Bio f4 Eng-1
Bio f4 Eng-1
We will learn about the fields and careers in biology,the safety and rules in laboratory,communicating in biology and scientific investigation in biology.
Meaning of Biology
‘Bios’ is life & ‘logos’ is study.
Biology is the study living organisms, their life processes and interaction with the environment.
Fields Explainations
Study about plant life
Botany
Study of microorganisms.
Microbiology
Agriculture officer
forest manager
Ecologist
Bio-technologist
Marine biologist
Pharmacist
Nurses
Doctors
Optician
Dentist
Dietitian
Physiotherapist
Biochemist
Veterinarian
Environmental officers
Bioinformatic engineer
Self-protection equipment:
Lab coat: aids to protect the skin and clothes from chemicals spillage.
Lab coat and lab shoes Lab shoes: protects the legs from chemical spillage and broken glass.
Protects the face and eyes from chemicals splash and protects from inhaling chemicals that can interrupt the respiratory system.
Goggle and face mask
Contains salt solution used to wash the eyes if chemical substances/foreign particles get into the eyes.
Eye washer
Station for work that involved with fumes or toxic gas; chlorine, bromine and nitrogen dioxide.
Fume hood
Emergency shower station Station used to wash the hand and body when someone exposed to dangerous chemicals.
Laminar flow cabinet Station for work involved with plant tissue culture, medium preparation that provides a sterile environment to the workplace.
Station for work involved with bacteria, fungi and virus cultures helps to prevent the cultures from contaminating the environment.
Biosafety cabinet
1. Any liquid/solution that has low concentration, not dangerous and biodegradable.
Practices Explainations
Use a lab coat,gloves,safety shoes and goggles when appropriate.
Clothing ethics
Stop work immediately and switch off all nearby power sources.
Unplug appliances
Exit the laboratory according to the emergency exit plan.
Call the fire and rescue department.
Safety measures for fires
Do not panic and stay calm.
Do not turn back to collect your belongings.
Assemble at the assembly point.
Data presentation:
Types of data
Table
Graph: line, bar and histogram
Diagram
1.4 Scientific Investigation in Biology
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Forming hypothesis
↓
Planning an experiment
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Identify & control variable
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Conducting the experiment
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Collecting data
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Analyse & Interpreting data
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Drawing conclusion
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Writing a report
Cytoplasm Acts as a medium for biochemical reactions of most living processes in the cell
Rough endoplasmic reticulum Transports proteins made by the ribosomes throughout the cell
Golgi apparatus Modifies, transports, sort and package the proteins and carbohydrates
Both cells contain a nucleus, cytoplasm, plasma membrane, Golgi apparatus, mitochondrion, endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes.
Stores carbohydrates in the form of starch Stores carbohydrates in the form of glycogen
Structural characteristics:
Feeding: Phagocytosis
Reproduction:
Paramecium sp.
Habitat: Freshwater
Structural characteristics:
Slipper-shape
Has cilia
Has two nuclei; macronucleus and micronucleus
Has contractile vacuole and food vacuole
Reproduction:
Ameoba sp. :
Source:[Biology Text Book KSSM Form 4]
Paramecium sp. :
Source:[Biology Text Book KSSM Form 4]
Epithelium cell
Function:
Provide protection
Aid in gaseous exchange
Helps in nutrients absorption, secretes mucus
Muscles cell
Structural adaptation:
Structural adaptation:
Function: Transmits nerve impulse from one part to another part of the body
Structural adaption:
Structural adaption: Can change shape; easily squeeze through the tiny blood vessels to the interstitial space to hunt the pathogens
Sperm cell
Structural adaption:
Xylem
Structural adaptation:
Function: Transport water and mineral salts from the roots to a whole plant
Sieve tubes
Structural adaptation:
Matured sieve tubes have no nucleus; provide more space for transportation
Have sieve plates
No lignin
Function: Transport organic substances; sucrose, amino acids and hormones from the shoots to other parts of the plant
Structural adaptation:
Have many mitochondria; provide energy to absorb more mineral salts through active transport
The root hairs increase the surface area; maximising the absorption
Guard cell
Structural adaptation:
Epithelial tissues carry out functions associated with protection, secretion and absorption
Muscles Musculoskeletal: involves involuntary movements; contracts and relaxes to move the bones
Smooth: contracts and relaxes that allows involuntary movements; peristalsis in intestines
Cardiac: found in the heart walls; contracts and relaxes that allows pumping the blood
Functions to transmit nerve impulses, control and coordinates the activities in the body
Connective Consists of several types of cells and fibres that are distributed across the body that has many functions
Connective Tissue:
Functions to anchor the epithelium tissues to other tissues and places the organs in one place
Fibrous connective tissues Consists of fibrous collagens that are arranged close to one another
Supports the nose, ears and covers the end of the bones, which functions to absorb pressure and shock
Bone Consists of cells in one matrix of mineral salts and fibrous collagen
Blood tissues Consists of blood cells; red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets
Adipose tissues Functions to store fats, protects the organs and insulates heat
Meristematic tissue
Function:
Parenchyma tissue
Function:
Collenchyma tissue
Function:
Herbaceous plants
Young stems
Leaf stalks
Petioles
Sclerenchyma tissue
Epidermis
Function:
In roots, some of the epidermal cells have long projections called root hairs; increase the surface area for absorption of water and minerals
In leaves, the lower epidermis contains specialised cells, called guard cells; controls the opening and closing of stomata
Xylem
Consists of tracheids and xylem vessels; long tubes joined together end to end
The cell walls of the xylem are thickened with lignin; provide support to plants
Xylem tissues die upon reaching maturity; form hollow tubes
Function:
Xylem carries water and minerals from the roots to the leaves
Xylem provides support and mechanical strength to the plant
Phloem
Phloem tissue consists of parenchyma cells, sclereids, sieve tubes and companion cells
The sieve tubes have pores at both ends; called sieve plates
Sieve tubes obtain nutrients and energy from the adjacent companion cells
Function: Phloem transports carbohydrates, amino acids, hormones from the leaves to storage organs and to the growing parts of plants
Mitochondria
Chloroplast
Goblet cell and pancreatic cell; Produces mucus, synthesises and secretes digestive enzymes
Liver cell; Conduct carbohydrate metabolism and detoxification drugs and poisons
Main function:
Main function:
Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide gases between the body and the external environment
Main function:
Main function:
Female reproductive system Ovary, uterus, Fallopian tube, vagina and cervix
Main function:
Main function:
Main function:
Detects and send information in the body, as well as coordinates body activities
Main function:
Digestive system Mouth, oesophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, small intestine and large intestine
Main function:
Main function:
Eliminates waste products such as urea and uric acid from the body
Main function:
Supports the body, protects the internal organs and provides a base for muscle adhesion
Main function:
The plant system is divided into the shoot system and root system.
The shoot system consists of stems, leaves, shoots, flowers and fruits.
