The Triumvirate of Buddhist sites

Featuring my paper The Tetradic mandala of PAGODA

Dr Uday Dokras

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A triumvirate (Latin: triumvirātus) or a triarchy is a political institution ruled or dominated by
three individuals, known as triumvirs. The arrangement can be formal or informal. Though
the three leaders in a triumvirate are notionally equal, the actual distribution of power may
vary. The term can also be used to describe a state with three different military leaders who
all claim to be the sole leader.In Hinduism, the gods Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva form the
triumvirate Trimurti, where they each represent the balancing forces of creation, preservation,
and destruction, respectively. Their female counterparts and consorts, the
goddesses Saraswati, Lakshmi and Parvati, make up the parallel Tridevi.Tamil
Triumvirate refers to the triumvirate of Chola, Chera, and Pandya who dominated the politics
of the ancient Tamil country. Sivaperuman, Murugan and Agatiyar are considered triumvirate
of Tamil Language and Sangam Literature.Indonesia
According to the Article 8 paragraph (3) from the Constitution of Indonesia, there are three
head of government institutions that can act as a "temporary" triumvirate only if there are
vacancies in the position of president and vice president at the same time (e.g. both president
and vice president were assassinated, sick, not doing their duties, died, or resigned). They
are Minister of Foreign Affairs, Minister of Home Affairs, and Minister of Defense. Those
three ministers can act for president and vice president together for maximum 30 days.
After that, during the term of the triumvirate, the House of Representatives through the
political parties or the coalition of political parties will elect a new President and Vice
President and propose it to the People's Consultative Assembly. The newly elected President
and Vice President which holds first and second of the most votes in the parliament will
continue the remaining office position of former President and Vice President that were
elected from previous general election, not five years.
The triad of Holy Burmese sites-The history of Buddhism can be traced back to the 5th
century BCE. Buddhism arose in Ancient India, in and around the ancient Kingdom
of Magadha, and is based on the teachings of the renunciate Siddhārtha Gautama. The
religion evolved as it spread from the northeastern region of the Indian
subcontinent throughout Central, East, and Southeast Asia. At one time or another, it
influenced most of Asia. This history is also characterized by the development of numerous
movements, schisms, and philosophical schools, among them
the Theravāda, Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna traditions, with contrasting periods of expansion
and retreat.
Since around 500 BCE, the culture of India has exerted influence on Southeast
Asian countries. Land and maritime trade routes linked India with the region and both Hindu
and Buddhist beliefs became influential there during the period of the Indianization of
Southeast Asia. For more than a thousand years, Indian influence was, therefore, the major
factor that brought a certain level of cultural unity to the various countries of the region.
The Pāli and Sanskrit languages and Indian scripts, together with Theravāda and Mahāyāna
Buddhism, Brahmanism, and Hinduism, were transmitted from direct contact and through
sacred texts and Indian literature such as the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata.
From the 5th to the 13th centuries, South-East Asia saw a series of powerful states which
were extremely active in the promotion of Buddhism and Buddhist art alongside Hinduism.
The main Buddhist influence now came directly by sea from the Indian subcontinent, so that
these empires essentially followed the Mahāyāna faith. Examples include mainland kingdoms
like Funan, the Khmer Empire and the Thai kingdom of Sukhothai as well as Island
kingdoms like the Kalingga Kingdom, the Srivijaya Empire, Mataram and Majapahit.

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Buddhist monks traveled to China from the kingdom of Funan in the 5th century CE,
bringing Mahayana texts, a sign that the religion was already established in the region by this
point.[ Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism were the main religions of the Khmer
Empire (802–1431), a state that dominated most of the South-East Asian peninsula during its
time. Under the Khmer, numerous temples, both Hindu and Buddhist, were built in Cambodia
and in neighboring Thailand. One of the greatest Khmer kings, Jayavarman VII (1181–1219),
built large Mahāyāna Buddhist structures at Bayon and Angkor Thom.
In the Indonesian island of Java, Indianized kingdoms like the Kalingga Kingdom (6–7th
centuries) were destinations for Chinese monks seeking out Buddhist texts. The
Malay Srivijaya (650–1377), a maritime empire centered on the island of Sumatra, adopted
Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Buddhism and spread Buddhism to Java, Malaya and other regions
they conquered.
The Chinese Buddhist Yijing described their capital at Palembang as a great center of
Buddhist learning where the emperor supported over a thousand monks at his court.
Yijing also testified to the importance of Buddhism as early as the year 671 and advised
future Chinese pilgrims to spend a year or two in Palembang.[146] Atiśa studied there before
travelling to Tibet as a missionary. As Srivijaya expanded, Buddhism thrived and also
became part of a local syncretism that incorporated several different religions such as
Hinduism and other indigenous traditions.
In the island of Java, another kingdom also promoted Mahayana Buddhist culture,
the Mataram Kingdom (732–1006), a major rival of Srivijaya. They are known for their
monumental temple construction, especially the massive Borobudur, as well
as Kalasan, Sewu, and Prambanan.[149] Indonesian Buddhism, alongside Hinduism, continued
to thrive under the Majapahit Empire (1293–1527), but was completely replaced by Islam
afterward.

Buddhist temple of Wat Arun in Bangkok, Thailand/ Wat Chaiwatthanaram, one of the Ayutthaya
Kingdom's best-known temples.

Theravāda Renaissance
The lands of the Mon and Pyu peoples in Myanmar show extensive evidence of Theravada
presence in the Irrawaddy and Chao Phraya basins from the 5th century CE onwards.
Theravada Buddhism in Burma initially coexisted with other forms of Buddhism and other
religions After the decline of Buddhism in the Indian mainland, Theravada Buddhist monks
from Sri Lanka mounted missionary efforts in Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos, and
they were successful in converting all these regions to Theravada Buddhism.

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King Anawrahta (1044–1078); the founder of the Pagan Empire, adopted the Theravādin
Buddhist faith from Sri Lanka, building numerous Buddhist temples at his capital of Pagan.
Invasions from the Burmese and the Mongols weakened Theravada in this region and it had
to be reintroduced from Sri Lanka. During the Mon Hanthawaddy Kingdom (1287–1552),
Theravada Buddhism was the dominant religion in Burma, with strong ties to Sri Lankan
Buddhism. One of their kings, Dhammazedi, is particularly known for his reformation
of Burmese Buddhism from the Sri Lankan Mahavihara tradition between 1476 and 1479.
Theravada remained the official religion of the subsequent Burmese Taungoo
Dynasty (1510–1752).
During the reign of the Khmer King Jayavarman VII (r. c. 1181–1218), Theravada Buddhism
was promoted by the royal family and Sri Lankan monks, including his son Tamalinda who
himself had traveled to Sri Lanka. During the 13th and 14th centuries, Theravada became the
dominant religion of Cambodia, and monasteries replaced the local priestly classes. The
Theravāda faith was also adopted by the Thai kingdom of Sukhothai as the state Theravāda
Buddhism was further reinforced during the Ayutthaya period (14th–18th century), becoming
an integral part of Thai society.
The Bamar people (Burmese) also adopted Buddhism as they came into contact with the Pyu
and Mon civilizations. Initially, Burmese Buddhism was dominated by an eclectic Buddhism
called Ari Buddhism, which included Mahayana and Vajrayana elements as well animist
practices like nat worship and influences from Brahmanism.
Buddhism Burmese: specifically Theravāda , is the state religion of Myanmar since
1961, and practiced by nearly 90% of the population. It is the most religious Buddhist
country in terms of the proportion of monks in the population and proportion of income spent
on religion. Adherents are most likely found among the dominant Bamar
people, Shan, Rakhine, Mon, Karen, and Chinese who are well integrated into Burmese
society. Monks, collectively known as the sangha (community), are venerated members of
Burmese society. Among many ethnic groups in Myanmar, including the Bamar and Shan,
Theravada Buddhism is practiced in conjunction with the worship of nats, which are spirits
who can intercede in worldly affairs.
Regarding the practice of Buddhism, two popular practices stand out: merit-
making and vipassanā meditation. There is also the less popular weizza path. Merit-making is
the most common path undertaken by Burmese Buddhists. This path involves the observance
of the Five precepts and accumulation of good merit through charity (dana, often to monks)
and good deeds to obtain a favorable rebirth. The meditation path, which has gained ground
since the early 1900s, is a form of Buddhist meditation which is seen as leading
to awakening and can involve intense meditation retreats. The weizza path is an esoteric
system of occult practices (such as recitation of spells, samatha and alchemy) believed to lead
to life as a weizzaor vijjā, a semi-immortal and supernatural being who awaits the
appearance of the future Buddha, Maitreya (Arimeitaya).
Burmese pagodas are stupas that typically house Buddhist relics, including relics associated
with Buddha.[ Pagodas feature prominently in Myanmar's landscape, earning the country the
moniker "land of pagodas." According to 2016 statistics compiled by the State Sangha Maha
Nayaka Committee, Myanmar is home to 1,479 pagodas exceeding 27 feet (8.2 m) in height,
a quarter of which are located in Sagaing Region. Several cities in the country,
including Mandalay and Bagan, are known for their abundance of pagodas. Pagodas are the
site of seasonal pagoda festivals.

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Burmese pagodas are enclosed in a compound known as the aran from Pali word ārāma,
with gateways called mok known as mukha in Sanskrit and Pali which means the mouth- at
the four cardinal directions. The platform surrounding a Burmese pagoda is called a yinbyin

Bawbawgyi Pagoda is earliest existing examples of a pagoda.

Three sites rise easily to the top as the most sacred in Burma – The first 2 are linked to the Mon

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Pagoda festivals –( paya pwe) are regular festivals found throughout Burma (Myanmar) that
commemorate major religious events in pagoda's history, including the founding of
a pagoda and the crowning of the pagoda's hti (umbrella). Pagoda festivals are dictated by
the Burmese religious calendar and often are held several days at a time. Major events in a
pagoda festival typically do not coincide with Uposatha (Buddhist Sabbath) days, during
which pious Buddhists observe the Eight Precepts . The majority of pagoda festivals are held
during the dry season, from the months of Tazaungmon (November) to Tabaung (March).
[2]
During the full moon day of Tabaung (Magha Puja), Buddhist devotees in various parts of
Myanmar also celebrate sand pagoda festivals.More well-known pagoda festivals often
attract numerous pilgrims from throughout the country.
Pagoda festivals are similar in nature to agricultural shows (country fairs) or carnivals, and
form a significant important part of cultural life, particularly in the countryside.
3 of the holiest ones are described in this paper.

1. the Shwedagon Pagoda, which is the oldest, but the monument’s prominence is no
earlier than the 14th century.
2. the Golden Rock which became widely popular the 19th century and
3. the Mahamuni Temple which is of Rakhine Origin.
The Shwedagon and the Golden Rock are linked to the Mon, while the sacred matrix of the
Mahamuni Buddha lies in distant Rakhine, on Burma’s periphery. Groups outside the
mainstream of Burmese society have thus been the very ones most responsible for the
nation’s top shrines. The key common threads underlying these three sites enable us to grasp
what lies at the heart of a successful sacred site.
Linked together in the popular imagination, the three form a solid triumvirate, reinforced by
countless religious souvenirs throughout the land. The most striking feature, however, is not
their similarity but their diversity. For example, the Shwedagon is a traditional reliquary
monument, or stupa, now within an urban area, while the Golden Rock is a granite boulder on
the outskirts of nowhere. And the revered Mahamuni bronze in Mandalay was snatched in
1785 after a military campaign in western Burma, or Rakhine. The three most sacred sites in
Burma could therefore not be more different – at least at first glance. No less surprising
features emerge. All three, for example, are of rather recent origin, developed centuries after
the celebrated Pagan period (11th-13th centuries). Much the same is true in Thailand where
the country’s top shrines today are also of recent origin, the Emerald Buddha in the Royal
Palace and Bangkok’s City Pillar just outside the palace walls. Another important site is the
capital’s Erawan shrine, begun only in the 1950s, with ‘replicas’ appearing throughout the
land. An even more unexpected paradox is that none of these national shrines owe their
origins to the now dominant Burmese community.

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The Shwedagon Pagoda, officially named Shwedagon Zedi Daw ( lit. 'Golden Dagon
Pagoda') and also known as the Great Dagon Pagoda and the Golden Pagoda is a
gilded stupa located in Yangon, Myanmar. It is the most sacred Buddhist pagoda in
Myanmar, as it is believed to contain relics of the four previous Buddhas of the present kalpa.
These relics include the staff of Kakusandha, the water filter of Koṇāgamana, a piece of the
robe of Kassapa, and eight strands of hair from the head of Gautama.
Built on the 51-metre (167 ft) high Singuttara Hill, the 112 m (367 ft) tall pagoda stands
170 m (560 ft) above sea level, and dominates the Yangon skyline. Yangon's zoning
regulations, which cap the maximum height of buildings to 127 metres (417 feet) above sea
level (75% of the pagoda's sea level height), ensure the Shwedagon's prominence in the city's
skyline. Legend holds that the Shwedagon Pagoda was constructed more than 2,500 years
ago — while the Buddha was still alive — which would make it the oldest Buddhist stupa in
the world. According to the Buddhavaṃsa, two merchants
from Ukkalājanapada named Tapussa and Bhallika were passing through Bodh Gaya when
they encountered the Buddha. The Buddha, who was at that time enjoying the bliss of his
newly attained buddhahood as he sat under a rājāyatana tree, accepted their offering of rice
cake and honey and taught them some of the dharma in return. In so doing, they became the
first lay disciples to take refuge in the teachings of the Buddha. The Buddha also gave eight
strands of his hair to the merchants and gave them instructions on how to construct a stupa in
which to enshrine these hair relics. The merchants presented the eight strands of hair to King
Okkalapa of Dagon, who enshrined the strands along with some relics of the three preceding
Buddhas (Kakusandha, Koṇāgamana, and Kassapa) in a stupa on the Singuttara Hill in
present-day Myanmar.

