying the
has not yet committed him or herself to trying to make patient’s problems in living be reduced enough to permit
changes. examination of the factors responsible for the problems.
 The essential conditions of psychotherapy (i.e. nature of
3. PREPARATION (ready) the relationship, the qualifications of the therapist,
 A client intends to make a change in the near future. confidentiality, and privacy) combine to provide
reassurance and a sense of security that can lower the
4. ACTION (making change) patient’s anxiety and permit the patient to contemplate his
or her experiences systematically.
  For cases where the client’s anxiety level is extremely  Patients must have the capacity to see
high, some clients may require antianxiety medications to relationships between prior events and current
help deal with the situation. problems, an ultimately, they must be able to
connect their current feelings with a variety of
e. INTERPRETATION/ INSIGHT events whose relationship to those feelings may
 Attempt to get the patient to view past experience in a at first seem improbable.
different light. o Psychotherapy requires a DEGREE OF
 Insight is still viewed as important, but it is recognized INTROSPECTION
that significant behavioral change can be brought about by  Patients who finds it difficult to look inward
other means. may have problems in adjusting to the process.
 Insight may be seen as a facilitator of psychological  Behavioral forms of therapy have often been
growth and improvement but not as something that by used with considerable success with
itself will inevitably bring about such changes. individuals suffering from cognitive
limitations.
f. BUILDING COMPETENCY/ MASTERY
 A goal of most therapies is to make the client a more  AGE
competent and effective human being. o Younger Patients
 All of the foregoing features of psychotherapy will  Presumably more flexible or less “set in their
facilitate the achievement of greater effectiveness and ways”
satisfaction.  Better able to make the appropriate connections
 At times, some forms of therapy will take on distinct because they are closer to their childhood
teaching overtones; the client may be tutored on more years, or perhaps they have been reinforced for
effective ways to find a job, or sexual information may be negative behaviors less often than their older
provided to help alleviate past sexual difficulties and counterparts
promote a better sexual adjustment in the future. .
 Bandura (1989) emphasized the importance of feelings of
self-efficacy in promoting a higher performance level in o Research findings:
the individual.  Support the efficacy of various forms of both
o Those persons who experience a sense of mastery – cognitive-behavioral and psychodynamic
who feel confident, expect to do well, or just feel treatment with older adults.
good about themselves – are more likely to function
in an effective fashion.  MOTIVATION
o If psychotherapy is to be successful, it will force the
patient to examine corners of the mind that have long
g. NONSPECIFIC FACTORS remained unscrutinized.
 Mystique to therapy(fascinating or magical) o It may demand the patient engage in new behaviors
 Nearly every therapist is committed to a theory of that will provoke anxiety.
therapeutic change. o At some level, the patient must want psychotherapy,
it is a voluntary process.
C. NATURE OF SPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC VARIABLES
 OPENNESS
a. THE CLIENT OR PATIENT o Most therapists intuitively attach a better prognosis
to patients who seem to show some respect for and
 DEGREE OF THE PATIENT’S DISTRESS
optimism about the utility of psychotherapy.
o A broad generalization often made by clinicians is
that individuals who need therapy the least are the  GENDER
people who will receive the greatest benefit from it. o Although sex of the client has not been reliably
o Truax and Carkhuff’s distinction between patients’
linked to outcome, it is probably true that sex or
feelings of disturbance and their overt behavioral gender of the therapist may be especially important
disturbance to consider in certain cases.
 Implication: A good prognosis may be
expected for a patient who is experiencing  RACE, ETHNICITY, AND SOCIAL CLASS
distress or anxiety but is functioning well o The field needs to develop culturally sensitive
behaviorally.
mental health services.
o Clarkin and Levy (2004)
o Clinicians also need to develop a kind of cognitive
 Individuals who are more severely disturbed
empathy, or cultural role taking, in their work with
have poorer outcomes, and those with
ethnic minorities.
comorbid personality disorder diagnoses tend
to have worse outcomes.
 THERAPISTS’ REACTIONS TO PATIENTS
o A therapist should be able to work with elegant
 INTELLIGENCE
effectiveness regardless of her or his positive or
o In general, psychotherapy requires a reasonable level
negative reactions to the patient.
of intelligence.
o Fortunately, the understanding and self-control of
o Psychotherapy is a VERBAL PROCESS
therapists in their professional relations with patients
 Requires patients to articulate their problems,
exceed the understanding and self-control of many
to frame them in words.
laypersons in their social and interpersonal
o Psychotherapy requires patients to ESTABLISH
relationships.