Stems and twigs are support systems that support the leaves at the vertical position to allow maximum absorption of sunlight during photosynthesis
Flowers are involved in the pollination process
The root system consists of all roots in a plant that function in absorbing water and mineral salts as well as providing support for plants
We will learn about the structure of plasma membrane,the movement across the plasma membrane,passive and active transport in plasma membrane.
Allow some substances to move into and out of the cells to maintain the living processes.
Regulates the movement of substances across the plasma membrane
Transport large molecules such as glucose, amino acids, and vitamin C across the plasma membrane
Carrier protein
Allow small and water-soluble molecules such as ions to pass across the plasma membrane through passive transport
Pore protein
The plasma membrane is semi-permeable because it only allows certain molecules or ions to pass through it by simple diffusion
There are three common factors that determine whether a molecule can pass through a plasma membrane, which are molecule size, polar molecule, and ionic
charge.
Vitamin A, D, E, K Non-polar molecules; oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ion: K+, Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+
Steroid compounds
Fatty acids and glycerol
Passive transport:
Simple diffusion:
A process where the substances pass through the plasma membrane follows the concentration gradient.
The substances move from a high concentration region to a low concentration region.
The moving molecules are said to move down the concentration gradient until a dynamic equilibrium is achieved.
This may occur with or without the presence of a plasma membrane.
Lipid soluble molecules (fatty acids and glycerol), oxygen, and carbon dioxide diffuse through the phospholipid bilayer through simple diffusion.
Osmosis:
Osmosis is a passive transport process that is similar to diffusion but it involves only water molecules.
Osmosis refers to the net movement of water molecules from a higher water potential to a low water potential.
Osmosis occurs through the phospholipid bilayer.
Facilitated diffusion:
Lipid-insoluble molecules such as ions, large molecules such as amino acids, and glucose are unable to pass through the phospholipid bilayer.
These substances move across the membrane with the aid of transport proteins (carrier or pore proteins).
Facilitated diffusion does not require energy because the transport proteins transport molecules down a concentration gradient.
The process continues until a dynamic equilibrium is achieved when the concentration of molecules is the same at both sides of membranes.
Active transport:
The movement of a molecule or ion substances across a plasma membrane occurs against a concentration gradient.
It requires energy from ATP (adenosine triphosphate) molecules generated during cellular respiration.
It requires specific carrier proteins with specific active sites to bind with certain molecules or ions.
Carrier proteins also possess receptors to bind with ATP molecules.
Carrier proteins change shape when a phosphate group attaches to it.
As a result, molecules or ions move across a membrane.
Occurs following the concentration of the gradient. Occurs againts the concentration of the gradient.
Occurs untill a dynamic equillibrium is achieved. There are accumulation and disposal of molecule or ions.
The effects of hypotonic, hypertonic and isotonic solutions on animal cells and plant cells:
Hypertonic
Crenation Plasmolysis and flaccid
A solution that has high concentration of solute than water in a cell; causing the water to diffuse out
Isotonic
Maintain its shape Maintain its shape
A solution that has the same concentration of solute with the water potential in a cell; not net movement of substance
3.3 Movement of Substances Across a Plasma Membrane and Its Application in Daily Life
Rehydration drinks such as oral rehydration salts help to recover loss of water and electrolytes in individuals with diarrhea.
Isotonic drinks help athletes to recover loss of water and electrolytes such as potassium and sodium through perspiration.
Saline solutions, normally used in medicine, are isotonic solution to the blood plasma. It contains 0.85–0.90 g sodium chloride per 100 ml.
Liposomes are vesicles that contain aqueous solution surrounded by a phospholipid bilayer membrane. Liposomes are used to protect drugs or active substances
taken orally from being destroyed by gastric juices. This way, drugs can reach the target cells.
Reverse osmosis is a technology commonly used to extract fresh water from seawater using the desalination process. In reverse osmosis equipment, pressure is
applied to push the seawater through a semi-permeable membrane. The membrane allows water molecules to pass through it but not foreign particles, salt, and
microorganisms. As a result, only pure fresh water is released.
4.1 Water
4.2 Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Disaccharide Monomer
Maltose Glucose + glucose
Sucrose Glucose + fructose
Lactose Glucose + galactose
Polysaccharides
4.3 Proteins
4.4 Lipids
1. Consists of elements: carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
2. The ratio of element hydrogen is much higher compared to carbohydrates.
Waxes
Long-chained molecules.
Waterproof.
Found on the cuticle of leaves and in the sebum.
Phospholipids
Steroids
5.1 Metabolism
Catabolism Anabolism
The process of breaking down complex substances into simple substances. The process of synthesising complex molecules from simple molecules.
Releases energy. Uses or absorbs energy.
Example: The breakdown of glucose during cellular respiration to generate energy. Example: The formation of glucose during photosynthesis.
5.2 Enzymes
An enzyme is an organic catalyst that is mostly made up of proteins and is produced by living cell organisms.
Substances needed for an enzyme reaction are called substrates.
Substrates will bind with enzymes at a specific site (active site) and form an enzyme-substrate complex.
Enzyme nomenclature:
Name of enzyme is derived by adding '-ase' to the name of the substrate it catalyses.
Example: lactase, protease, and amylase.
A few enzymes that do not follow this naming system.
Example: trypsin, pepsin and renin
Extracellular action:
In the nucleus, the information for the synthesis of enzymes is carried by the DNA in a form of codes.
mRNA is formed to translate the codes into a sequence.
mRNA leaves the nucleus and binds with ribosome for the synthesis of protein to occur.
The synthesized protein is transported enters the lumen of the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
The protein is processed and packaged into a transport vesicle which buds off from the rough endoplasmic reticulum to transports the protein to the Golgi
apparatus
In Golgi apparatus, the protein is modified to form an enzyme and is packaged in a secretory vesicle which transports the enzymes to the plasma membrane.
The secretory vesicle will fuse with the plasma membrane to release the enzymes out of the cell.
pH
Temperature:
pH:
Substrate concentration:
The higher the concentration of substrate, the higher the rate of reaction as more substrate molecules bind to the active site of the enzymes to form the enzyme-
substrate complex.
The rate of reaction becomes low when it reaches the maximum point because all of the active sites have been filled up.
At this point, the enzyme concentration is the limiting factor.
Enzyme concentration:
The higher the concentration of enzymes, the higher the rate of reaction as more active sites for substrate molecules to bind to and form the enzyme-substrate
complex.
The rate of reaction becomes low when it reaches the maximum point because all substrate molecules have bound to the active sites.
At this point, the substrate concentration is the limiting factor.
Immobilized enzymes are enzymes that combine with inert and insoluble substances to increase the resistance of enzymes towards change in factors such as pH
and temperature.
The enzyme molecules will remain in the same position throughout the catalytic reaction and then be separated easily from its product.
Somatic cell
Gamete cell
1. The division of the nucleus, followed by cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis) that produces two genetically identical daughter nuclei.