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 The first mention of the pagoda in the royal chronicles dates only to 1362/63 CE (724 ME)
when King Binnya U of Martaban–Hanthawaddy raised the pagoda to 18 m (59 ft).
Contemporary inscriptional evidence, the Shwedagon Pagoda Inscriptions from the reign of
King Dhammazedi of Hanthawaddy (r. 1471–1492), shows a list of repairs of the pagoda
going back to 1436. In particular, Queen Shin Saw Pu (r. 1454–1471) raised its height to
40 m (130 ft), and gilded the new structure. By the beginning of the 16th century, Shwedagon
Pagoda had become the most famous Buddhist pilgrimage site in Burma.

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1. View of the Great Dagon Pagoda in 1825, from a print after Lieutenant Joseph Moore of Her
Majesty's 89th Regiment, published in a portfolio of 18 views in 1825–1826 lithography
2. Scene upon the terrace of the Great Dagon Pagoda, 1824–1826

Shwedagon Pagoda in the 1890s

A series of earthquakes during the following centuries caused damage. The worst damage
was caused by a 1768 earthquake that brought down the top of the stupa, but
King Hsinbyushin in 1775 raised it to its current height of 99 m (325 ft) (without counting the
height of the hti (crown umbrella)). A new hti was donated by King Mindon in 1871, nearly
two decades after the annexation of Lower Burma by the British. A moderate earthquake in
October 1970 left the shaft of the hti out of alignment; extensive repairs were needed to
rectify the problem.
The Shwedagon Pagoda Festival, which is the largest pagoda festival in the country, begins
during the new moon of the month of Tabaung in the traditional Burmese calendar and
continues until the full moon. The pagoda is on the Yangon City Heritage List.
ARCHITECTURE
The stupa's plinth is made of bricks covered with gold plates. Above the base are terraces that
only monks and other males can access. Next is the bell-shaped part of the stupa. Above that

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is the turban, then the inverted almsbowl, inverted and upright lotus petals, the banana bud
and then the umbrella crown. The crown is tipped with 5,448 diamonds and 2,317
rubies.Immediately before the diamond bud is a flag-shaped vane. The very top—the
diamond bud—is tipped with a 76 carat (15 g) diamond.
The gold seen on the stupa is made of genuine gold plates, covering the brick structure and
attached by traditional rivets. People all over the country, as well as successive monarchs,
starting from Queen Shin Saw Pu, have donated gold to the pagoda to maintain it.

Diagram showing the various architectural features that comprise the design of the Shwedagon Pagoda

There are four entrances, each leading up a flight of steps to the platform on Singuttara Hill.
A pair of giant leogryphs guards each entrance. The eastern and southern approaches have
vendors selling books, good luck charms, images of the Buddha, candles, gold leaf, incense
sticks, prayer flags, streamers, miniature umbrellas and flowers.
It is customary to circumnavigate Buddhist stupas in a clockwise direction. In accordance
with this principle, one may begin at the eastern directional shrine, which houses a statue
of Kakusandha, the first Buddha of the present kalpa. Next, at the southern directional shrine,
is a statue of the second Buddha, Koṇāgamana. Next, at the western directional shrine, is that
of the third Buddha, Kassapa. Finally, at the northern directional shrine, is that of the fourth
Buddha, Gautama.
Though most Burmese are Theravada Buddhists, many also follow practices which originated
in Hindu astrology. The Burmese astrology recognizes the seven planets of astrology — the

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Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, and in addition, two other
planets, Rahu and Ketu. All the names of the planets are borrowed from Hindu astrology, but
the Burmese Rahu and Ketu are different from the Hindu Rahu and Ketu. The Burmese
consider them to be distinct and separate planets, whereas Hindu astrology considers them to
be either the Dragon's Head and Tails, or Ascending and Descending Nodes. To the Burmese,
Ketu is the king of all planets. As in many other languages, the Burmese name the seven days
of their week after the seven planets, but Burmese astrology recognizes an eight-day week,
with Wednesday being divided into two days: until 6:00 p.m. it is Wednesday, but from
6:00 p.m. until midnight it is Rahu's day.
It is important for Burmese Buddhists to know on which day of the week they were born, as
this determines their planetary post. There are eight planetary posts, as Wednesday is split in
two (a.m. and p.m.). They are marked by animals that represent the day — garuda for
Sunday, tiger for Monday, lion for Tuesday, tusked elephant for Wednesday morning,
tuskless elephant for Wednesday afternoon, mouse for Thursday, guinea pig for Friday
and nāga for Saturday. Each planetary post has a Buddha image and devotees offer flowers
and prayer flags and pour water on the image with a prayer and a wish called a Blessing
Ritual. At the base of the post behind the image is a guardian angel, and underneath the
image is the animal representing that particular day. The plinth of the stupa is octagonal and
also surrounded by eight small shrines (one for each planetary post). It is customary
to circumnavigate Buddhist stupas in a clockwise direction. Many devotees perform a
blessing ritual by pouring water at their planetary post.
The pilgrim, on his way up the steps of the pagoda, buys flowers, candles, coloured flags and
streamers. These are to be placed at the stupa in a symbolic act of giving, an important aspect
of Buddhist teaching. There are donation boxes located in various places around the pagoda
to receive voluntary offerings which may be given to the pagoda for general purposes. In
December 2017, foreigners were charged a Ks.10,000/- (approx. US$7) entrance fee.
Rudyard Kipling described his 1889 visit to Shwedagon Pagoda ten years later in From Sea
to Sea and Other Sketches, Letters of Travel.

British soldiers remove their shoes while visiting Shwedagon Pagoda during World War II//Gold
headdress belonging to Queen Shin Sawbu. It was excavated by labourers when building barracks on the
site of an old pagoda east of the Shwedagon Pagoda in 1855 and is now in the Victoria and Albert
Museum

In 1608 the Portuguese adventurer Filipe de Brito e Nicote, known as Nga Zinka to the
Burmese, plundered the Shwedagon Pagoda. His men took the 300-ton Great Bell of

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Dhammazedi, donated in 1485 by the Mon King Dhammazedi. De Brito's intention was to
melt the bell down to make cannons, but it fell into the Bago River when he was carrying it
across. To this date, it has not been recovered.
Two centuries later, the British landed on May 11, 1824, during the First Anglo-Burmese
War. They immediately seized and occupied the Shwedagon Pagoda and used it as a fortress
until they left two years later. There was pillaging and vandalism, and one officer's excuse for
digging a tunnel into the depths of the stupa was to find out if it could be used as a
gunpowder magazine. The Maha Gandha (lit. great sweet sound) Bell, a 23-ton bronze bell
cast in 1779 and donated by King Singu and popularly known as the Singu Min Bell, was
carried off with the intention to ship it to Kolkata. It met the same fate as the Dhammazedi
Bell and fell into the river. When the British failed in their attempts to recover it, the people
offered to help provided it could be restored to the stupa. The British, thinking it would be in
vain, agreed, upon which divers went in to tie hundreds of bamboo poles underneath the bell
and floated it to the surface. There has been much confusion over this bell and the 42-
ton Tharrawaddy Min Bell donated in 1841 by Tharrawaddy Min along with 20 kg of gold
plating; this massive ornate bell hangs in its pavilion in the northeast corner of the stupa. A
different but less plausible version of the account of the Singu Min Bell was given by Lt. J.E.
Alexander in 1827.[14] This bell can be seen hung in another pavilion in the northwest of the
pagoda platform.
The Second Anglo-Burmese War saw the British re-occupation of the Shwedagon in April
1852, only this time the stupa was to remain under their military control for 77 years, until
1929, although the people were given access to the Paya.

Buddha statue looted from the pagoda in 1852. Now in the Auckland War Memorial
Museum/ Protesters at Shwedagon Pagoda in Yangon
In 1920, students from Burma's only university met at a pavilion on the southwest corner of
the Shwedagon pagoda and planned a protest strike against the new University Act which
they believed would only benefit the elite and perpetuate colonial rule. This place is now
commemorated by a memorial.
The "shoe question" on the pagoda has always been a sensitive issue to the Burmese people
since colonial times. The Burmese people had always removed shoes at all Buddhist pagodas.

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 The Tetradic mandala of PAGODA
In Digha Nikaya , mahaparinibbana sutta Anandapuchhakathā 5.11 A stupa
should be erected at the crossroads for the Tathagatas . And whoever lays
wreaths or puts sweet perfumes and colors there with a devout heart , will reap
benefit and happiness for a long time
Chātumahāpathé Tathāgatassa thupo kātabbô. Tattha yé mālam vā Gandham
va chuññakam vā ārôpéssanti vā abhivādéssanti vā chittam vā pasādéssanti
tésam tam bhavissati digharatam hitāya sukhāya.
And also in oter places strewn all over the Pali Tripitaka , the Buddha has
Enjoined his disciple to build stupas for Arhats etc etc . So the tradition of
buildin stupas began from the time of the Buddha himself as his two
Agrasravakas/Main Disciples , Sariputra and Maudglyayana passed away before
him .
A pagoda is a tiered tower with multiple eaves common to China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam and
other parts of Asia. Most pagodas were built to have a religious function, most
often Buddhist but sometimes Taoist, and were often located in or near viharas. The pagoda
traces its origins to the stupa of ancient India.
Chinese pagodas are a traditional part of Chinese architecture. In addition to religious use,
since ancient times Chinese pagodas have been praised for the spectacular views they offer,
and many famous poems in Chinese history attest to the joy of scaling pagodas. The oldest
and tallest were built of wood, but most that survived were built of brick or stone. Some
pagodas were solid, and had no interior at all. Others were hollow and held within themselves
an altar, with the larger frequently containing a smaller pagoda (pagodas were not inhabited
buildings and had no "floors" or "rooms"). The pagoda's interior has a series of staircases that
allow the visitor to ascend to the top of the building and to witness the view from an opening
on one side at each story. Most have between three and 13 stories (almost always an odd
number) and the classic gradual tiered eaves.
In some countries, the term may refer to other religious structures. In Vietnam and Cambodia,
due to French translation, the English term pagoda is a more generic term referring to a place
of worship, although pagoda is not an accurate word to describe a Buddhist vihara. The
architectural structure of the stupa has spread across Asia, taking on many diverse forms as
details specific to different regions are incorporated into the overall design.
Many Philippine bell towers are highly influenced by pagodas through Chinese workers hired
by the Spaniards.
One proposed etymology is from a South Chinese pronunciation of the term for an eight-
cornered tower, and reinforced by the name of a famous pagoda encountered by many early
European visitors to China, the "Pázhōu tǎ" standing just south of Guangzhou at Whampoa
Anchorage. Another proposed etymology is Persian butkada, from but, "idol" and kada,
"temple, dwelling."
Another etymology, found in many English language dictionaries, is modern
English pagoda from Portuguese (via Dravidian), from Sanskrit bhagavati, feminine
of bhagavat, "blessed", from bhag, "good fortune"

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Yet another etymology of pagoda is from the Sinhala word dāgaba which is derived from
Sanskrit dhātugarbha or Pali dhātugabbha: "relic womb/chamber" or "reliquary shrine", i.e.
a stupa, by way of Portuguese.[8]

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Kek Lok Si pagoda tiers labelled with their architectural styles
The origin of the pagoda can be traced to the stupa (3rd century BCE).[3] The stupa, a dome
shaped monument, was used as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred
relics. In East Asia, the architecture of Chinese towers and Chinese pavilions blended into
pagoda architecture, eventually also spreading to Southeast Asia. The pagoda's original
purpose was to house relics and sacred writings.[9] This purpose was popularized due to the
efforts of Buddhist missionaries, pilgrims, rulers, and ordinary devotees to seek out,
distribute, and extol Buddhist relics.
These buildings (pagoda, stupa) became prominent as Buddhist monuments used for
enshrining sacred relics. In Japan, there exist a total of 22 five-storied timber pagodas
constructed before 1850.

China

Earliest base-structure type for Chinese pagodas were square-base and circular-base. By the
5th-10th centuries the Chinese began to build octagonal-base pagoda towers. The highest

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Chinese pagoda from the pre-modern age is the Liaodi Pagoda of Kaiyuan Monastery,
Dingxian, Hebei province, completed in the year 1055 AD under Emperor Renzong of
Song and standing at a total height of 84 m (275 ft). Although it no longer stands, the tallest
pre-modern pagoda in Chinese history was the 100-metre-tall wooden pagoda (330 ft)
of Chang'an, built by Emperor Yang of Sui.[12] The Liaodi Pagoda is the tallest pre-modern
pagoda still standing, yet in April 2007 a new wooden pagoda at the Tianning
Temple of Changzhou was opened to the public; this pagoda is now the tallest in China,
standing at 154 m (505 ft).

SYMBOLISM & GEOMETRY

Chinese iconography is noticeable in Chinese pagoda as well as other East Asian pagoda
architectures. Iconography of Han is noticeable in architecture of the Chinese Pagoda. The
image of the Shakyamuni Buddha in the abhaya mudra is also noticeable in some Chinese
pagodas. Buddhist iconography is also inside of the symbolism in the pagoda. Some believed
they would influence the success of young students taking the examinations for a civil
service degree. When a pagoda of Yihuang County in Fuzhou collapsed in 1210 during
the Song Dynasty, local inhabitants believed that the unfortunate event correlated with the
recent failure of many exam candidates in the prefectural examinations for official degrees,
the prerequisite for appointment in civil service. The pagoda was rebuilt in 1223 and had a
list inscribed on it of the recently successful examination candidates, in hopes that it would
reverse the trend and win the county supernatural favor.
The image of Gautama Buddha in the abhaya mudrā is also noticeable in some Pagodas.
Buddhist iconography can be observed throughout the pagoda symbolism. [16] In an article on
Buddhist elements in Han dynasty art, Wu Hung suggests that in these tombs, Buddhist
symbolism was so well-incorporated into native Chinese traditions that a unique system of
symbolism had been developed.