CONNECTIONS among events
 b. THE THERAPIST  As soon as the assessment data are integrated, the therapist
 Having a specific theoretical or therapeutic orientation and client can begin to discuss more systematically the nature
does not override the role of personality, warmth, or of the problems and what can be done about them.
sensitivity.  Some describe this phase as a period of negotiation over the
 To “prevent” such personal factors from affecting the goals of treatment and others enter into a “contract” in which
process, Freud recommended that analysts undergo the therapist agrees to alleviate a specified set of client’s
periodic analyses so that they could learn to recognize and problems and to do it in the most effective way possible.
control them.  Some clients will want to expand their goals for treatment as
 AGE, SEX, and ETHNICITY they gain more confidence and trust in the therapist.
o The therapist variables may interact with client  Discussion of goals and methods must be handled with
characteristics, setting for treatment, and modality of discretion, sensitivity, and skill.
treatment.
o The solution seems to be for therapists to become 4. IMPLEMENTING TREATMENT
more sensitized to age, gender, and racial identity  May be client-centered, cognitive, behavioral, or
issues in relation to themselves as well as to the psychoanalytic.
patient.  The treatment may be very circumscribed and deal only with
 PERSONALITY a specific phobia, or it may involve a broader approach to the
o Even though the evidence shows that the therapist’s client’s personality style.
personality is a potent force, other factors in  All of this must be carefully described to the client in terms
combination largely determine therapy outcomes. of how it relates to the client’s problems, the length of time
o Research in this area has taken a backseat as involved, and perhaps even the difficulties and trying times
behavioral therapies have gained in popularity. that may lie ahead.

 EMPATHY, WARMTH, AND GENUINENESS 5. TERMINATION, EVALUATION, AND FOLLOW-UP

o A major factor that differentiates successful from  As the therapist begins to believe the client is able to handle
unsuccessful therapists is their interest in people and his or her problems independently, discussions of termination
their commitment to the patient. are initiated.
o The attention to empathy, warmth, and genuineness  Sometimes termination is a gradual process in which
meetings are reduced, for example, from once a week to once
grew out of Carl Rogers’ system of client-centered
a month.
therapy. Rogers described these variables as
 As termination approaches, it is important that it be discussed
necessary and sufficient conditions for therapeutic
in detail and that the client’s feelings and attitudes are
change.
thoroughly aired and dealt with.
 EMOTIONAL WELL-BEING
E. PSYCHOLOGICAL FIRST AID vs. MENTAL HEALTH FIRST
o It is important that therapists recognize areas in their
AID
own lives that are tender.
o Therapists must be able to look at their patients with
1. PSYCHOLOGICAL FIRST AID
objectivity and not become entangled in their
- An evidence-informed approach that is built on the concept of
personal dynamics.
human resilience.
- A technique for assisting people in the immediate aftermath of a
 EXPERIENCE AND PROFESSIONAL
traumatic incident or disaster; it is an initial disaster response
IDENTIFICATION
intervention with the goal to promote safety, stabilize survivors of
o People who saw a mental health professional rather
disasters and connect individuals to help and resources.
than a family physician for their psychological - The purpose of PFA is to assess the immediate concerns and needs
problems reported greater progress and more of an individual in the immediate aftermath of a disaster, and not
satisfaction with their treatment. to provide on-site therapy.
- It is designed to reduce the occurrence of Posttraumatic stress
D. COURSE OF CLINICAL INTERVENTION injury (PTSI, an injury to one’s psyche that can develop after the
person is exposed to a traumatic event).
1. INITIAL CONTACT - The goal of PFA is to create and sustain an environment of safety,
 First order of business is for someone to explain generally calm and comfort, connectedness, self-empowerment, and hope.
what the clinic is all about and the kind of help that can be
given. - The basic principle of PFA, in the immediate aftermath of the
 Once the client’s reasons for coming have been discussed, traumatic event, support from a trained compassionate individual
the next step in the general sequence can be explained. may aid in long-term recovery. It is not focused on any mental
health diagnosis and works to prevent change from occurring.
2. ASSESSMENT - PFA is a form of educating people (non-mental health
 A variety of assessment procedures may be followed professionals) on how to minimize psychological distress in
depending on the exact nature of the client’s problem, the disaster or crisis impacted individuals/ families. It is a daily aid to
orientation of the professional staff, and other factors. facing the daily stresses of life and gain an understanding of how
 Intake interview consists largely of compiling a case history to recognize when someone else is experiencing distress and how
and other information may be gathered by administering to offer help.
various psychological tests.
 After all the information has been compiled and analyzed, a 2. MENTAL HEALTH FIRST AID
preliminary integration is attempted. The initial - The help you give someone developing a mental health problem,
conceptualization of the client will provide guidelines for the experiencing a worsening of a mental health problem or in a
specific therapeutic interventions to be undertaken. mental health crisis.
- MHFA aims to teach participants how to recognize symptoms of
3. GOALS OF TREATMENT mental health problems and educates people how to identify,
 understand, and help a person who may be developing a mental
health issue. The first aid is given until appropriate professional
help is received or to crises resolves.
- Helps people wishing to learn more about actual mental health
conditions and how to offer to help.
- Benefits people who are suffering from depression, anxiety,
psychosis, substance use disorder, eating disorders, and gambling
problems. As well as those who are experiencing a mental health
crisis such as suicidality, non-suicidal self-injury, panic attacks,
traumatic events, aggressive behavior, severe psychotic states, and
the severe effects from alcohol and drug use.