2. Controlled by the cell cycle; interphase (G1, S, and G2 phase) and M phase.
3. After mitosis is completed, cytokinesis occurs to form two identical daughter cells.
4. Cytokinesis occurs in animal and plant cells.
5. Animal cells form a cleavage furrow to form two separated individual cells.
6. Plant cells form a cell plate to produce two separate cells.
Interphase
G1 phase
S phase
Synthesized DNA
Form two identical sister chromatids through DNA replication
G2 phase
M phase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
For embryo development and organism growth, mitosis ensures that rapid cell growth occurs.
When the body is injured, mitosis will produce new cells to replace cells that are dead or damaged.
Stem cell therapy uses stem cells from bone marrow to treat damaged cartilage.
Through the mitosis process, the lizard is able to grow a new tail (regeneration) if the tail breaks.
6.3 Meiosis
1. A process of nuclear division that reduces the number of chromosomes into half.
2. Produces haploid gametes.
3. Provides genetic variation from one generation to another through the process of crossing-over, independent assortment and random fertilisation.
4. Occurs in the gonads; testes and ova (humans); anther and ovary (flowering plants).
5. Consists of two separate nuclear divisions; meiosis I and meiosis II.
6. The cell undergoes interphase before entering meiosis.
Meiosis I:
Spindle fibres pull the homologous chromosomes to the middle cell and aligned at the metaphase plate side by side.
Metaphase I The homologous chromosomes are arranged independently.
Meiosis II:
Aerobic respiration
Require oxygen to oxidize respiration substrate such as glucose completely to produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy.
Anaerobic respiration
Break down respiration substrate completely such as glucose by using non-organic substances such as nitrate or sulfate, non-oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water,
and energy.
Fermentation
Break down respiration substrate such as glucose partially without using oxygen.
1. Glucose is breaking down into pyruvic acid in the cytoplasm by the glycolysis process
2. In glycolysis, only two pyruvate molecules are produced
3. Pyruvic acid produced is transported into the mitochondrion
4. In the mitochondrion, pyruvic acid will be broken down and oxidized into carbon dioxide and water
5. About 34-36 ATP molecules are produced in mitochondrion
7.3 Fermentation
1. Fermentation is an alternative pathway of cellular respiration in breaking down glucose without the presence of oxygen
2. The breaking down of glucose through fermentation is incomplete and only taken place in the cytoplasm
3. Fermentation can occur in human muscle cells, yeasts, plants, and certain bacteria such as Lactobacillus
4. Fermentation can be divided into two: lactic acid and alcohol fermentation
Glucose is broken down into pyruvic acid through glycolysis and then broken down into lactic acid
There are only two ATP molecules formed during glycolysis
Example:
Lactobacillus such as yogurt
Human muscle cells
Alcohol fermentation
Glucose is broken down into pyruvic acid through glycolysis and then broken down into ethanol and carbon dioxide
There are only two ATP molecules formed during glycolysis
Yeast
Plant such as paddy plant
Glucose is oxidized completely into carbon dioxide and water Glucose is not oxidized completely into ethanol and carbon dioxide or lactic acid.
One molecule of glucose generates 210 kJ (alcohol fermentation) or 150 kJ (lactic acid fermentation)
One molecule of glucose generates 2898 kJ of energy.
of energy.
The respiratory structure is the respiratory surface that enables gaseous exchange to occur between respiring organisms cells and their outer environment.
Large ratio total surface area to volume (TSA/V) for the efficient exchange of respiratory gases.
A thin respiratory structure that is one cell thick, allows the diffusion of respiratory gases to occur.
The surface of the respiratory structure is always moist for respiratory gases to dissolve in them.
The respiratory structure is complete with a network of blood capillaries (except for insects), that allows for the efficient delivery of respiratory gases.
Unicellular organism:
1. Simple organisms such as Amoeba sp., Paramecium sp., exchange the respiratory gases through simple diffusion across the plasma membrane.
Insects:
Respiratory system
The tracheal system; spiracles, tracheae, tracheoles and air sacs (for some insects).
Structural adaptation
Tracheoles penetrate the body tissues, which to allow a direct exchange of gases.
Have many tracheoles; to increase the surface area for gases exchange.
The tips of tracheoles contain fluid; dissolving the gases.
Some insects have air sacs; speed up the movement of gases to and from tissues during vigorous movement of the body.
Source:[www.researchgate.net]
Breathing mechanism
Fish:
Respiratory structure
Structural adaptation
A large surface area of filaments and lamellae increases the efficiency of gases exchange in fish.
The thin filaments are supplied with blood capillaries to transport respiratory gases efficiently.
Countercurrent flow: the water flows over the gills in one direction, while the blood flows in the opposite direction.
Countercurrent flow
As the deoxygenated blood enters the blood capillaries, it encounters water with high oxygen content.
The high concentration gradient of oxygen in the water allows the oxygen to diffuse into the blood capillaries to be brought to the whole parts of the body.
Source:[msjoconner.weebly.com]
Breathing mechanism
During inhalation:
The floor of buccal cavity lowers, opercular cavity enlarges, operculum closed; it lowers the pressure in the buccal cavity that allows water to draw into the
mouth.
During Exhalation:
The mouth is closed, the floor of buccal cavity rises; allows water to flow through the lamellae and gases exchange takes place.
Source:[respirationsystem.weebly.com]
Frogs:
Respiratory structure
Skin
Lungs
Structural adaptation
Skin: thin, permeable to gas and moist; enables a rapid and efficient gases exchange.
Lungs: moist, contain thin-walled sacs, and rich in blood capillaries for efficient transportation of gases.
Breathing mechanism
During inhalation:
During exhalation:
Lungs muscle contract, glottis open and buccopharyngeal floor lowers; drive the air out from the lungs.
Glottis close, buccopharyngeal floor raise; air expelled out through the nostrils.
Humans:
Respiratory structure
Respiratory adaptation
Moist and thin-walled sacs of millions of alveoli, which surrounded by a rich network of blood capillaries.
Breathing mechanism
Inhalation Exhalation
External intercostal muscle contract and internal intercostal muscle relax; External intercostal muscle relax and internal intercostal muscle contract; cause
cause the rib cage to move upwards and outwards the rib cage to move downwards and inwards
Diaphragm muscles contract; it becomes flat Diaphragm muscles relax; it becomes dome-shaped
The volume of thoracic cavity increase and the pressure of the thoracic cavity The volume of thoracic cavity decrease and the pressure of the thoracic cavity
decrease increase
High air pressure from surrounding drives the air into the lungs High air pressure from the thoracic cavity pushes the air out from the lungs
Source:[brainkart.com]
The exchange of gases between the alveoli and the blood capillaries:
Oxygen
Effect: Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood capillaries
Carbon dioxide
Effect: Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood capillaries into the alveoli
The exchange of gases between the blood capillaries and the body cells:
Oxygen
Effect: Oxygen diffuses from the blood capillaries into the body cells
Carbon dioxide
Effect: Carbon dioxide diffuses from the body cells into the blood capillaries
1. Carbon dioxide is released by the respiring cells and can be transported in several ways:
Transportation of oxygen
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) comprises asthma, chronic bronchitis, and emphysema.
In emphysema, the alveolus wall is damaged, the total surface area of the alveolus decreases, and the gaseous exchange becomes less efficient.