ARCHITECTURE
Pagodas come in many different sizes,[18] with taller ones often attracting lightning strikes.
While this has inspired tradition that the finial decorating the top of the structure can seize
demons, the historically frequent damage has often motivated the modern addition of
conductive wires connecting the finial to the earth, allowing it to function as a true lightning
conductor.
Wooden pagodas possess certain characteristics which are thought to help them survive
earthquakes. These include the friction damping and sliding effect related to the complex
wooden dougong joints,[21] the structural isolation of floors, the effects of deep eaves
analogous to a balancing toy, and the Shinbashira phenomenon that the center column is
bolted to the rest of the superstructure
Pagodas traditionally have an odd number of levels, a notable exception being the eighteenth-
century pagoda designed by Sir William Chambers at Kew Gardens in London.
The pagodas in Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and Cambodia are very different from Chinese and
Japanese pagodas. Pagodas in these countries are derived from Dravidian architecture.

21
Wood- Construction Material: pagodas were mostly built of wood, as were other ancient
Chinese structures. Wooden pagodas are resistant to earthquakes, and no Japanese pagoda has
been destroyed by an earthquake. Many have burnt down, and wood is also prone to both
natural rot and insect infestation.

Examples of wooden pagodas:

 White Horse Pagoda at White Horse Temple, Luoyang.

 Futuci Pagoda in Xuzhou, built in the Three Kingdoms period (c. 220–265).
 Many of the pagodas in Stories About Buddhist Temples in Luoyang, a Northern Wei text,
were wooden.
The literature of subsequent eras also provides evidence of the domination of wooden pagoda
construction in this period. The famous Tang Dynasty poet, Du Mu, once wrote:

22
480 Buddhist temples of the Southern Dynasties,
uncountable towers and pagodas stand in the misty rain.
The oldest extant fully wooden pagoda standing in China today is the Pagoda of Fugong
Temple in Ying County, Shanxi Province, built in the 11th century during the Song
Dynasty/Liao Dynasty (refer to Architecture section in Song Dynasty).

Transition to brick and stone

During the Northern Wei and Sui dynasties (386–618) experiments began with the
construction of brick and stone pagodas. Even at the end of the Sui, however, wood was still
the most common material. For example, Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty (reigned 581–
604) once issued a decree for all counties and prefectures to build pagodas to a set of standard
designs, however since they were all built of wood none have survived. Only the Songyue
Pagoda has survived, a circular-based pagoda built out of stone in 523 AD.
Brick
The earliest extant brick pagoda is the 40-metre-tall Songyue Pagoda in Dengfeng
Country, Henan.[24] This curved, circle-based pagoda was built in 523 during the Northern
Wei Dynasty, and has survived for 15 centuries.[24] Much like the later pagodas found during
the following Tang Dynasty, this temple featured tiers of eaves encircling its frame, as well
as a spire crowning the top. Its walls are 2.5 m thick, with a ground floor diameter of 10.6 m.
Another early brick pagoda is the Sui Dynasty Guoqing Pagoda built in 597.
Stone
The earliest large-scale stone pagoda is a Four Gates Pagoda at Licheng, Shandong, built in
611 during the Sui Dynasty. Like the Songyue Pagoda, it also features a spire at its top, and is
built in the pavilion style.
Brick and stone
One of the earliest brick and stone pagodas was a three-storey construction built in the
(first) Jin Dynasty (266–420), by Wang Jun of Xiangyang. However, it is now destroyed.
Brick and stone went on to dominate Tang, Song, Liao and Jin Dynasty pagoda construction.
An example is the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda (652 AD), built during the early Tang Dynasty.
The Porcelain Pagoda of Nanjing has been one of the most famous brick and stone pagoda in
China throughout history. The Zhou dynasty started making the ancient pagodas about 3,500
years ago.
Pagodas, in keeping with the tradition of the White Horse Temple, were generally placed in
the center of temples until the Sui and Tang dynasties. During the Tang, the importance of the
main hall was elevated and the pagoda was moved beside the hall, or out of the temple
compound altogether. In the early Tang, Daoxuan wrote a Standard Design for Buddhist
Temple Construction in which the main hall replaced the pagoda as the center of the temple.
The design of temples was also influenced by the use of traditional Chinese residences as
shrines, after they were philanthropically donated by the wealthy or the pious. In such pre-
configured spaces, building a central pagoda might not have been either desirable or possible.
In the Song Dynasty (960–1279), the Chan (Zen) sect developed a new 'seven part structure'
for temples. The seven parts—the Buddha hall, dharma hall, monks' quarters, depository,
gate, pure land hall and toilet facilities—completely exclude pagodas, and can be seen to
represent the final triumph of the traditional Chinese palace/courtyard system over the

23
original central-pagoda tradition established 1000 years earlier by the White Horse Temple in
67. Although they were built outside of the main temple itself, large pagodas in the tradition
of the past were still built. This includes the two Ming Dynasty pagodas of Famen Temple
and the Chongwen Pagoda in Jingyang of Shaanxi Province.
A prominent, later example of converting a palace to a temple is Beijing's Yonghe Temple,
which was the residence of Yongzheng Emperor before he ascended the throne. It was
donated for use as a lamasery after his death in 1735.

STYLES
Han Dynasty

Examples of Han Dynasty era tower architecture predating Buddhist influence and the full-
fledged Chinese pagoda can be seen in the four pictures below. Michael Loewe writes that
during the Han Dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) period, multi-storied towers were erected for
religious purposes, as astronomical observatories, as watchtowers, or as ornate buildings that
were believed to attract the favor of spirits, deities, and immortals.
Sacred Stupas and Precious Pagodas: The Many Roles of Reliquaries in the Buddhist
Landscape/////////////By Meher McArthur- Buddhistdoor Global | 2016-01-22 |

The Great Stupa at Sanchi, India. 3rd century BCE–1st century CE. Photo by Nagarjun. From
wikimedia.org
One of the most fascinating examples of Buddhist architecture is the stupa, a structure that
evolved from a simple burial mound into the large-scale domed structures of the Himalayas
and Southeast Asia and the elegant multi-tiered pagodas of East Asia. Both stupas and
pagodas are essentially containers for relics of the historical Buddha, Shakyamuni, or other
Buddhist teachers or saints, but over the centuries, as the Buddha’s followers spread his
teachings throughout Asia, they constructed such monuments in various materials, sizes, and
styles, to contain texts and other sacred items as well as relics. These sacred structures have
played a variety of roles—spiritual, political, and artistic: as a central focus for Buddhist
devotion, as a tool for Buddhist rulers to unite their subjects, and as an architectural
expression of belief in the Buddhist teachings.
The earliest stupas (a Sanskrit word meaning “a heap”) were ancient Indian burial mounds
that marked the graves of religious or political leaders and reminded the living of their power.
After Shakyamuni’s death, these mounds were incorporated into Buddhist practice as
containers of his relics and those of later Buddhist teachers. The relics were placed in the
center of the mound and a pole was passed through the middle of the structure linking the
relics with the stupa’s top, which created an axis mundi symbolically connecting the mundane

24
and the supramundane. In many stupas, the top of the pillar rises up from the dome and is
topped by three circular disks known as chattra (Sanskrit for “umbrella” or “parasol”), which
represent the Three Jewels (Skt: triratna): the Buddha, Dharma (teachings), and sangha
(monastic order). The dome is frequently constructed on a platform, often square, while
around the base is a walkway, which may be surrounded by gates. Typically, followers pass
through the eastern gate and circumambulate the dome in a clockwise direction, in an act of
walking meditation.
One of the most ancient and important stupas is the Great Stupa at Sanchi. Located in north-
central India, this stupa is believed to contain relics of the historical Buddha and was
originally constructed by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka, who ruled a large part of India in the
3rd century BCE. After a particularly bloody battle, he renounced violence, converted to
Buddhism, and attempted to unite his empire under the Buddhist Law. He had stone pillars
inscribed with edicts proclaiming the virtues of Buddhism erected throughout his empire as a
means of spreading the faith among his subjects. He also opened up eight Buddhist stupas
containing relics believed to be from the Buddha and distributed them among the 84,000
stupas that he ordered to be constructed around India, thus providing many focal points of
devotion for an expanding population of Buddhist followers. The Great Stupa at Sanchi is
one of the few surviving monuments from this endeavor, and is still venerated as a sacred site
today. In the following centuries, the stupa was renovated and enlarged, and in the 1st century
CE, four stone gates (Skt. torana) were erected around the structure and embellished with
ornate Buddhist imagery. On the south gate is an image of devotees praying in front of a
stupa—an early artistic testimony to the spiritual power attributed to the structure itself.

Boudhanath Stupa, Kathmandu, Nepal. Circa 7th century

Similar domed structures were erected later at many other important Buddhist sites in Asia
and were influenced by local architectural styles and traditions. In the Himalayan region, one
of the most spectacular examples is the Boudhanath Stupa in Kathmandu, Nepal. Built in the
middle of the first millennium CE, it is said to enshrine the remains of the Buddha Kashyapa,
who preceded Shakyamuni, the Buddha of our age. This massive stupa, which was damaged
during the 2015 Nepal earthquakes, is renowned for its whitewashed dome, the gilded
structure that rises up from the dome, and the large pairs of eyes that gaze outwards in the
four cardinal directions, offering protection.

25
In Southeast Asia, stupas (here, as in East Asia, often referred to as pagodas) have largely
retained their original spherical form, though in Thailand and Myanmar the round section of
many of these structures has become more slender and is often covered in gold. The colossal
Shwedagon Pagoda in Yangon is the most sacred stupa in Myanmar and is said to house the
relics of the four previous Buddhas of our age. The structure features a bulbous, bell-like
form built on a stone base and is entirely covered in gold plate and crowned with diamonds
and rubies; it is a prime example of the influence of regional artistic styles on the architecture
of these sacred structures.

Shwedagon Pagoda, Myanmar. Originally constructed circa 6th century, repaired most
recently late 20th century

In East Asia, the stupa underwent a fascinating transformation, evolving into the structure we
know as the typical pagoda. Largely unrecognizable as stupas, these wood, brick, or stone
monuments similarly house relics and have a pole connecting them to the top. While the
“umbrella” disks are still present at the very top of the pagoda, in most cases the round
section of the original stupa form has disappeared. Around the middle of the first millennium
CE, under the influence of Chinese tower and pavilion architecture, the stupa stretched
upward and took the form of a multi-storied tower, the levels (typically 3, 5 or 7) echoing the
series of small circular “umbrella” disks that crown the traditional form.

26
 Pagoda at Horyu-ji, Japan. 7th century. From wikimedia.org

The evolved form is exemplified by the five-storied pagoda at the temple Horyu-ji near Nara
in Japan. One of the world’s oldest surviving wooden structures, this 7th century tower is
believed to contain a fragment of a bone of the historical Buddha, and was the principal
building in the original temple complex. Enshrining Buddhist relics, this and other pagodas
throughout East Asia were for centuries the main focus of devotion, with practitioners
circumambulating the buildings and the relics inside. Later, the halls containing Buddhist
statues became the primary focus for practice, and within most temple complexes, the
pagodas became secondary buildings. Nonetheless, they are often the most eye-catching
structures on the temple grounds. Today, the elegant pagodas of Horyu-ji and the later
Kiyomizu temple in Kyoto, with their layered wood roofs ascending in stages towards the
sky, evoke a connection with the spiritual and a reverence for the ancient teachers whose
relics are housed within.

27
Three-storied pagoda at Kiyomizu temple, Kyoto, Japan. Image courtesy of the author
https://www.buddhistdoor.net/features/sacred-stupas-and-precious-pagodas-the-many-roles-
of-reliquaries-in-the-buddhist-landscape

28
Structures of Pagodas

Different structures have been used in the building of pagodas, depending on the
building materials. The structure and method of construction of a wooden pagoda
are similar to those of a palace, temple, multistoreyed building or pavilion made of
wood, i.e., the traditional beam or bracket system. It is usually composed of a frame,
rafters, sheathing, eaves and roof. A pagoda made of bricks and stones, like other
brick and stone buildings, is constructed by methods such as piling up bricks or
stone blocks and making archways. Metal pagodas are made by moulding and
casting metals. Though the building materials and methods of construction differ,
the basic structure does not change drastically. A pagoda is composed of the
following major parts:

Underground Palace
Most ancient buildings in China were built on solid ground. Usually nothing was
built underground. The pagoda, however, was unique in having an underground
palace, called the dragon palace or the dragon cave. This special structure is not
found in other buildings, such as palaces, temples or multistoreyed buildings. It was
added to a Buddhist pagoda to preserve Buddhist relics. According to a survey,
Buddhist relics were not buried underground in India, but kept inside the pagodas.
When the pagoda was introduced to China, it was combined with China's traditional
burial system. Whenever a pagoda was built, an underground palace was
constructed first to preserve the relics and other objects to be buried with the dead.
This underground palace was similar to the underground palaces of the mausoleums
of emperors and kings in ancient China, but it was usually much smaller and
contained fewer funerary objects. The most important thing in an underground
palace of a pagoda is a stone container with layer upon layer of cases made of stone,
gold, silver, jade and other materials. The innermost case contains the Buddhist
relics. The funerary objects in the palace may include copies of Buddhist scriptures
and statues of Buddha. Underground palaces were usually built of brick and stone in
square, hexagonal, octagonal or round shapes. Occasionally such a structure was
built inside the pagoda or semiunderground.

In olden times some superstitious people believed that certain pagodas had been
built on "sea holes" to prevent sea water from surging out. If the pagoda fell, the
place would be submerged by the sea. The myth came from ignorance of the
structure of underground palaces. Sometimes when an underground palace became
damaged over the years, underground water would seep into it, and people would
mistake it for a "sea hole." Since Liberation in 1949 thorough investigations have
been made of the underground palaces in many important pagodas in Beijing,
Hebei, Jiangsu, Hubei and other parts of the country.

For a general understanding of underground pagoda palaces in China let's look at

the underground palace of the sarira pagoda at Jingzhi Temple in Dingzhou, Hebei
Province. The name of this particular underground palace was the sarira cabinet,
which was inscribed on the wall of the palace, located in the middle of the pagoda's
foundation. A stone shaped like a roof, 60 centimeters deep in the ground, was
placed on top of a square hole leading down to the underground palace. The palace
room is not an exact square, its east wall being 2.2 meters, west wall 2.1 meters,
29
north wall 2.17 meters and south wall 2.2 meters wide. An arched door is on the
south wall. The walls, 2.34 meters high, are joined to the ceiling interlocking
brackets. All four walls have murals depicting heavenly kings, Indra, Brahma, boys
Different Types of Pagodas

Nine Story Pagoda

Xumi Pagoda
The Xumi Pagoda (also called Sumeru or Summer Pagoda) is a Buddhist pagoda from Hebei
province, China. The 48 meters tall pagoda was built in 636 AD during the reign of Taizong
Emperor of the Tang dynasty (618 – 907). However, the monastery that once surrounded the
Xumi pagoda has largely been destroyed, with the exception of a few structures.

Xumi Pagoda has 9 tiers of eaves and a crowning spire, its interior is hollow and also lacks a
staircase to reach the higher floors. There is a big stone body of a Chinese mythical beast,
bixi in the shape of a tortoise-like dragon near the arched doorway leading into the pagoda.
The left side of its body had been broken off and missing but in 2000 it was found during an
excavation at a nearby street.

Miruksa Pagoda - South Korea

Mireuksa Pagoda
The stone pagoda at Miruksa is the oldest and largest of all Korean pagodas. According to
Samguk Yusa (Memorabilia of the Three Dynasty), king Mu and his queen saw a vision of
Maitreya Buddha at a pond on Mount Yonghwasan during their way to Sajaya Temple. The

30
King promptly had the pond drained in order to establish the Mireuksa complex.

The temple has one wooden pagoda and two stone pagodas: Dongtap (east pagoda), Seotop
(west pagoda) as well as halls for the image of Buddha behind the pagodas.

Heavenly Lady Pagoda - Seven Stories Pagoda

Thien Mu Pagoda Vietnam

Thien Mu Pagoda Vietnam

According to their legend, the people around the place where the Thien Mu Pagoda now
stands used to see a vision of a lady. She always said that someday a great leader would come
here and build a pagoda to bring peace and prosperity to the country. Upon hearing this story,
the Lord Nguyen Hoang ordered the construction of the pagoda and named it Thien Mu
Pagoda (Heavenly Lady Pagoda).

This pagoda has 7 stories and is the tallest pagoda in Vietnam. The pagoda stands on the Ha
Khe Hill, constructed by the Nguyen dynasty andd sits on the northern bank of the Perfume
River. Among the many interesting artifacts housed at the peaceful complex is the car that
took the popular and brave monk Thich Quang Duc to his self-immolation in 1963 Saigon.

Five Story Pagoda

Toji Pagoda

Toji Pagoda Japan

Toji (meaning Eastern Temple) is a Buddhist temple in Kyoto, Japan. It is best known by
many people for its beautiful five-story pagoda, the highest wooden tower in Japan. Toji
pagoda is 57 meters tall (180-foot). However, this Toji pagoda was once struck by lightning
and burned down, the current Toji pagoda was reconstructed in 1695 by order of the 3rd
Tokugawa Shogun, Iemitsu. The Toji pagoda has been and remains to be a symbol of Kyoto.

Three Story Pagoda Hong Kong

Tsui Sing Lau Pagoda

Tsui Sing Lau Pagoda

The Tsui Sing Lau Pagoda is Hongkong’s only surviving ancient pagoda. Also called as The
Pagoda of Gathering Stars, this pagoda was declared a monument in 2001. According to the
legend, Tang Yin-tung dreamt of many stars in the sky that gathered together and fell onto
the place where the Tsui Sing Lau pagoda now stands. He then consulted his feng shui master
about this and the feng shui expert advise him to build a Buddhist pagoda on that spot. After
building the pagoda, the Tang clan of Ping Shan produced numerous scholars and officials.

31
The pagoda was also built to improve feng shui of the locality such as ward off evil spirits
from the north and prevent flooding disasters to the village.

Three Story Pagoda Japan

Ichijoji pagoda

Ichijoji pagoda

Hokkesan Ichijoji is a temple from the Tendai sect in Kasai, Hyogo, Japan. The temple was
established by the instruction of Emperor Kotoku in 650. Hodo Sennin, a high ranked priest
from India (a legendary high priest) was reported to be the one who founded the Ichijoji
temple.

The three-story Ichijoji pagoda (one of the oldest pagoda) and Prince Shotoku’s statue as well
as the high ranking priest of the Tendai sect were all designated as National Treasures.

One Story Pagoda

One Pillar Pagoda

One Pillar Pagoda (other name: Chua Mot Cot) is built by emperor Ly Thai Tong. According
to the story, the emperor did not have a child so he often went to the temple and pagoda to
pray for a baby. One day, he dreamt that bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara sitting on a lotus flower
in a pond, handed him a baby son. Months later, his wife bore him a son. The emperor was so
happy that he ordered his men to build One Pillar Pagoda which resembles a lotus in a pond.

Today, the One Pillar Pagoda is one of the most poplar tourist attractions in Hanoi, the capital
of Vietnam.

Dr. Uday Dokras

The Lands of SHIVA Part I
Hindu Cultural highway of S.E. Asian
Rivers
Hindu Cultural highway of the Irrawady इरावती

32
The ancient Hindu epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata are embedded in the
cultural matrix of Southeast Asia. @SushmaSwaraj, Ex Foreign Minister INDIA.

“Cultural highways linked rivers Ganga, Brahmaputra, Meghna, Irrawady, ,

Mekong. It is important to note that this inter-mingling happened without
any ‘conquest or colonization.”

Ship me somewheres east of Suez, where the best is like the worst,
Where there aren't no Ten Commandments an' a man can raise a
thirst;
For the temple -bells are callin', and it's there that I would be—
By the old Moul me in Pagoda, looking lazy at the sea.
For the wind is in the palm-trees, and the temple-bells they say:
'Come you back, you British soldier; come you back to Mandalay!'

RUDYARD KIPLING

33
This is a low-resolution version of Photograph of Moulmein
(Mawlamyaing) taken in Burma (Myanmar) in the 1870s by Samuel
Bourne (1832-1912), part of the Gladstone Collection. Moulmein, the
chief town of the Mon State, lies on the coast of south-east Burma at
the mouth of the Thanlwin (Salween) river where it meets the Gulf of
Martaban (Mottama). It developed as a colonial town between 1827 and
1852, when it was the administrative capital of British Burma. During
this period, it became a major centre for the export of teak, and
remains an important seaport for coastal shipping. A number of shrines
and monasteries like the Kyaikthanlan Pagoda (referred to in Rudyard
Kipling's poem 'Mandalay') were built on a ridge of hills running north-
south in east Moulmein, commanding a view of the town and river. In
this view, the Jail buildings are seen with the Thanlwin in the distance.

In his article, Tracing the combined influences that created the Khmer
identity,Jean-Michel Filippi says: https://www.phnompenhpost.com/post-
plus/tracing-combined-influences-created-khmer-identity

“From the first centuries of the Common Era, there has been a huge moving of
men, techniques and of course ideas from India to peninsular and insular
Southeast Asia. As soon as the end of 6th century AD, the results of the
process can be truly seen: centralised conception of the state, creation of a
script, new religious and artistic forms. This shows the efficiency of the Indian
contribution, but on the other side it shows also the ability of the Khmer land
to absorb it and, far more important, to transform it through a slow adaptation
to local conditions.

34
Thus, the face of the Khmer land was first of all a new conception of the state.
Local chieftainships of which the authority didn’t exceed the limits of the
village were going to be replaced by much stronger state entities- a new vision
of the state was to be coupled with new religious forms and the emergence of
a script.The religious dimension was also to play an essential part.
Predominating animist religious forms, without disappearing at all, were
progressively replaced at an official level by Indian religions: Hinduism and
Buddhism.”

The artistic creations by which I mean the hindu centric temples of both
Indonesia dn Cambodia as well as the host of other countries which began
at the end of the Kingdom of Funan (style of Phnom Da, 6th century AD)
and went on after the 15th century with a very original Hindu art with the
Temples impregnated with Hindu ideology.

The dance still has Indian elements that you see in the apsaras and
traditional Khmer dance. The food has changed but you can see it's
influence from India's culture and China.

Cambodians are possibly a mix of Various Indian and Naga tribes.

Resulting from a marriage of both families producing the "Khmer" people.
This could be further explored in a topic of Cambodian marriages. Since it
delineates the origin of Khmer people as a marriage ritual. There is a legend
in Khmer folklore that through the union of a princess and a foreigner. The
foreigner was an Indian Brahman named Kaundinya and the princess was
the daughter of a dragon king who ruled over a watery land. One day, as
Kaundinya sailed by, the princess paddled out in a boat to greet him.
Kaundinya shot an arrow from his magic bow into her boat, causing the
fearful princess to agree to marriage. In need of a dowry, her father drank
up the waters of his land and presented them to Kaundinya to rule over. The
new kingdom was named Kambuja.

Hinduism and Buddhism exerted an enormous influence on the

civilizations of Southeast Asia and contributed greatly to the development of
a written tradition in that area. About the beginning of the Common Era,
Indian merchants may have settled there, bringing Brahmans and Buddhist
monks with them. These religious men were patronized by rulers who
converted to Hinduism or Buddhism. The earliest material evidence of
Hinduism in Southeast Asia comes from Borneo, where late 4th-century
Sanskrit inscriptions testify to the performance of Vedic sacrifices by
Brahmans at the behest of local chiefs. Chinese chronicles attest an
Indianized kingdom in Vietnam two centuries earlier. The dominant form of
Hinduism exported to Southeast Asia was Shaivism, though
some Vaishnavism was also known there. Later, from the 9th century
onward, Tantrism, both Hindu and Buddhist, spread throughout the region.

Beginning in the first half of the 1st millennium CE, many of the early
kingdoms in Southeast Asia adopted and adapted specific Hindu texts,

35
theologies, rituals, architectural styles, and forms of social organization that
suited their historical and social conditions. It is not clear whether this
presence came about primarily through slow immigration and settlement by
key personnel from India or through visits to India by Southeast Asians who
took elements of Indian culture back home. Hindu and Buddhist traders,
priests, and, occasionally, princes traveled to Southeast Asia from India in
the first few centuries of the Common Era and eventually settled there.
Enormous temples to Shiva and Vishnu were built in the ancient Khmer
empire, attesting to the power and prestige of Hindu traditions in the
region. Angkor Wat, built in the 12th century in what is now Cambodia, was
originally consecrated to Vishnu, although it was soon converted to (and is
still in use as) a Buddhist temple. One of the largest Hindu temples ever
built, it contains the largest bas-relief in the world, depicting the churning of
the ocean of milk, a minor theme of Indian architecture but one of the
dominant narratives in Khmer temples.

Despite the existence in Southeast Asia of Hindu temples and iconography

as well as Sanskrit inscriptions, the nature and extent of Hindu influence
upon the civilizations of the region is fiercely debated by contemporary
scholars. Whereas early 20th-century scholars wrote about the Indianization
of Southeast Asia, those of the late 20th and early 21st centuries argued
that this influence was very limited and affected only a small cross
section of the elite. It is nevertheless certain that divinity and royalty were
closely connected in Southeast Asian civilizations and that several Hindu
rituals were used to valorize the powers of the monarch.

The civilizations of Southeast Asia developed forms of Hinduism and

Buddhism that incorporated distinctive local features and in other respects
reflected local cultures, but the framework of their religious life, at least in
the upper classes, was largely Indian. Stories from the Ramayana and
the Mahabharata became widely known in Southeast Asia and are still
popular there in local versions. In Indonesia the people of Bali still follow a
form of Hinduism adapted to their own genius. Versions of the Manu-
smriti were taken to Southeast Asia and were translated and adapted
to indigenous cultures until they lost most of their original content.

Claims of early Hindu contacts farther east are more doubtful. There is little
evidence of direct influence of Hinduism on China or Japan, which were
primarily affected by Buddhism.
Hinduism, along with Buddhism, arrived in Burma during ancient times.
The name Myanmar is the regional language transliteration of Brahma,
where b and m are interchangeable.
Both names of the country are rooted in Hinduism; Burma is the British
colonial officials' phonetic equivalent for the first half of Brahma Desha, the
ancient name of the region. Brahma is part of Hindu trinity, a deity with
four heads. Arakan (Rakhine) Yoma is a significant natural mountainous
barrier between Burma and India, and the migration of Hinduism and
Buddhism into Burma occurred slowly through Manipur and by South

36
Asian seaborne traders. Hinduism greatly influenced the royal court of
Burmese kings in pre-colonial times, as seen in the architecture of cities
such as Bagan. Likewise, the Burmese language adopted many words
from Sanskrit and Pali, many of which relate to religion.
While ancient and medieval arrival of ideas and culture fusion transformed
Burma over time, it is in 19th and 20th century that over a million Hindu
workers were brought in by British colonial government to serve in
plantations and mines. The British also felt that surrounding the European
residential centre with Indian immigrants provided a buffer and a degree of
security from tribal theft and raids. According to 1931 census, 55% of
Rangoon's (Yangon) population were Indian migrants, mostly Hindus
The rise of devotional Hinduism (4th–11th century)

The medieval period was characterized by the growth of new devotional

religious movements centred on hymnodists who taught in the popular
languages of the time. The new movements probably began with the
appearance of hymns in Tamil associated with two groups of poets:
the Nayanars, worshipers of Shiva, and the Alvars, devotees of Vishnu. The
oldest of these date from the early 7th century, though passages of
devotional character can be found in earlier Tamil literature.