In chronic bronchitis, the bronchiole becomes inflamed, swollen, and blocked.
This reduces the flow of air and causes difficulties in breathing.
For an asthmatic patient, the bronchiole walls become swollen and thick.
The opening of the bronchiole tube becomes smaller and the air passage becomes narrower.
This leads to difficulties in breathing and causes breathlessness.
The human digestive system is made up of a long and muscular alimentary canal that starts from the mouth to the anus
The other organs in the digestive system are the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas
Salivary, gastric, and intestinal glands secrete digestive juices into the alimentary canal
9.2 Digestion
Physical digestion: A process that involves mechanical action such as chewing action and peristalsis to break up large pieces of food into small pieces to increase
the surface area for the action of digestive enzymes.
Chemical digestion: The breaking down of complex molecules into simpler molecules to enable the molecules to be transported into body cells. The process involves
a hydrolysis reaction catalyzed by digestive enzymes.
The presence of food in the mouth triggers the salivary glands; parotid gland, sublingual gland, and submandibular gland to secrete salivary amylase that digests starch
into maltose
Mucous cell: Produces mucus to protect the stomach wall from being eroded due to the action of hydrochloric acid.
Parietal cell: Secretes hydrochloric acid to destroy bacteria and provides an acid medium for pepsin to function optimally.
Chief cell: Secretes pepsinogen which is later converted into pepsin in the presence of hydrochloric acid to digest protein into the polypeptide.
9.3 Absorption
Have a very thin wall (one cell thick) that diffusion of food molecule occurs rapidly.
Have a large surface area (Many folds on internal surface and microvilli).
Have a dense network of blood capillaries (Efficient transport of food molecules).
Epithelial cells have a high number of mitochondria(provide energy in nutrient transport).
Lacteal is for fatty acid and glycerol absorption.
9.4 Assimilation
Glucose, amino acids, water-soluble vitamins, and minerals in all blood capillaries are transported to the hepatic portal vein which then transport the nutrients to the
liver for the assimilation process.
The blood circulatory system transports the nutrients from the liver to the body cells for further assimilation.
Tiny droplets of lipids and fat-soluble vitamins inside the lacteal are transported to the lymphatic vessel and later to the thoracic duct.
The nutrients will enter the circulatory system at the subclavian vein to be transported to the body cells.
9.5 Defaecation
Faeces formed in the large intestine
↓
Undigested materials and excretory materials are moved by peristalsis
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In the colon, water is absorbed making the feces more solid
↓
Colon secretes mucus to bind the feces and lubricate the feces movement.
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Feces stored temporarily in the rectum
↓
Defecation reflex causes contraction of the rectal muscle and relaxes the internal anal sphincter.
A balanced diet is a diet consisting of seven classes of food and taken in a correct proportion to meet the daily requirements of the body.
The importance of a balanced diet:
Provide energy for various activities
Maintain a healthy life
9.7 Health Issues Related to the Digestive System and Eating Habits
Gastric bypass is one of the treatments recommended by specialist doctors to lose weight in addition to diet management and regular exercise programs.
Gastric bypass involved reducing the size of the stomach by using the surgery method.
Short-term side effects of surgery include acid reflux, nausea, vomiting, enlarged esophagus, and risk of infection.
Long-term side effects include dizziness, low sugar levels, malnutrition, stomach ulcer, and digestive problems
Gastritis: Inflammation and damage to the stomach epithelial layer caused by the action of hydrochloric acid.
Anorexia nervosa: An eating disorder whereby an individual always restricts him or herself from eating as they have a strong desire to be thin.
Bulimia nervosa: An eating disorder characterized by excessive food intake followed by vomiting.
Muscle dysmorphia: A psychological disorder whereby an individual always feels that he or she is too small and underdevelop.
1. Open circulatory system: Hemolymph flows from the heart to the hemocoel (body cavity).
2. Closed circulatory system: Blood flows in the blood vessels from the heart to body tissues.
Insects:
Fish:
Amphibian:
Humans:
Blood composition:
Blood
Cell Blood plasma
Dissolved substances
Erythrocytes
Protein; albumin, globulin, and fibrinogen
Leucocytes
Nutrients; glucose, amino acids, and vitamins
Granulocytes; neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils Respiratory gases; oxygen and carbon dioxide
Agranulocytes; lymphocytes, and monocytes Waste substances
Enzymes
Platelets
Water
Characteristics and functions of red blood cells and white blood cells:
Biconcave disc-shaped.
Size: 8 µm (diameter) and 2 µm (thickness).
No nucleus.
Contains hemoglobin.
Elastic; allows it to squeeze into thin capillaries.
5 million cells/mL.
Life span 120 days.
Function: transport oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the form of oxyhemoglobin and carbaminohemoglobin respectively.
Produced in the bone marrow.
Destroyed in the liver and spleen.
Leucocytes Function
Basophils Secretes heparin (inflammatory response)
Eosinophils Inflammatory response
Neutrophils Phagocytosis
Monocytes Phagocytosis
Lymphocytes Produces antibodies
Arteries:
Capillaries:
Veins:
1. The weight of a human's heart is around 250g until 350g and has the size of a fist.
2. The heart is situated at the thorax cavity, above the diaphragm, and protected by the ribcage.
3. The heart's muscles are myogenic, which means they contract and relax automatically and are not controlled by the nervous system.
4. Covered by pericardium to protect the muscle tissues of the heart.
5. The function of the valve is to ensure that the blood flows only in one direction and to prevent the backward flow of blood.
6. It has a four-chambered heart; atria (right and left); thinner than ventricles and ventricles (right and left); thicker.
Heartbeat:
Source: [Text book Biology Form 4]
Pacemaker sets and coordinates the contraction of the heart but it is also influenced by:
Nervous system.
Endocrine system.
Sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves.
Adrenaline (hormone).
The sequence of the contraction of the heart muscles that pump the blood:
Fibrin filament forms a sticky network and traps red blood cell
Hemophilia:
Thrombosis:
A disease caused by the blood clot that form in the blood vessels.
The blood clot is known as thrombus.
Can narrow the blood vessels; interrupt the blood flow; can cause heart attack.
If the blood clot prevent the blood flow in the brain, it can cause stroke and paralyse.
Treatment: treated with aspirin, hrparin or warfarin.
Embolism:
Blood group A:
Blood group B:
Blood group O:
Rhesus factor:
Refers to the rhesus protein or known as antign D, that also found on the plasma membrane of erythrocyte.
Individuals with antigen D; individual with Rh+.
Individuals with no antigen D; individual with Rh-
Rhesus factor also can cause issues in Rh- mother that has more than one Rh+ children:
If Rh-negative mother carries the first child Rh+, there will be no blood agglutination because the mother's blood is separated from the foetal blood through
placenta.
At the last month of pregnancy, small amount of foetal blood can enters the mother's blood circulation.
This will trigger the mother's immune system untuk produce antibody anti-D.
If the mother is pregnant with Rh+ second baby, the antibody anti-D presence it the mother's blood will flows in the placenta and can destroy the foetal blood.