The term bhakti, in these early sourcesrepresents a devotion still somewhat

restrained and unemotional. The new form of bhakti, associated with singing
in the languages of the common people, was highly charged with emotion
and mystical fervour, and the relationship between worshiper and divinity
was often described as analogous to that between lover and beloved. This
devotional cults further weakened Buddhism, which had long been on the
decline. The philosophers Kumarila and Shankara were strongly opposed to
Buddhism. In their journeys throughout India, their biographies claim, they
vehemently debated with Buddhists and tried to persuade kings and other
influential people to withdraw their support from Buddhist monasteries.
Only in Bihar and Bengal, because of the patronage of the Pala dynasty and
some lesser kings and chiefs, did Buddhist monasteries continue to flourish.
Buddhism in eastern India, however, was well on the way to being absorbed
into Hinduism when the Muslims invaded the Ganges valley in the 12th
century. The great Buddhist shrine of Bodh Gaya, the site of the Buddha’s
enlightenment, became a Hindu temple and remained as such until recent
times.

In Cambodia, Thailand and Indonesia or Burma today, many symbolic

remnants of India’s influence are clearly visible in their art, culture and
civilisation. Through the centuries, India has been a source of inspiration
for art and architecture in countries belonging to the present day ASEAN.
The eleven countries of ASEAN are
1. Myanmar,
2. Thailand,

37
 3. Singapore,
4. Malaysia,
5. Indonesia,
6. Vietnam,
7. Cambodia,
8. Laos,
9. Brunei, the
10. Philippines and recently added
11. Timor Leste.

1941 School Girls They were to go topless those days.

Some of Temples of Angkor Wat, Pagan, Borobudur and Prambanan

surpass the grandeur of Indian temples from the same period because of
their scale, extensive stone bas relief carvings and expanse. Thanks to the
contact with Indian civilisation they bear evidence to the deep
penetration of Indian art and architectural forms in these famous
Southeast Asian monuments and therefore lands

Southeast Asia did not accept all foreign influences in an indiscriminate

manner. accepted only those influences and practices that were suitable to
their local cultures. Almost every country accepted Ramayana because it is
easy to retell, understand, modify and apply to contemporary culture It is
said that folklore singers and artistes played a very important role in
popularising and modifying Indian literary works in Southeast Asia.
Retelling of the stories from generation to generation, the great epics of
Ramayana and Mahabharata were popularised by artistd marking the
beginning of the formation of new texts like
1. Seri Rama ( Malaysian adaptation of Ramayana) and
2. RamKer ( Ramayana Khmer) in Cambodia.

38
Similarly sculptors and artists copied and combined original Indian motifs
with local artistic motifs to arrive at something distinctively Southeast
Asian and produced stylised masterpieces of their own. Copying the Gupta
period architecture and art, the Cambodian ( Khmer) sculpture of 8th to
13th centuries are very different in appearance and form yet they are
beautiful creations representing stylised figures of Hindu gods, goddesses,
Buddha, Apsaras and demons with Southeast Asian features.

Some say that India’s civilisation and culture spread peaceful without
forced conversions in many parts of the world due to singing and dance
forms.

Ancient land and Sea Trade Routes: Southeast Asia was particularly
attractive to Indian mercantile class and they named the faraway lands
Swarnabhumi or land of gold, Tokola or land of cardamoms or
Narikeldeep , land of coconuts. They followed two routes—one through land
via Bengal, Assam, Manipur and Burma to reach different parts of
Southeast Asia. The maritime route was from Coromandel coast or the
coast of Bay of Bengal to Cape Comorin and via Malacca strait to reach the
Malay Peninsula, trade between India and Southeast Asia which was seen
as a land of spices and rice growing fertile lands, flourished. Funan in the
Mekong Delta in Vietnam was the first trading post of Indian traders.
Traders took residence there and from there spread to other countries of
the region
.
Missionaries ?
Hindu priests and Buddhist monks accompanied mercantile class and
assumed a leading role in spreading the message of Indian thought and
culture to the entire Southeast Asian region. Since they had no political
ambitions and were living in hermitages and ashrams, the local people
welcomed them.
Thus merchants, monks and Hindu Brahmin priests travelled to faraway
kingdoms like Cambodia and Indonesia in large numbers and India’s
culture, religion and civilisation spread to different parts of Southeast Asia.
The kings of the region wore Indian made silk and brocade textiles during
ceremonious occasions and donned jewels imported from India. Printed
and woven textiles were eagerly sought after by the common people.
Indian religion, political thought, literature, mythology, artistic motifs and
style, were absorbed deeply into local culture as greater interaction with
Indians who settled in the courts of South East Asia took place. Buddhism
came to Southeast Asia from India in 3 rd century BCE when Buddhist
monks were sent by king Ashok.
In medieval times, from sixth to fourteenth century, there existed a great
maritime empire based in the Indonesian islands of Java and Sumatra.
Many Indian artisans came to work temporarily in the courts and were
from Kalinga (modern day Orissa).They helped in building great temples
and monuments. Many of the motifs on the walls of Borobudur and Angkor

39
Wats resemble carvings of Konarak and other medieval temples of eastern
India.\

Brahmins also played an important role in the Siamese court as

experts in Astrology and in conducting ceremonies. They were not
only experts in performing religious rites but were also knowledgeable
in political affairs, art and architecture. They were invited by rulers to
serve as advisors, administrators and priests. They were experts in
Sanskrit.

Sanskrit scripts are the first form of writing known to have reached
Southeast Asia. Similar alphabets were adopted for local languages as well.
The alphabets used today for Burmese, Thai, Laos and Cambodia derive
originally from Indian prototype. A large number of ancient inscriptions
which have been discovered are in Sanskrit.

Sanskrit terminology was used in all legal aspects of court procedures and
only the factual aspects were described in vernacular. The use of Indian
framework of code of law was mentioned by these inscription. Codes of law
and public administration especially the concept of “God King” was
adopted by many kings of Southeast Asia. They considered themselves to
be incarnation or a descendant of one of the Hindu deities. Later when
Buddhism came, this view was modified. The kings of Cambodia,
Jayavarman VII (the founder of Angkor) and his successors were addressed
by the people as king of the mountain and they built their palaces and
temples on hill peaks ( Bayon temples).

Traders were also accompanied by Shudras (the lowest caste according to

the Hindu caste hierarchy) who migrated in search of a better life from
India and many settled in Bali. The caste system was modified when
adopted by Southeast Asians as they had a class system of their own. They
also did not adopt the Manusmriti which relegates women to an inferior
place. The Indonesians still have matriarchal society in Sumatra
(Minangkabau) where women are head of the family and inheritance is
through the daughters’ lineage. The rise of India’s influence had taken
place when the Khmer kings spread it to other regions and decline began
with the coming of Islam. But even though it was a long time ago that
India’s influence on Southeast Asia’s culture and civilization more or less
halted, the impact can be seen and felt even today on its customs, culture,
architectural designs.

40
The syncretic culture of Southeast Asia is evident in Buddhism being
practiced in Hindu temples in Cambodia, Muslim wedding rituals and
dress in Malaysia which are based on Hindu rituals and attire, Garuda –
the vehicle of Hindu God Vishnu, is the name of Indonesian Airlines, and
Naga and Kuber which are prevalent in both Hindu and Buddhist cultures
can be seen carved in many places. A Mahabharata Monument depicting
Krishna and Arjun riding a chariot pulled by eleven horses is placed
prominently in a park in central Jakarta. Southeast Asia absorbed and
retained its past Indian influence in a very distinctive manner over the
centuries and today it has melded into the Southeast Asian culture.
A Balinese Hindu temple offering

Spices were common between Indian and Southeast Asian foods recipes.
Nearly all the people of Southeast Asian region eat rice and curry like the
people of Eastern India with many common ingredients. Indian herbal
medicines also reached Southeast Asia from ancient times and are used
even today in many countries
https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/indias-cultural-and-
civilizational-influence-on-southeast-asia/

The Irrawaddy River, officially, Ayeyarwady River- erawa.ti- Ayeyarwaddy,

is actually derived from the Sanskrit word revatī meaning "abounding in
riches” Iravati is also a Sanskrit name for girls meaning Daughter of the
ocean is a river that flows from north to south through Burma. It is the
country's largest river and most important commercial waterway.
Originating from the confluence of the N'mai and Mali rivers, it flows
relatively straight North-South before emptying through the Irrawaddy

41
Delta in the Ayeyarwady Region into the Andaman Sea. Its basin of about
404,200 square kilometres (156,100 sq mi) covers a large part of Burma.
After Rudyard Kipling's poem, it is sometimes referred to as 'The Road to
Mandalay'.
As early as the sixth century, the river was used for trade and transport.
Having developed an extensive network of irrigation canals, the river became
important to the British Empire after it had colonized Burma. The river is
still as vital today, as a considerable amount of (export) goods and traffic
moves by river. Rice is produced in the Irrawaddy Delta, irrigated by water
from the river.

The British at the palace in Mandalay in the Third Anglo-Burmese

War, The Illustrated London News, 1887// Rudyard Kipling portrait
from 1881
Most Hindus in Myanmar are Burmese Indians. Hinduism, along with
Buddhism, arrived in Burma during ancient times. Both names of the
country are rooted in Hinduism; Burma is the British colonial officials’
phonetic equivalent for the first half of Brahma Desha the ancient name of
the region. Brahma is part of Hindu trinity, a deity with four heads. Rakhine
Yoma is a significant natural mountainous barrier between Burma and
India, and the migration of Hinduism and Buddhism into Burma occurred
slowly through Manipur and by South Asian seaborne traders. Hinduism
greatly influenced the royal court of Burmese kings in pre-colonial times, as

42
 seen in the architecture of cities such as Bagan. Likewise, the Burmese
language adopted many words from Sanskrit and Pali many of which relate
to religion. While ancient and medieval arrival of ideas and culture fusion
transformed Burma over time, it is in 19th and 20th century that over a
million Hindu workers were brought in by British colonial government to
serve in plantations and mines. Many Hindu gods and goddess are likewise
worshipped by many Burmese people, such as Saraswati (known as
Thuyathadi in Burmese), the goddess of knowledge, who is often worshipped
before examinations. Lakshim also worshiped by some Burmese people.
Thus, it is recognized that the historical account of Hinduism is important
for The Burmese people live through their Buddhist faith and have built the
means to worship whatever their surroundings.
Some 4,000 temples rise from the plain at Bagan. They're the country's
equivalent to Angkor Wat, and if you travel to Myanmar for the first time it's
almost inconceivable that you won't visit here.
 Nathlaung Kyaung Temple.
 Shri Kali Temple, Burma.
 Sri Varatha Raja Perumal Temple.
 Shree Maha Lakshmi Temple.
 Sri Kali Amman Temple.
 Kartayri Temple.
 Sri Radha Mandalayshwar Temple.
 Shree Ram Temple.

43
The Shwedagon is the most sacred Buddhist pagoda in Myanmar, as it is
believed to contain relics of the four previous Buddhas of the present kalpa.
These relics include the staff of Kakusandha, the water filter of
Koṇāgamana, a piece of the robe of Kassapa, and eight strands of hair from
the head of Gautama. Pic above left

The Nathlaung Kyaung Temple नाथ्लौंग क्यौंग literally "shrine confining the
spirits") is a Hindu temple dedicated to Vishnu. The temple is located inside
the city walls of old Bagan, Burma (Coordinates: 21.168965° N, 94.862738°
E). Only Hindu temple in Bagan, Myanmar
This is the only Hindu temple in Bagan right next to the biggest temple in
the complex. It is from around the 10th century and has some very old
artifacts. Some were destroyed in the major earthquake of 2016 which
destroyed a lot in The historical place of Myanmar. The lady describes a lot
and is a little hard to understand but I will take you through with a small
tour in this short video.

44
It lies to the west of the Thatbyinnyu Temple, and it is the only
remaining Hindu temple in Bagan. Nat-Hlaung Kyaung temple is one of the
oldest temples in Bagan, and was built in the 11th century, during the reign
of King Anawratha. Some historians believe the temple was built in the 10th
century, during the reign of King Nyaung-u Sawrahan (also known as
Taungthugyi). The temple was originally built for Hindu Burmese Indians of
the 11th century, including merchants and Brahmins in the service of the
king. Many structures of the original temple have disappeared, although the
main hall remains. Originally, the temple contained statues of the
10 Avatars of Vishnu, including Gautama Buddha; however, today, only
seven remain. The brick temple was isolated and unrepaired for many years,
damaged by earthquakes.

The temple is set on a square template with steep-rising upper terraces. It

may have been built by Indian artisans brought into Bagan (Pagan), during
the 10th century AD, to work on it and other temples. As the oldest temple
in Bagan, its style influenced and inspired the numerous other Buddhist
structures that followed.[2] Another legend states that the temple was built to
store all the nat from other temples, so that Buddhism could get established
in Bagan kingdom.

45
 Nathlaung Kyaung
Type of
: Type I Temple (Gu Paya)
monument

46
 Location : West of Thabyinnyu
Region : Old Bagan
Built by : King Taungthugyi
Date : A.D 931

Nathlaung Kyaung means 'Shrine Confining Nats or Spirits', a reference to a

purported time when King Anawratha tried to banish Nat worship in Bagan.
He is said to have confiscated all non-Buddhist religious images including
indigenous Myanmar nats and Hindu devas. Then he ordered to have placed
them in this shrine as part of an effort to establish 'pure' Theravada
Buddhism during his reign. The king eventually gave in to the cult and
standardized the current roster of principal Burmese Nats by placing 37
chosen images at Shwezigon Pagoda.