This can cause brain damage and death to the second baby.
The way to prevent agglutination during second pregnancy: the mother obtain anti Rh globulin through injection right after the first pregnancy to prevent the
mother's body to produce antibody anti rhesus.
Cardiovascular diseases include diseases related to the heart and the blood circulatory system such as atherosclerosis, arteriosclerosis, angina, hypertension, myocardial
infarction (heart attack) stroke.
If the lumen of the coronary artery (artery for the heart) is narrowed, the insufficient oxygen supply to the heart muscles can cause angina (serve chest pain).
If the artery is completely clogged, myocardial infraction (heart attack) will occur.
Transport the excess of interstitial fluid back into the blood before they enter the heart.
Lacteal in the small intestine absorb fatty acids and glycerols,
Transport enzymes and hormones.
Cholesterol enters the blood circulatory system through the lymphatic system.
Transport nutrients and waste back into the blood circulatory system.
Edema is caused by the excess fluid that is trapped in the body tissues, which is usually caused by the leaking of interstitial fluid from the blood flow.
Causes of edema:
Pregnancy: The body will produce more body fluid to fulfill the needs of a growing fetus.
Prolonged bedridden patients: Paralysed or stroke patients with limited mobility can suffer from edema in the legs.
Deficiency of plasma protein: Deficiency of albumin in the blood.
Parasitic infection:
The parasite worm Brugia sp. infects the lymphatic vessel and prevents the flow of lymphatic fluid.
The infected part, for example, leg will swell.
The patient contracts lymphatic filariasis.
This worm is transmitted through mosquito bites.
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Human Immunity
We are going to learn about human immunity, action of antibodies, types of immunity, and health issues related to the immune system of humans.
Immunity
Immunity is the ability of a person’s body to fight against pathogens by producing specific antibodies.
After the first infection, a portion of the lymphocytes is stored in the body as memory cells.
Memory cells remain in the body for many years, the body is said to be immune to the disease.
Antigen
Antigens are foreign protein molecules in the human body that stimulate the body's immune system to produce antibodies against the antigen.
Antibody
Antibodies are protein molecules produced by the body's immune system in response to the presence of an antigen.
Antibodies destroy or weaken as well as neutralize the toxins.
First-line defense
Not specific.
Prevent the entry of pathogens into the body via physical and chemical.
1) Physical
2) Chemical
Second-line defense
Third-line defense
Involved immune response and depends on the ability of the antibodies to recognize the specific pathogens and protect the body from that pathogens.
Antibodies produced are specific to kill specific pathogens.
Two groups of leucocytes; lymphocytes and macrophages.
Two types of lymphocytes; lymphocyte T and lymphocyte B.
Lymphocyte T; attack the infected cells and produces chemical substances that trigger the lymphocyte B.
Lymphocyte B divides and forms the plasma cells and memory B cells.
Plasma cells produce antibodies that are compatible with the antigens.
Memory B cells produced by the lymphocyte B function to store the information about the pathogens that infect the body.
Plasma cells get activated to produce antibodies rapidly when the body is exposed to the same pathogens.
There are five ways; neutralization, agglutination, precipitation, opsonization dan lysis.
Action of antibodies Mode of action
Neutralization Antitoxin neutralizes the toxins by binding to the toxins (released by pathogens) to prevent the toxins from entering the body cells
Agglutinin binds to the antigens and makes them clump together
Agglutination
The clumping of pathogens is destroyed by the phagocytes
Precipitin binds to the dissolved antigens to form an insoluble antibody-antigen complex that will form a precipitate
Precipitation
Precipitation of antibody-antigen complex ease the phagocytes to undergo phagocytosis
Opsonin binds to the antigens of pathogen that will form a structure that is easy for phagocytes to recognize.
Opsonization
Phagocytes engulf bacteria that have been marked by opsonin
Lysin Lisin binds to the antigens of pathogen dan will lyse the pathogen
There are two types of immunity; active immunity and passive immunity.
Immunization is the process of receiving immunity artificially that can protect the individual from certain diseases.
Immunization can be done through serum, antiserum, and vaccines.
Active immunity
This immunity is obtained when the individual recovers from the disease after the first exposure to the pathogen.
Memory cells are able to remember the infection from the first exposure.
If the same pathogen infects the body for the second time, the immune system will respond rapidly.
The number of antibodies will increase and be produced rapidly to stop the infection.
Immunity is acquired by injecting antigens into the body to stimulate lymphocytes to produce antibodies against the antigen.
This type of immunity is known as vaccination.
Passive immunity
Obtained by the baby that receives the antibodies through placenta and breastmilk.
Provide full protection to the baby until the immune system of the baby can take over the task.
Obtained through serum injection that contains certain antibodies to destroy the antigens.
This type of immunity provides immediate protection for short period.
HIV
HIV or human immunodeficiency virus is the virus that can cause AIDS.
HIV virus infection will trigger the immune system of individuals to produce HIV antibodies against the antigen of pathogens.
Unfortunately, the antibodies produced by the immune system in humans are unable to kill the virus.
This virus always changes the shape of the antigen so that it will not be recognized by the antibodies.
HIV virus weakened and destroys the immune system of humans by attacking the lymphocyte T.
This virus incorporates its own RNA into the lymphocyte T and uses the lymphocyte's DNA to replicate and produce more HIV virus.
This process will destroy almost all lymphocyte T in the body.
Lymphocyte T is unable to trigger the lymphocyte B to produce antibodies and this weakens the immune system.
This virus can be transferred from one individual to another through blood or body fluids.
Allergies are the body's hypersensitivity reactions that occur due to the body’s immune system reacting to allergens that enter the body.
The body’s immune system produces antibodies to attack allergens that are considered harmful, even though the allergens are actually harmless.
An allergen is a foreign substance, usually a protein that triggers a hypersensitive reaction.
Stimulus
↓
Sensory receptors
↓
Integrating centre
↓
Effector
↓
Response
Consists of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Brain
Spinal cord
Cranial nerves
The branch from the brain
Connect the brain, sensory organs, and effector at the head
Spinal nerves
The branch from the spinal cord
Connect the spinal cord, sensory organs, and effector at the other parts of the body
Sensory receptors
Place at end of the cranial nerves and spinal nerves in organs
Function:
Cerebrum
Function:
Controls all activities of the mind (thinking, memory, learning, reasoning, personality)
Interpret information from receptors
Controlling skeletal muscle action (controlled muscle movement)
Pituitary gland
Function:
Secretes hormones to regulate the growth of the body and other endocrine glands
Thalamus
Function:
Medulla oblongata
Function:
Cerebellum
Function:
Structures of a Neurone:
Neurones are cells in the nervous system that transmit nerve impulses
Sensory neurone:
Send nerve impulses from receptors to the brain and spinal cord
Relay neurone:
Motor neurone:
Controlling and integrating nerve impulses that are transmitted by stimulated receptors.
Allow nerve impulses to be transmitted only in one direction because:
Synaptic vesicles are only present at the synaptic terminal.
Receptors are only present at the postsynaptic membrane.
Voluntary actions:
Involuntary actions:
This action is an involuntary action controlled by the spinal cord and responds quickly and spontaneously toward the external stimulus
The nerve impulse is sent from receptors to the spinal cord and from the spinal cord to effectors
The pathway passed by the nerve impulse in a reflex action is known as the reflex arc
Genetic factor
Lifestyle
Parkinson Less secretion of dopamine Shrinkage (tremor) of body
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Motor neurone degenerates and die Affects somatic nervous system
(ALS)
Age factor, between 40-60 Skeletal muscle unable to function progressively
Genetic factor Finally, skeletal muscles for moving, ingesting, speaking and
breathing are unable to function
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Genetic factor Unable to pay attention, become hyperactive and easy to get
Disorder (ADHD) bored
Premature baby, before 37th week or underweight
Stimulants drug:
Depressant drug:
Alcohol abuse:
Endocrine gland is a ductless gland that secretes hormones directly into the blood
The endocrine gland consists of a mass of cells, tissues or organs
Hormone is a chemical substance made up of proteins or steroids which can regulate physiological processes in humans and animals
Prolactin
Oxytocin
Pancreas Insulin
Glucagon
Adrenaline
Androgen
Cortisol
Ovary Oestrogen
Progesterone
Testis Testosterone
Functions of hormones:
Function: stimulates growth especially in bone and muscle and regulates the metabolism of proteins, lipids and carbohydrates
Function: stimulates the development of follicles in the ovary, stimulates the formation of sperms in the testis and stimulates the ovaries to secrete oestrogen
Function: stimulates testis to produce testosterone in males and stimulates the ovary to perform ovulation and formation of corpus luteum in females
Function: stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete corticoid hormones and regulates the growth of the adrenal cortex
Oxytocin
Function: simulates the contraction of the uterus during birth and stimulates the mammary gland to secrete milk
Function: Stimulates the kidneys to reabsorb water and reduces the production of urine
Prolactin
Thyroxine
Function: stimulates, maintain the rate of metabolism in the body and controls physical growth and normal development of the brain
Insulin
Function: lowers blood glucose level by stimulating the uptake of glucose into cells for metabolism and converts excess glucose into glycogen
Glucagon
Function: raises blood glucose level by stimulating the conversion of glycogen into glucose
Adrenaline
Function: increases blood glucose level and rises metabolic activities such as heartbeat rate, breathing rate, vasodilation and vasoconstriction of blood vessels for
preparing the body in a "fight or flight" situation
Aldosterone
Androgen
Function: important to reach puberty and regulates the maturity of reproductive organs and the development of secondary sexual characteristics
Cortisol
Function: stimulates the conversion of lipids and proteins into glucose and produced during fight and flight situations to increase the blood sugar level
Testosterone
Function: stimulates sperm production and stimulates the development of secondary sexual characteristics in males
Oestrogen
Function: stimulates the development of female reproductive organs, repairs and build the uterine wall, and stimulates the secondary sexual characteristics in female
Progesterone
Function: maintains the thickening of the uterine wall for embryo implantation
Similarities
Both systems play important roles in the coordination and response of the body toward stimuli
Coordinates all body activities
Both systems have cell, tissue or organ as target
Signals are transmitted via nerve impulses and neurotransmitters The signal is sent via hormones
The signal is sent along the neurones The signal is sent by blood circulation
The transmission of electrical impulses is rapid The delivery of hormones is relatively slow
The region of response is small, limited to a specific region The region of response is wider, involved few target organs
Involves voluntary and involuntary actions Involves in physiological processes in the body
Hormonal imbalances can occur in humans when endocrine glands secrete hormones less or more than normal quantity.
Growth hormone
Insulin
The effect of deficiency: Diabetes Mellitus and high sugar in the blood
The effect of over secretion: low sugar in the blood, dizzy, irregular and high heart rate
The effect of deficiency: Diabetes insipidus and body lose more water
Cortisol
Aldosterone
The effect of deficiency: Reduces Na+ ion; more water been removed from kidneys and lowers the blood pressure
The effect of over secretion: Increases Na+ ion; increases water reabsorption in kidneys; increases the blood pressure
Androgen
Adrenaline
The effect of deficiency: Disrupt body's ability to face fight and flight
Increases blood sugar level; causing the glucose to be secreted in the urine
Glucagon
Progesterone
The effect of over secretion: Prevent contraction of uterus muscles during birth
Oestrogen
The effect of deficiency: Prevent the development of secondary sexual characteristics in female
Hair loss, edema, increase in muscle mass, liver disease, increase blood pressure, and cholesterol level
Reduce fertility
13.1 Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the regulation of the internal environment (chemical and physical) for the cells to function in an organisms
Physical factors: temperature, blood pressure, and blood osmotic pressure
Chemical factors: pH value, concentrations of minerals and blood sugar concentration
The stimulus will reverse the reaction/response by initiating a corrective mechanism to achieve a normal state of homeostasis
In the regulation of body temperature, nervous system, endocrine system, integumentary system, circulatory system, and muscular system coordinate and function
to maintain body temperature within normal range.
In the regulation of blood pressure and osmotic pressure, nervous system, endocrine system, circulatory system, and urinary system coordinate and function to
maintain blood pressure and osmotic pressure within normal range.
In the regulation of carbon dioxide partial pressure, the nervous system, respiratory system, and circulatory system coordinate and function to maintain carbon
dioxide partial pressure within the normal range.
In the regulation of blood pH, nervous system, endocrine system, respiratory system, and circulatory system coordinate and function to maintain blood pH within
normal range
In the regulation of blood glucose, the endocrine system and circulatory system coordinate and function to maintain blood glucose within normal range
When body temperature falls below the normal range, thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect the changes and send stimuli to thermoregulating center in the
hypothalamus via the nerves. The thermoregulating center triggered and send nerve impulses to the spinal cord via motor neurons to produce effectors, then
returning the body temperature to normal range. The endocrine system is also functioning when the body temperature rises above the normal range.
Thermoreceptors are found in the skin and hypothalamus:
Thermoreceptors in the skin detect the temperature change of the external environment.
Thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect the temperature change of the internal environment.