This temple is situated slightly to the west of the Thatbyinnyu, this is the
only Hindu temple remaining in Bagan. It is said to have been built in 931
by King Taunghthugyi, more than a century before Theravada Buddhism
came to Bagan, following the conquest of Thaton. In design it resembles the

47
Pyu Leimyethna or four-sided shrines of Sri Keshtra. The temple is
dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu. The central square of brick supports the
dome and crumbled Sikhara, and once contained free-standing figures of
Vishnu as well as Vishnu reliefs on each of the four sides. Vishnu's '10
Avatars' were placed around the outside wall, seven of these survive.

INSIDE.THE.TEMPLE

The main hall and superstructure of the Nathlaung Kyaung still stand fine today but the
entrance hall and outer structures have crumbled and disappeared.

This square temple with steep-rising upper terraces is dedicated to the

Hindu god Vishnu, and was perhaps built by Indian artisans brought into
Bagan to work on other temples. It was possibly built by legendary King
Taungthugyi (r. 931-964) about a century before King Anawrahta (r. 1044-
1077) brought Theravada Buddhism to Pagan with the conquest of Thaton.
Paul Strachan, however, argues that it may have been built as late as the
reign of Awawrahta. It clearly is one of the earliest of the Bagan temples.

48
IMAGES.OF.VISHNU

The several names given to the temple, as Strachan argues, indicate the
religious struggle that ensued between Vaishnavite Hindu ideas and the
southern Buddhist tradition that made its appearance with Anawrahta,
though there apparently was a tolerance as the temple was not razed. Most
Burmese use the name given above, which may be translated as "Shrine
Confining the Devas." To Hindu devotees it was Nat-daw-kyaung, or the
"Shrine of the Sacred Devas." Another version, Nat-hl-kyaung, or "Shrine of
the Reclining Deva," suggests that perhaps there originally was such a
statue inside.
This square temple with steep-rising upper terraces is dedicated to the
Hindu god Vishnu, and was perhaps built by Indian artisans brought into
Bagan to work on other temples. Strachan suggests that, since it uses the
Pyu brick building tradition followed in Bagan architecture, it was built by
indigenous artisans of Bagan. It clearly was the temple of the Indian
merchant community and Brahmans in the service of the king and was
originally not only a place of worship, but also as a sculpture gallery. Of the
original temple complex only the superstructure and main hall remain, as
the entry hall and other structures have disappeared. The high mandapa, or
plinth or porch that extends from the temple, was the gift of a Malabar
Vaishnavite saint in the 13th century; it is the only mandapa in Bagan and
originally would have been covered by a wooden hall or awning.
Considerable repair was done in 1976, as can be seen in the second story
and the sikhara, or upper part of the finial. Originally there were 10 avatars,
past and present incarnations of Vishnu, housed in niches in the outer
walls; seven survive. In the late nineteenth century a German oil engineer
took the large Vishnu figure that was standing on the mythical garuda; it
now is in Berlin's Dahlem Museum.
Last part from a Text by Professor Robert D. Fiala of Concordia
University, Nebraska, USA.

49
Burmese Nudes from early 1900

50
 Geometry, Geomancy, and Theology at Borobudur
Dr Uday Dokras

One of the early sutras (a collection of sayings attributed to the Buddha forming a religious
text) records that the Buddha gave specific directions regarding the appropriate method of
honoring his remains (the Maha-parinibbāna sutra): his ashes were to be buried in a stupa at
the crossing of the mythical four great roads (the four directions of space), the unmoving hub
of the wheel, the place of Enlightenment.To understand the geometry of the Borobudur one
needs to get an insight ito the Concept of the Dharma Wheel;

The Dharma Wheel, Dharmachakra, or Wheel of Dharma, is one of the many sacred
teachings of Buddhism and other Indian religions, such as Hinduism and Jainism. It is one of
the most important and sacred symbols in the Buddhist faith as it represents Buddha's
teachings.

The Dharmachakra comes from the Dharma, which is the path to attaining enlightenment
and reaching Nirvana (the highest state of being a person can achieve). It also means the
Wheel of Law. While there are many variations of the Dharma Wheel, they are usually
depicted with eight spokes and are gold in color. Three shapes are depicted within the center
of the wheel, typically a Yin Yang shape, wheel or circle.
The Dharmachakra meaning generally refers to a typical Dharma Wheel with eight spokes -
representing the Eightfold Path - and is the oldest, universal symbol for Buddhism. There are
multiple ways of interpreting the Dharma Wheel so there are several meanings behind the
symbol. There are three different parts that make up the Dharma Wheel: the spokes, the hub,
and the rim.

The rim of the Dharma Wheel further signifies the ability to hold all of the teachings together
by meditating and concentrating. The circular shape of the wheel symbolizes the perfection of
Buddha's teachings.

51
The hub in the center of the Dharma Wheel represents moral discipline. The three swirling
shapes on the hub, often depicted in blue, yellow and red, symbolize Dharma, Buddha, and
Sangha respectively. They are also known as the Three Treasures or Jewels.

A Dharma Wheel with four spokes symbolizes the Four Noble Truths. When the wheel
has eight spokes, it represents the Eightfold Path and Buddhism. Ten spokes on a
Dharma Wheel signifies the ten directions and twelve spokes symbolize the Twelve Links of
Dependent Origination.

If a Dharma Wheel has twenty-four spokes, it is known as the Ashoka Chakra and symbolizes
the twenty-four ideal qualities of a follower of Buddhism. The Ashoka Chakra also represents
the reversal of the Twelve Links and becoming free from Samsara - the continuous cycle of
reincarnation. A Dharma Wheel with thirty-one spokes represents the thirty-one realms of
existence found in Buddhist cosmology.

In its entirety, the Dharma Wheel symbolizes Buddha's teachings. When one practices
Dharma, one is practicing the teachings of Buddha and protecting oneself from suffering and
eliminating ignorance, thereby improving one's quality of life. These teachings were
described as a wheel because they move and travel throughout the land and then people can

52
practice control over their minds. Altogether, the three aspects of the Dharma Wheel
symbolize concentration, ethics, and wisdom - which are all essential in the teachings of
Buddha.

Hinduism: One of the oldest depictions of the Dharma Wheel as a symbol was found on
pillars that were built by the Emperor Ashoka between 304 and 232 BC. He ruled over India
and followed the teachings of Buddhism.
Many of the pillars he built are still standing today and depict various edicts that encouraged
his people to practice Buddhism, while never forcing it upon them. Ashoka Chakras, Dharma
Wheels with twenty-four spokes, can be found on these pillars.

Image Attribution: Shooting_Brooklyn/Attribution: Biswarup Ganguly

However, the Dharma Wheel was appearing in Indian artworks before Ashoka the Great's
reign.
These Dharma Wheels also had twenty-four spokes and usually appeared sitting on top of
four lions who were sitting back to back as they each faced one of the four cardinal points.
In 1947, the Ashoka Chakra became a part of the Indian flag. Nowadays, the Dharma Wheel
is depicted in the art within the various Buddhist cultures. It can be seen in images of Buddha
as it appears on his hands and feet - representing one of the Marks of a Great Man.

The Dharmachakra meaning in Hinduism refers more to the Dharma Wheel as the Wheel
of Law. It is a symbol of order and religious routine that devout Hindu followers must
practice. In Sanskrit, the word Dharma comes from the word dhr, which means 'to hold and
maintain' and 'what is established or firm' Therefore it means 'law'.

53
The Dharma Wheel is commonly found in depictions of Vishnu, the god of preservation.
Vishnu is one of the Hindu Triumvirate and is the god responsible for protecting humans as
well as restoring and maintaining order in the world. He is often depicted carrying a wheel or
discus, which is regarded as a very powerful weapon that can conquer passions and desires.

In Tibet, the Dharma Wheel is a very prominent symbol as it is one of the Eight Auspicious
Symbols. It is typically seen between two deer, which symbolizes Buddha's first teachings in
a deer park. When Buddha gave this first sermon, the deer in the park gathered around and
listened. When deer are depicted alongside a Dharma Wheel, it serves as a reminder that
Buddha valued all beings and all life, not just humans.
In these depictions, the Dharma Wheel has to be twice the height of the deer as they sit
peacefully next to it with their legs folded under them and their heads lifted up to look at the
wheel.

Some Tibetan deities are portrayed using the wheel as a weapon in order to overcome evil
and ignorance. It is believed that these depictions were influenced by Hindu depictions of
Lord Vishnu who also carries the wheel as a weapon.

54
Buddhist Symbolism:
The Dharma Wheel is a sacred and ancient Buddhist symbol and represents the Buddhist faith
universally. After attaining enlightenment, Buddha gave his first teachings and gave a
sermon on the first Wheel of Dharma. He gave this sermon in a deer park, Sarnath, in Uttar
Pradesh, India.
Buddha spoke about the Sutra of the Four Noble Truths, the Perfection of the Wisdom Sutras
and the Sutra Discriminating the Intention. These three teachings are known as the Three
Turnings of the Wheel of Dharma.

If one thinks of the stupa as a circle or wheel, the unmoving center symbolizes
Enlightenment. Likewise, the practitioner achieves stillness and peace when the Buddhist
dharma is fully understood. Many stupas are placed on a square base, and the four sides
represent the four directions, north, south, east and west. Each side often has a gate in the
center, which allows the practitioner to enter from any side. The gates are called torana. Each
gate also represents the four great life events of the Buddha: East (Buddha’s birth), South
(Enlightenment), West (First Sermon where he preached his teachings or dharma), and North
(Nirvana). The gates are turned at right angles to the axis mundi to indicate movement in the
manner of the arms of a svastika, a directional symbol that, in Sanskrit, means “to be good”
(“su” means good or auspicious and “asti” means to be). The torana are directional gates
guiding the practitioner in the correct direction on the correct path to Enlightenment, the
understanding of the Four Noble Truths.

A microcosm of the universe

At the top of stupa is a yasti, or spire, which symbolizes the axis mundi (a line through the
earth’s center around which the universe is thought to revolve). The yasti is surrounded by
a harmika, a gate or fence, and is topped by chattras (umbrella-like objects symbolizing
royalty and protection).

The stupa makes visible something that is so large as to be unimaginable. The axis
symbolizes the center of the cosmos partitioning the world into six directions: north, south,
east, west, the nadir and the zenith. This central axis, the axis mundi, is echoed in the same
axis that bisects the human body. In this manner, the human body also functions as a
microcosm of the universe. The spinal column is the axis that bisects Mt. Meru (the sacred
mountain at the center of the Buddhist world) and around which the world pivots. The aim of
the practitioner is to climb the mountain of one’s own mind, ascending stage by stage through
the planes of increasing levels of Enlightenment.

Circumambulation

The practitioner does not enter the stupa, it is a solid object. Instead, the practitioner
circumambulates (walks around) it as a meditational practice focusing on the Buddha’s
teachings. This movement suggests the endless cycle of rebirth (samsara) and the spokes of
the Eightfold Path (eight guidelines that assist the practitioner) that leads to knowledge of the

55
Four Noble Truths and into the center of the unmoving hub of the wheel, Enlightenment. This
walking meditation at a stupa enables the practitioner to visualize Enlightenment as the
movement from the perimeter of the stupa to the unmoving hub at the center marked by
the yasti.
The practitioner can walk to circumambulate the stupa or move around it through a series of
prostrations (a movement that brings the practitioner’s body down low to the ground in a
position of submission). An energetic and circular movement around the stupa raises the
body’s temperature. Practitioners do this to mimic the heat of the fire that cremated the
Buddha's body, a process that burned away the bonds of self-hood and attachment to the
mundane or ordinary world. Attachments to the earthly realm are considered obstacles in the
path toward Enlightenment. Circumambulation is not veneration for the relics themselves—a
distinction sometime lost on novice practitioners. The Buddha did not want to be revered as a
god, but wanted his ashes in the stupas to serve as a reminder of the Four Noble Truths.
Votive Offerings

Chilas petroglyphs, Buddhist stupa, circa 300-350 CE based on paleography[

Votive Stupa, Bodhgaya, 8th century, stone, 78 x 44 x 35 cm (Ashmolean Museum, Oxford)

Small stupas can function as votive offerings (objects that serve as the focal point for acts of
devotion). In order to gain merit, to improve one’s karma, individuals could sponsor the
casting of a votive stupa. Indian and Tibetan stupas typically have inscriptions that state that
the stupa was made “so that all beings may attain Enlightenment.” Votive stupas can be
consecrated and used in home altars or utilized in monastic shrines. Since they are small, they
can be easily transported; votive stupas, along with small statues of the Buddha and other
Buddhist deities, were carried across Nepal, over the Himalayas and into Tibet, helping to
spread Buddhist doctrine. Votive stupas are often carved from stone or caste in bronze. The
bronze stupas can also serve as a reliquary and ashes of important teachers can be encased
inside.

56
This stupa clearly shows the link between the form of the stupa and the body of the Buddha.
The Buddha is represented at his moment of Enlightenment, when he received the knowledge
of the Four Noble Truths (the dharma or law). He is making the earth touching gesture
(bhumisparsamudra) and is seated in padmasan, the lotus position. He is seated in a gateway
signifying a sacred space that recalls the gates on each side of monumental stupas.
While stupas have changed in form over the years, their function remains essentially
unchanged. Stupas remind the Buddhist practitioner of the Buddha and his teachings almost
2,500 years after his death.