In hot environment
Sweat glands become active
More sweat is produced
More heat is lost through evaporation
In cold environment
Sweat glands become inactive
Less sweat is produced
Less heat lost through evaporation
In hot environment
The muscles in the afferent arterioles relax
Vasodilation occurs
Blood capillaries expand, the diameter increases
More blood flow through the blood vessels near the skin surface
Heat eliminated through radiation increases
In cold environment
The muscle in the afferent arterioles contract
Vasoconstriction occurs
Blood capillaries constrict, the diameter decreases
Less blood flows through the blood vessels near the skin surface
Heat eliminated through radiation decreases
In hot environment
Hair erector muscle relax
Hair becomes slanted
A thin layer of air trapped
More heat is released
In cold environment
Hair erector muscle contract
Hair becomes erect
A thick layer of air is trapped. Air is a good heat insulator
Less heat is released
In hot environment
Skeletal muscle does not contract and relax repeatedly
Shivering does not occur
Heat is not generated
In cold environment
Skeletal muscle contracts and relaxes repeatedly
Shivering occurs
Heat is generated
In hot environment
Adrenal glands are less stimulated
Less or no adrenaline hormone is secreted
Low metabolism rate
Less heat is generated
In cold environment
Adrenal glands are stimulated by the hypothalamus
Adrenaline hormones are secreted
Metabolism rate increases
More heat is generated
In hot environment
Thyroid glands are not stimulated
Very few thyroxine hormones are secreted
Low or normal metabolism rate
Less heat is generated
In cold environment
Thyroid glands are stimulated
Thyroxine hormone is secreted
Metabolism rate increases
More heat is generated
Blood sugar level (glucose) regulation is a homeostasis process that maintains the normal level of sugar in the blood.
Two organs are involved:
Pancrease:
alpha cells secrete glucagon
beta cells secrete insulin
Liver:
Glucagon stimulates the liver cells to exchange glycogen into glucose
Insulin stimulates the excess of glucose into glycogen
In a healthy human, the blood glucose level is regulated within a range of 75-110 mg glucose per 100ml blood
Formation of urine:
Reabsorption:
Components in the glomerulus filtrate are water, urea, glucose, amino acids and salt
Reabsorption occurs when the substances re-enter the blood capillaries along the renal tubule
Secretion:
Secretion occurs when waste substances are secreted out from the blood capillaries and into the renal tubule (distal convoluted tubule)
Osmoregulation: A process that regulates water and salt balance in the body in order to maintain a normal blood osmotic pressure
When the water content is more, the salt content is low (low blood osmotic pressure)
When the salt content is more, water content is low (high blood osmotic pressure)
Health issues related to the urinary system are such as kidney stones, urinary tract infections, prostatitis, kidney failure, and bladder cancer
Kidney stones are formed from the minerals and precipitation of salt in the kidney:
An example of kidney stone such as calcium oxalate is formed when the concentration of calcium ions in urine was high and causes mineral crystallization in the
kidney
It causes pain in the side and dorsal parts of the body, pain during urination, bad smell of urine and urine with blood
Exoskeleton
Endoskeleton
Hydrostatic skeleton
Human skeleton
The human skeletal structure is categorised into two
1. Axial skeleton (Skull, ribcage, & vertebral column)
2. Appendicular skeleton (Pectoral girdle, upper limb, pelvic girdle, & lower limb)
1. Axial skeleton
Skull
Skulls are made up of flat bones joined by sutures (immovable joints).
Skull is the framework of the face and support the teeth.
The lower jaw (mandible) is movable and allow mouth opening and closing.
The cranium protects the brain.
Vertebral column
Consist of 33 vertebrae attached to form a strong & flexible column. There are 5 types of vertebrae.
It protects the spinal cord, support the head, provides a base for back muscle attachment and provides an articulating surface for ribs and pelvic girdle.
Odontoid process extends into ventral part of the neural canal of atlas and acts as pivot to allow the head to move side-to-side
Axis (1) Has two transverse foramina
Side-to-side head movement
Tendon
Characteristics:
Not elastic
Strong
Connective tissue
Function
Joins muscle to bones
Transmits pulling force exerted by contraction of muscles to the bone and pull it up
Ligament
Characteristics
Elastic
Strong
Connective tissue
Flexible
Functions:
Join bone to bone
Hold joints together
Prevent dislocation
Allow limited movement
Muscle
Characteristic
A pair of muscles that work together
When contracts, the other relaxes
Examples: Biceps and triceps of the arm
Functions:
Exert pulling force onto bone
Support movement and locomotion
Movements of arm:
Movements of leg:
Bending of the leg Straightening of the leg
Biceps femoris contracts and quadriceps relaxes Action of muscles Quadriceps contract and biceps femoris relaxes
Transmits pulling force exerted by biceps femoris to tibia and fibula Tendon Transmits pulling force exerted by quadriceps to tibia
Tibia and fibula are pulled backward Bone Tibia and fibula are pulled forward
The leg is bent at knee joint Joint The leg is straightened
Locomotions in Animals:
Locomotion in earthworm
Characteristics
Has antagonistic muscles: circular muscle, longitudinal muscle.
Hydrostatic skeleton: contraction and relaxation of antagonistic muscles raise hydrostatic pressure of the fluid in the coelom
Chaetae: fine hooks which anchor to the ground
Locomotion in fish
Characteristics
Scaly and slimly body to reduce water resistance
W-shaped antagonistic muscle blocks are arranged in segments on both sides of a vertebral column named myotomes
Swim bladder: an air sac inside the abdomen to maintain buoyancy
Dorsal and ventral fins - prevent yawning and rolling
Tail fin - forward thrust
Paired fin (pelvic and pectoral fins) - steering, prevent pitching
Locomotion in grasshopper:
Characteristics
Antagonistic muscles:
1. Flexor muscles
2. Extensor muscles:
1. At rest, flexor muscles contract, hind legs folded in the shape of "Z"
2. Extensor muscles contract and hind legs straighten
3. Grasshopper jumps forward and upwards
Osteomalacia
Explanation
Is caused by the deficiency in the uptake of calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D
Occur in adults, especially pregnant women
Osteomalacia that occurs in children known as rickets
In children, bone defects may occur
Advice & treatment
Consumption of sufficient calcium and phosphate through daily diet to increase bone mass
Consumption of sufficient vitamin D through daily
Exercise regularly to strengthen the muscles and bones
Arthritis
Explanation
Cartilages in the joints of the knee, pelvic girdle and backbone become wear off
Less synovial fluid secreted
Usually occurs in senior citizens
The joints experience inflammation, pain, swollen and hard
Advice & treatment
Exercise regularly to strengthen the muscles and joints
Go through physiotherapy to strengthen the joints
Undergo surgery operation to replace with artificial joint
Scoliosis
Explanation
The backbone of an individual is sideways curvature from the spine axis
Can be caused by genetic factor, tumour, a bacterial infection. osteoporosis, rickets or injury
Advice & treatment
Comprises three "O": observation, orthosis and operation
Source:[vectorstock.com]
Necessity of gametogenesis:
Spermatogenesis
During foetus development, primordial germ cells divide mitocially to form spermatogonia
1. Each spermatogonia (2n) grows and develops into primary spermatocytes (2n)
2. Each primary spermatocyte (2n) divides by meiosis I to form tqo secondary spermatocytes (n)
3. Each secondary spermatocyte (n) divides by meiosis II to form two spermatids (n)
4. Each spermatid (n) undergoes differentiation to form sperm (n)
Oogenesis:
During foetus development, primordial germ cells divide mitotically to form oogonia
Polar body formed has size much smaller than secondary oocyte or ovum
The three polar bodies will degenerate and do not take part in fertilisation
At first, primary oocyte that surrounded by follicle cells is known as primary follicle
At puberty, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) secreted by pituitary gland stimulates the development of follicle in ovary
Follicle cells start to divide by mitosis during development of follicle. The primary follicle developed into secondary follicle and then into a mature follicle,graafian
follicle
During the follicle development, primary oocyte undergoes meiosis I to form secondary oocyte.