For Buddhists, building stupas also has karmic benefits. Karma, a key component in both
Hinduism and Buddhism, is the energy generated by a person’s actions and the ethical
consequences of those actions. Karma affects a person’s next existence or re-birth. For
example, in the Avadana Sutra ten merits of building a stupa are outlined. One states that if a
practitioner builds a stupa he or she will not be reborn in a remote location and will not suffer
from extreme poverty. As a result, a vast number of stupas dot the countryside in Tibet
(where they are called chorten) and in Burma (chedi).
by Dr. Karen Shelbyhttps://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/introduction-
cultures-religions-apah/buddhism-apah/a/the-stupa

According to Buddhist tradition, Emperor Ashoka (rule: 273—232 BCE) recovered the relics
of the Buddha from the earlier stupas (except from the Ramagrama stupa), and erected 84,000
stupas to distribute the relics across India. In effect, many stupas are thought to date
originally from the time of Ashoka, such as Sanchi or Kesariya, where he also erected pillars
with his inscriptions, and possibly Bharhut, Amaravati or Dharmarajika in Gandhara.
[9]
Ashoka also established the Pillars of Ashoka throughout his realm, generally next to
Buddhist stupas.
The first known appearance of the word "Stupa" is from an inscribed
dedication by Ashoka on the Nigali Sagar pillar (spelled in Pali in the Brahmi script as
"Thube" ).

Decorated stupas (from 125 BCE

Stupas were soon to be richly decorated with sculptural reliefs, following the first attempts
at Sanchi Stupa No.2 (125 BCE). Full-fledged sculptural decorations and scenes of the life of
the Buddha would soon follow at Bharhut (115 BCE), Bodh Gaya (60 BCE), Mathura (125-
60 BCE), again at Sanchi for the elevation of the toranas (1st century BCE/CE) and
then Amaravati (1st-2nd century CE).[16] The decorative embellishment of stupas also had a
considerable development in the northwest in the area of Gandhara, with decorated stupas
such as the Butkara Stupa ("monumentalized" with Hellenistic decorative elements from the
2nd century BCE) or the Loriyan Tangai stupas (2nd century CE).
The stupa underwent major evolutions in the area of Gandhara. Since Buddhism spread
to Central Asia, China and ultimately Korea and Japan through Gandhara, the stylistic
evolution of the Gandharan stupa was very influential in the later development of the stupa
(and related artistic or architectural forms) in these areas. The Gandhara stupa followed
several steps, generally moving towards more and more elevation and addition of decorative

57
element, leading eventually to the development of the pagoda tower. The main stupa type are,
in chronological order:
1. The Dharmarajika Stupa with a near-Indian design of a semi-hemispheric stupa
almost directly on the ground surface, probably dated to the 3rd century BCE. Similar
stupas are the Butkara stupa, the Manikyala stupa or the Chakpat stupa.
2. The Saidu Sharif Stupa, pillared and quincunxial, with a flight of stairs to a dome
elevated on a square platform. Many Gandhara minutiures represent this spectacular
type (1st century CE).
3. The Loriyan Tangai Stupa, with an elongated shape and many narrative reliefs, in
many way the Classical Gandharan stupa (2nd century CE).[
4. The near-pyramidal Jaulian stupa (2nd century CE).
5. The cruciform type, as in the Bhamala Stupa, with flights of stairs in the four cardinal
directions (4th century CE).
6. The towering design of the second Kanishka stupa (4-5th century CE).

The candi architecture follows the typical Hindu architecture traditions based on Vastu
Shastra. The temple layout, especially in Central Java period, incorporated mandala temple
plan arrangements and also the typical high towering spires of Hindu temples. The candi was
designed to mimic Meru, the holy mountain the abode of gods. The whole temple is a model
of Hindu universe according to Hindu cosmology and the layers of Loka.

58
Structure elements

PRAMBANAN BOROBUDUR

The Shiva temple Candi Prambanan consist of three The archaeological excavation into Borobudur during
ascending realms, temple's base (Bhurloka), body reconstruction suggests that adherents of Hinduism or a
pre-Indic faith had already begun to erect a large structure
(Bhurvaloka) and roof (Svarloka). on Borobudur's hill before the site was appropriated by
Indonesia’s largest holy site is the Prambanan temple Buddhists. The foundations are unlike any Hindu or
complex in Central Java. ‘Prambanan’ means Para Buddhist shrine structures, and therefore, the initial
Brahman (“Temple of God Almighty”) and is a Shiva structure is considered more indigenous Javanese than
temple dedicated to the Trimūrti. Hindu or Buddhist

59
Its original name was Shiva-grha (the House of Shiva). It Design
borders the Opak river, that was cut along a North to South
axis along the outer wall of the Shivagrha Temple
compound. This exquisite architecture was constructed many
centuries before both Angkor Wat and the great cathedrals of
Europe.
Since 2012 there are plans to protect the area around
Prambanan to treat it as a sanctuary area. The proposed
area measures 30 sq. kms and includes all major temples in
the area such as Prambanan, Ratu Boko, Kalasan, Sari and
Plaosan temples.
The sanctuary area is planned similarly to the Angkor
temple complex in Cambodia, which means a moratorium
on permits to construct any new buildings, to protect the
sacred area from the damages of urbanisation and mass
tourism infrastructures.
The Temple Complex
The architecture of the Prambanan temple complex
follows Vastu Shastra and was built on the model of Mount
Meru, the Cosmic mountain. The whole temple complex is a Borobudur ground plan taking the form of a Mandala
model of the Universe according to Hindu cosmology.
The urban center and the court of Mataram were located Borobudur is built as a single large stupa and, when
nearby, in what would later become Yogyakarta. Hundreds viewed from above, takes the form of a giant tantric
of brahmins lived with their disciples within the outer wall Buddhist mandala, simultaneously representing the
of the temple compound. Buddhist cosmology and the nature of mind. The original
Originally there were a total of 240 temples standing in foundation is a square, approximately 118 metres (387 ft)
Prambanan. The temple complex consist of: on each side. It has nine platforms, of which the lower six
• 3 Trimurti temples: three main temples dedicated to are square and the upper three are circular.[74] The upper
Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva Mahadeva platform contains seventy-two small stupas surrounding
• 3 Vahana temples: three temples in front of Trimurti one large central stupa. Each stupa is bell-shaped and
temples dedicated to the vahana of each gods; Garuda, pierced by numerous decorative openings. Statues of
Nandi and Hamsa the Buddha sit inside the pierced enclosures.
• 2 Apit temples: two temples located between the rows of The design of Borobudur took the form of a step pyramid.
Trimurti and Vahana temples on north and south side Previously, the prehistoric Austronesian megalithic culture
• 4 Kelir temples: four small shrines located on 4 cardinal in Indonesia had constructed several earth mounds and
directions right beyond the 4 main gates of inner zone stone step pyramid structures called punden berundak as
• 4 Patok temples: four small shrines located on 4 corners discovered in Pangguyangan site near Cisolokand in Cipari
of inner zone near Kuningan.[76] The construction of stone pyramids is
• 224 Pervara temples: hundreds of temples arranged in 4 based on native beliefs that mountains and high places are
concentric square rows; numbers of temples from inner row the abode of ancestral spirits or hyangs.[77] The punden
to outer row are: 44, 52, 60, and 68. Today, only 2 out of the berundak step pyramid is the basic design in Borobudur,
original 224 perwara temples are renovated. [78]
believed to be the continuation of older megalithic
tradition incorporated with Mahayana Buddhist ideas and
symbolism.[79]

The Tri Mandala principle

Aerial view of Borobudur, it took the form of a step
The Prambanan temple consists of 3 zones, according to the
Indonesian Hindu tri mandala principle: pyramid and mandala plan
• Nista Mandala (outer zone) — a large space marked by a
The monument's three divisions symbolize the three
walled perimeter, which originally measured about 390 m
"realms" of Buddhist cosmology, namely Kamadhatu (the
per side, and contained a sacred garden, an ashram for

60
monks and accommodation for the priests.
world of desires), Rupadhatu (the world of forms), and
• Madya Mandala (middle zone) that contains hundreds of
finally Arupadhatu (the formless world). Ordinary sentient
small temples
beings live out their lives on the lowest level, the realm of
• Utama Mandala (holiest inner sanctum) that contains 8
desire. Those who have burnt out all desire for continued
main temples and 8 small shrines.
existence leave the world of desire and live in the world on
Just like Borobudur, Prambanan is structured in three
the level of form alone: they see forms but are not drawn to
mandalas, from the less holy to the holiest realms. Both
them. Finally, full Buddhas go beyond even form and
the compound site plan (horizontally) and the temple
experience reality at its purest, most fundamental level, the
structure (vertically) represents 3 layers of the Universe:
formless ocean of nirvana.[80] The liberation from the cycle
• Bhurloka (in Buddhism: Kāmadhātu), the lowest realm of
of Saṃsāra where the enlightened soul had no longer
common mortals; humans, animals also demons. Where
attached to worldly form corresponds to the concept
humans are still bound by their lust, desire and unholy way
of Śūnyatā, the complete voidness or the nonexistence of
of life. The outer courtyard and the foot (base) part of each
the self. Kāmadhātu is represented by the
temples is symbolized the realm of bhurloka.
base, Rupadhatu by the five square platforms (the body),
• Bhuvarloka (in Buddhism: Rupadhatu), the middle realm
and Arupadhatu by the three circular platforms and the
of holy people, occupied by rishis, ascetics, and lesser gods.
large topmost stupa. The architectural features between
People here begin to see the light of truth. The middle
the three stages have metaphorical differences. For
courtyard and the body of each temple symbolizes the realm
instance, square and detailed decorations in
of bhuvarloka.
the Rupadhatu disappear into plain circular platforms in
• Svarloka (in Buddhism: Arupadhatu), the highest and
the Arupadhatu to represent how the world of forms—
holiest realm, reserved for the gods. Also known as
where men are still attached with forms and names—
svargaloka. The inner courtyard and the roof of each temple changes into the world of the formless.[81]
symbolizes the realm of svarloka. The roof of Prambanan
temples are adorned and crowned with ratna (sanskrit: Congregational worship in Borobudur is performed in a
jewel), the shape of Prambanan ratna took the altered form walking pilgrimage. Pilgrims are guided by the system of
of vajra that represent diamonds. In ancient Java temple staircases and corridors ascending to the top platform.
architecture, ratna is the Hindu counterpart of the Buddhist Each platform represents one stage of enlightenment. The
stupa, and served as the temple’s pinnacle. path that guides pilgrims was designed to
The Shiva temple symbolize Buddhist cosmology.
The candi structure and layout recognize the hierarchy of In 1885, a hidden structure under the base was
the zones, spanned from the less holy to the holiest realms. accidentally discovered.[42] The "hidden footing" contains
The Indic tradition of Hindu-Buddhist architecture reliefs, 160 of which are narratives describing the
recognize the concept of arranging elements in three parts real Kāmadhātu. The remaining reliefs are panels with
or three elements. Subsequently, the design, plan and layout short inscriptions that apparently provide instructions for
of the temple follows the rule of space allocation within the sculptors, illustrating the scenes to be carved. [83] The
three elements; commonly identified as foot (base), body real base is hidden by an encasement base, the purpose
(center), and head (roof). The three zones is arranged of which remains a mystery. It was first thought that the
according to a sacred hierarchy. Each Hindu and Buddhist real base had to be covered to prevent a disastrous
concepts has their own terms, but the concept's essentials is subsidence of the monument into the hill. [83] There is
identical. Either the compound site plan (horizontally) or another theory that the encasement base was added
the temple structure (vertically) consists of three zones: because the original hidden footing was incorrectly
designed, according to Vastu Shastra, the Indian ancient
 Bhurloka (in Buddhism: Kāmadhātu), the lowest realm book about architecture and town planning. Regardless of
of common mortals; humans, animals also demons. why it was commissioned, the encasement base was built
Where humans still bound by their lust, desire and with detailed and meticulous design and with aesthetic and
unholy way of life. The outer courtyard and the foot religious consideration.
(base) part of each temples is symbolized the realm Building structure
of bhurloka.
 Bhuvarloka (in Buddhism: Rupadhatu), the middle
realm of holy people, rishis, ascetics, and lesser gods.
People here began to see the light of truth. The middle Half cross-section with 4:6:9 height ratio for foot, body and
courtyard and the body of each temples is symbolized head, respectively
the realm of bhuvarloka.
Approximately 55,000 cubic metres (72,000 cu yd)
 Svarloka (in Buddhism: Arupadhatu), the highest and of andesite stones were taken from neighbouring stone
holiest realm of gods, also known as svargaloka. The quarries to build the monument.[84] The stone was cut to
inner courtyard and the roof of each temples is size, transported to the site and laid without mortar. Knobs,
symbolized the realm of svarloka. The roof of Hindu indentations and dovetails were used to form joints
structure usually crowned with ratna (sanskrit: jewel) between stones. The roof of stupas, niches and arched
or vajra, or in eastern Java period, crowned by cube

61
structure. While stupa or dagoba cylindrical structure
gateways were constructed
served as the pinnacle of Buddhist ones.
in corbelling method. Reliefs were created in situ after the
building had been completed.
The monument is equipped with a good drainage system
to cater to the area's high stormwater run-off. To prevent
flooding, 100 spouts are installed at each corner, each with
a unique carved gargoyle in the shape of
a giant or makara.