1. At foetal stage, the primordial germ cells divide repeatedly by mitosis to form many diploid oogonium (2n)
2. Each oogonium grows ad develops to form primary oocyte (2n). Each primary oocyte is surrounded by a layer of follicle cells to form a primary follicle.
3. Before birth, the primary oocytes undergoes an incomplete meiosis I until prophase I
4. At puberty, one primary oocyte completes meiosis I to form a secondary oocyte (n) and a polar body (n). The haploid polar body formed also undergoes meiosis II
to form another two haploid polar bodies
5. Secondary oocyte is surrounded by follicle cells known as secondary follicle
6. Secondary follicle grows and matures to form graafian follicle which then moves to the surface of the ovarian wall
7. Ovulation: The Grafiian follicle bursts and releases the secondary oocyte into Fallopian tube
8. If fertilisation occurs, secondary oocyte completes meiosis II to form a polar body (n) and an ovum (n). All 3 polar bodies will degenerate.
Aspects Spermatogenesis
Organ of gamete formation Testis
Gamete formed Sperm
Structure of gamete Head, midpiece and tail
Ability to move Move with tail
Presence of follicle cell No follicle cells surround the gamete
Number of gamete formed from one parent cell Four
Formation of polar body None
Size of gamete Small
Mitotic division on parent cell Occurs throughout life after puberty
Meiotic division during gamete formation Occurs continuously without a break
Differentiation Involves differentiation
Aspects Oogenesis
Organ of gamete formation Ovary
Gamete formed Ovum
Structure of gamete Spherical shape
Ability to move Assists by cilia in the Falllopian tube
Presence of follicle cell Follicle cells surrounding the gamete
Number of gamete formed from one parent cell One
Formation of polar body One or three
Size of gamete Large
Mitotic division on parent cell Only occurs during foetal development stage
Meiotic division during gamete formation Occurs by stages reagrding to foetal,puberty and after fertilisation stage
Differentiation Does not involve differentiation
1. Menstruation: Breakdown of the lining of uterine wall and its discharge through the vagina, with small amount of blood and cell
2. Menstrual cycle:
• Stimulates ovulation
Luteinening hormone • Causes the formation of the corpus luteum Control the changes in the ovaries
• Stimulates the endometrium to become thick,folded and highly vasculated for embryo
development
Progesterone Control the changes in the uterus
• Inhibits FSH and LH secretion
Source:[britannica.com]
Emotion
Trouble with concentration or memory
Anxiety
Irritable
Tension
Depression
Crying spells
Mood swings
Menopause syndrome:
Factors
Occurs between 46 till 54 years old
Ovary is less sensitive to the stimulation of FSH and LH
No follicle developed and no ovum formed
low production of progesterone and oestrogen
Physical
Hot flashes
Sleep problems
Urinary problems
Vaginal problems and infections
Osteoporosis
Irregular periods
Night sweats
Weight gains
Emotion
Memory problems
Mood swings
Depression
Anxiety
Fertilisation:
1. Definition: The union of sperm nucleus and ovum nucleus to form a zygote
2. Fertilisation occurs at the Fallopian tube
3. Ovum is surrounded by millions of sperms, but ony one will successfully penetrate the ovum wall
4. When the penetration is successful, a barrier known as the fertilisation membrane is formed to prevent the penetration of other sperms
1. 36 hours after fertilisation: the zygote undergoes repeated mitosis as it travels along the Fallopian tube towards the uterus
2. The zygote continuosly undergoes mitosis forming embryo with two cells,four cells and eight cells and resulting in the formation of a solid mass known as morula
3. On the 5th day after fertilisation, the morula develops into a ball of 100 cells with a cluster of inner cells known as blatocyst. Only one part of blatocyst will develop into
foetus
4. Implantation: The blatocyst is implanted onto the endometrium, 7 days after fertilisation. The inner cell masss develops into an embryo. Embryo will absorb the
nutrients directly form the endometrium tissue
5. 8 weeks after fertilisation, a foetus is formed and obtains nutrients through placenta
6. At 38 weeks after fertilisation, the foetus is well developed into full term, waiting for birth to take place
The embryo begins to produce human chorionic gonadotrotin (HCG) hormone for maintaining the function of corpus luteum
The corpus luteum continue to function by secreting progesterone and oestrogen in the first two months of pregnancy
The function of corpus luteum will be taken over by placenta at the 4th month of pregnancy
Functions of placenta and umbilical cord in the development of foetus:
1. During foetus development, blatocyst forms chorionic villi into endometrium to obtain nutrients and oxygen from maternal blood
2. Chorionic villi will form placenta in the 4th week of pregnancy
3. Placenta is the site of substances exchange between foetal blood and maternal blood
4. Useful substances such as nutrients,oxygen and antibodies are transported from maternal blood to foetal blood through placenta and umbilical cord
5. While, waste substances such as urea and carbon dioxide are transported from foetal blood to maternal blood through placenta and umbilical cord
6. Umbilical cord has umbilical arteries and umbilical vein
1. Protects foetus's fine blood vessels from being damaged by high maternal blood pressure
2. Prevents agglutination if blood group of foetus is incompatible to maternal blood group
3. Filters certain pathogens and harmful substances from entering foetal blood
Female:
1. Sperm bank
Donor's sperms are collected and stored frozen in liquid nitrogen at a temperature of -196 degree celcius
The sperms chosen by the couple will be injected into the woman's Fallopian tube during ovulation
Due to the small amount of sperm, this technique will accumulate sperms over a certain period of time to achieve a large quantity
Sperms are injected into the Fallopian tube during ovulation
Infertility treatment:
A mature ovum is removed form the ovary and is fertilised by the sperm in a culture plate in the laboratory
Fertilisations occurs after 5-6 hours
The fertilised ovum is re-inserted into the uterus for the embryo implantation process
The baby born is known as a test tube baby
1. Growth in multicellular organism such as humans and animals is an irreversible process which involve the increase in quantitive parameters such as size (height or
length),body mass,volume and number of cells.
2. Parameters for the growth of humans: body size,height and length
3. Parameters for the growth of animals: body mass,fresh mass and dry mass
Growth in insects:
1. Organism with exoskeleton such as insects,crabs and prawns undergo growth by either complete metamorphosis or incomplete metamorphosis
2. In development of exoskeletal organisms, metamorphosis is a developement process from larval stage to adult stage
3. During development stage, organism undergoes a moulting process known as ecdysis
4. In complete metamorphosis, the growth of organisms involves four stages starts from egg to larva,larva to pupa and pupa to adult.
5. In incomplete metamorphosis, the growth of organisms only involves three stages starts from egg to larva and from larva to adult
Phase Explanation
Slow growth rate
A (lag phase) Little or no cell division
Form a plateau
The growth rate is zero
D (stationary phase) The organism reached maturity
Cell division occurs to replace the dead cells