Stairs of Borobudur through arches of Kala/A narrow corridor with

reliefs on the wall
Borobudur differs markedly from the general design of
other structures built for this purpose. Instead of being built
on a flat surface, Borobudur is built on a natural hill.
However, construction technique is similar to other temples
in Java. Without the inner spaces seen in other temples,
and with a general design similar to the shape of pyramid,
Borobudur was first thought more likely to have served as
a stupa, instead of a temple.[84] A stupa is intended as
a shrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only
as devotional symbols of Buddhism. A temple, on the other
hand, is used as a house of worship. The meticulous
complexity of the monument's design suggests that
Borobudur is in fact a temple.
Little is known about Gunadharma, the architect of the
complex.[85] His name is recounted from Javanese folk
tales rather than from written inscriptions.
The basic unit of measurement used during construction

62
 was the tala, defined as the length of a human face from
the forehead's hairline to the tip of the chin or the distance
from the tip of the thumb to the tip of the middle finger
when both fingers are stretched at their maximum
distance. The unit is thus relative from one individual to the
next, but the monument has exact measurements. A
survey conducted in 1977 revealed frequent findings of a
ratio of 4:6:9 around the monument. The architect had
used the formula to lay out the precise dimensions of
the fractal and self-similar geometry in Borobudur's
design. This ratio is also found in the designs of Pawon
and Mendut, nearby Buddhist temples. Archeologists have
conjectured that the 4:6:9 ratio and the tala have
calendrical, astronomical and cosmological significance, as
is the case with the temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia.
The main structure can be divided into three components:
base, body, and top. The base is 123 m × 123 m (404 ft
× 404 ft) in size with 4 metres (13 ft) walls.[84] The body is
composed of five square platforms, each of diminishing
height. The first terrace is set back 7 metres (23 ft) from
the edge of the base. Each subsequent terrace is set back
2 metres (6.6 ft), leaving a narrow corridor at each stage.
The top consists of three circular platforms, with each
stage supporting a row of perforated stupas, arranged
in concentric circles. There is one main dome at the center,
the top of which is the highest point of the monument, 35
metres (115 ft) above ground level. Stairways at the center
of each of the four sides give access to the top, with a
number of arched gates overlooked by 32 lion statues. The
gates are adorned with Kala's head carved on top of each
and Makaras projecting from each side. This Kala-Makara
motif is commonly found on the gates of Javanese
temples. The main entrance is on the eastern side, the
location of the first narrative reliefs. Stairways on the
slopes of the hill also link the monument to the low-lying
plain.

The position of narrative bas-reliefs stories on Borobudur

wall
Borobudur is constructed in such a way that it reveals
various levels of terraces, showing intricate architecture
that goes from being heavily ornamented with bas-reliefs to
being plain in Arupadhatu circular terraces.[88] The first four
terrace walls are showcases for bas-relief sculptures.
These are exquisite, considered to be the most elegant
and graceful in the ancient Buddhist world.[89]
The bas-reliefs in Borobudur depicted many scenes of
daily life in 8th-century ancient Java, from the courtly
palace life, hermit in the forest, to those of commoners in
the village. It also depicted temple, marketplace, various
flora and fauna, and also native vernacular architecture.
People depicted here are the images of king, queen,
princes, noblemen, courtier, soldier, servant, commoners,
priest and hermit. The reliefs also depicted mythical
spiritual beings in Buddhist beliefs such as asuras,
gods, bodhisattvas, kinnaras, gandharvas and apsaras.
The images depicted on bas-relief often served as
reference for historians to research for certain subjects,

63
 such as the study of architecture, weaponry, economy,
fashion, and also mode of transportation of 8th-
century Maritime Southeast Asia. One of the famous
renderings of an 8th-century Southeast Asian double
outrigger ship is Borobudur Ship.[90] Today, the actual-size
replica of Borobudur Ship that had sailed from Indonesia to
Africa in 2004 is displayed in the Samudra Raksa Museum,
located a few hundred meters north of Borobudur.[91]
The Borobudur reliefs also pay close attention to Indian
aesthetic discipline, such as pose and gesture that contain
certain meanings and aesthetic value. The reliefs of
noblemen, noble women, kings, or divine beings such
as apsaras, taras and boddhisattvas are usually portrayed
in tribhanga pose, the three-bend pose on neck, hips, and
knee, with one leg resting and one upholding the body
weight. This position is considered as the most graceful
pose, such as the figure of Surasundari holding a lotus.[92]
During Borobudur excavation, archeologists discovered
colour pigments of blue, red, green, black, as well as bits
of gold foil, and concluded that the monument that we see
today – a dark gray mass of volcanic stone, lacking in
colour – was probably once coated with varjalepa white
plaster and then painted with bright colors, serving perhaps
as a beacon of Buddhist teaching. [93] The
same vajralepa plaster can also be found
in Sari, Kalasan and Sewu temples. It is likely that the bas-
reliefs of Borobudur was originally quite colourful, before
centuries of torrential tropical rainfalls peeled-off the colour
pigments.
orobudur contains approximately 2,670 individual bas
reliefs (1,460 narrative and 1,212 decorative panels),
which cover the façades and balustrades. The total relief
surface is 2,500 square metres (27,000 sq ft), and they are
distributed at the hidden foot (Kāmadhātu) and the five
square platforms (Rupadhatu).
The narrative panels, which tell the story of Sudhana and
Manohara,[95] are grouped into 11 series that encircle the
monument with a total length of 3,000 metres (9,800 ft).
The hidden foot contains the first series with 160 narrative
panels, and the remaining 10 series are distributed
throughout walls and balustrades in four galleries starting
from the eastern entrance stairway to the left. Narrative
panels on the wall read from right to left, while those on the
balustrade read from left to right. This conforms
with pradaksina, the ritual of circumambulation performed
by pilgrims who move in a clockwise direction while
keeping the sanctuary to their right.
The hidden foot depicts the workings of karmic law. The
walls of the first gallery have two superimposed series of
reliefs; each consists of 120 panels. The upper part depicts
the biography of Lord Buddha, while the lower part of the
wall and also the balustrades in the first and the second
galleries tell the story of the Buddha's former lives. The
remaining panels are devoted to Sudhana's further
wandering about his search, terminated by his attainment
of the Perfect Wisdom.

64
 The law of karma (Karmavibhangga)[edit]

The Karmavibangga scene on Borobudur's hidden foot, on

the right depicting sinful act of killing and cooking turtles
and fishes, on the left those who make living by killing
animals will be tortured in hell, by being cooked alive,
being cut, or being thrown into a burning house.
The 160 hidden panels do not form a continuous story, but
each panel provides one complete illustration of cause and
effect. There are depictions of blameworthy activities, from
gossip to murder, with their corresponding punishments.
There are also praiseworthy activities, that
include charity and pilgrimage to sanctuaries, and their
subsequent rewards. The pains of hell and the pleasure of
heaven are also illustrated. There are scenes of daily life,
complete with the full panorama of samsara (the endless
cycle of birth and death). The encasement base of the
Borobudur temple was disassembled to reveal the hidden
foot, and the reliefs were photographed by Casijan Chepas
in 1890. It is these photographs that are displayed
in Borobudur Museum (Karmawibhangga Museum),
located just several hundred meters north of the temple.
During the restoration, the foot encasement was
reinstalled, covering the Karmawibhangga reliefs. Today,
only the southeast corner of the hidden foot is revealed
and visible for visitors.
The story of Prince Siddhartha and the birth of Buddha
(Lalitavistara)

Queen Maya riding horse carriage retreating to Lumbini to

give birth to Prince Siddhartha Gautama
The story starts with the descent of the Buddha from
the Tushita heaven and ends with his first sermon in the
Deer Park near Benares. The relief shows the birth of the
Buddha as Prince Siddhartha, son of
King Suddhodana and Queen Maya of Kapilavastu (in
Nepal).
The story is preceded by 27 panels showing various
preparations, in the heavens and on the earth, to welcome
the final incarnation of the Bodhisattva.[96] Before
descending from Tushita heaven, the Bodhisattva
entrusted his crown to his successor, the future
Buddha Maitreya. He descended on earth in the shape

65
 of white elephants with six tusks, penetrated to Queen
Maya's right womb. Queen Maya had a dream of this
event, which was interpreted that his son would become
either a sovereign or a Buddha.

Prince Siddhartha Gautama became an ascetic hermit.

While Queen Maya felt that it was the time to give birth,
she went to the Lumbini park outside the Kapilavastu city.
She stood under a plaksa tree, holding one branch with her
right hand, and she gave birth to a son, Prince Siddhartha.
The story on the panels continues until the prince becomes
the Buddha.
The stories of Buddha's previous life (Jataka) and other
legendary people (Avadana)[edit]

A relief of Jataka story of giant turtle that saving drowned

sailors.
Jatakas are stories about the Buddha before he was born
as Prince Siddhartha.[97] They are the stories that tell about
the previous lives of the Buddha, in both human and
animal form. The future Buddha may appear in them as a
king, an outcast, a god, an elephant—but, in whatever
form, he exhibits some virtue that the tale thereby
inculcates.[98] Avadanas are similar to jatakas, but the main
figure is not the Bodhisattva himself. The saintly deeds in
avadanas are attributed to other legendary persons.
Jatakas and avadanas are treated in one and the same
series in the reliefs of Borobudur.
The first twenty lower panels in the first gallery on the wall
depict the Sudhanakumaravadana, or the saintly deeds
of Sudhana. The first 135 upper panels in the same gallery
on the balustrades are devoted to the 34 legends of
the Jatakamala.[99] The remaining 237 panels depict stories
from other sources, as do the lower series and panels in

66
 the second gallery. Some jatakas are depicted twice, for
example the story of King Sibhi (Rama's forefather).
Sudhana's search for the ultimate truth (Gandavyuha)[edit]

A relief of the Gandavyuha story from Borobudur 2nd level

north wall.
Gandavyuha is the story told in the final chapter of
the Avatamsaka Sutra about Sudhana's tireless wandering
in search of the Highest Perfect Wisdom. It covers two
galleries (third and fourth) and also half of the second
gallery, comprising in total of 460 panels.[100] The principal
figure of the story, the youth Sudhana, son of an extremely
rich merchant, appears on the 16th panel. The preceding
15 panels form a prologue to the story of the miracles
during Buddha's samadhi in the Garden of Jeta at Sravasti.
Sudhana was instructed by Manjusri to meet the monk
Megasri, his first spiritual friend. As his journey continues,
Sudhana meets 53 teachers, such as Supratisthita, the
physician Megha (Spirit of Knowledge), the banker
Muktaka, the monk Saradhvaja, the upasika Asa (Spirit of
Supreme Enlightenment), Bhismottaranirghosa,
the Brahmin Jayosmayatna, Princess Maitrayani, the monk
Sudarsana, a boy called Indriyesvara, the upasika
Prabhuta, the banker Ratnachuda, King Anala, the
god Siva Mahadeva, Queen
Maya, Bodhisattva Maitreya and then back to Manjusri.
Each spiritual friend gives Sudhana specific teachings,
knowledge, and wisdom. These meetings are shown in the
third gallery.
After a second meeting with Manjusri, Sudhana went to the
residence of Bodhisattva Samantabhadra, depicted in the
fourth gallery. The entire series of the fourth gallery is
devoted to the teaching of Samantabhadra. The narrative
panels finally end with Sudhana's achievement of the
Supreme Knowledge and the Ultimate Truth.[101]

Style

67
The basic unit of measurement used during construction was the tala, defined as the length of
a human face from the forehead's hairline to the tip of the chin or the distance from the tip of
the thumb to the tip of the middle finger when both fingers are stretched at their maximum
distance. The unit is thus relative from one individual to the next, but the monument has exact
measurements. A survey conducted in 1977 revealed frequent findings of a ratio of 4:6:9
around the monument. The architect had used the formula to lay out the precise dimensions
of the fractal and self-similar geometry in Borobudur's design. This ratio is also found in the
designs of Pawon and Mendut, nearby Buddhist temples. Archeologists have conjectured that
the 4:6:9 ratio and the tala have calendrical, astronomical and cosmological significance, as
is the case with the temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia.
The main structure can be divided into three components: base, body, and top. [ The base is
123 m × 123 m (404 ft × 404 ft) in size with 4 metres (13 ft) walls.The body is composed of
five square platforms, each of diminishing height. The first terrace is set back 7 metres (23 ft)
from the edge of the base. Each subsequent terrace is set back 2 metres (6.6 ft), leaving a
narrow corridor at each stage. The top consists of three circular platforms, with each stage
supporting a row of perforated stupas, arranged in concentric circles. There is one main dome
at the center, the top of which is the highest point of the monument, 35 metres (115 ft) above
ground level. Stairways at the center of each of the four sides give access to the top, with a
number of arched gates overlooked by 32 lion statues. The gates are adorned with Kala's head
carved on top of each and Makaras projecting from each side. This Kala-Makara motif is
commonly found on the gates of Javanese temples. The main entrance is on the eastern side,
the location of the first narrative reliefs. Stairways on the slopes of the hill also link the
monument to the low-lying plain.
Soekmono, an Indonesian archaeologist, has classified the candi styles into two main
groups: a central Java style, which predominantly date from before 1,000 CE, and an eastern
Java style, which date from after 1,000 CE. He groups the temples of Sumatra and Bali into
the eastern Java style.

Central Java style Bubrah temple-Eastern Java style-Bajang Ratu gate

Bubrah temple near Prambanan, an example of Central Javanese style, while

Bajang Ratu gate in Trowulan is an example of Eastern Javanese style.

68
Parts
of the Central Java
Eastern Java Style
templ Style
e

Shape of
Tends to be slender and
the Tends to be bulky
tall
structure

Clearly shows The multiple parts of

stepped roof sections, stepped sections
Roof
usually consist of 3 formed a combined
parts roof structure smoothly

Cube (mostly Hindu

Stupa (Buddhist
temples), sometimes
temples), Ratna or
Pinnacle Dagoba cylindrical
Vajra (Hindu
structures (Buddhist
temples)
temples)

Kala-Makara style;
Kala head without Only Kala head
Portal
lower jaw opening its sneering with the
and
mouth located on top mouth complete with
niches
of the portal, lower jaw located on
adornme
connected with top of the portal,
nt
double Makara on Makara is absent
each side of the portal

Projected rather flat

Projected rather high
from the background,
from the background,
Relief the images was done in
the images was done
stylized style similar to
in naturalistic style
Balinese wayang image

Layout Concentric mandala, Linear, asymmetric,

and symmetric, formal; followed topography of
location with main temple the site; with main
of the located in the center temple located in the

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 Parts
of the Central Java
Eastern Java Style
templ Style
e

back or furthermost
from the entrance, often
of the complex
located in the highest
main surrounded by
ground of the
temple smaller perwara temp
complex, perwara temp
les in regular rows
les is located in front of
the main temple

Direction Mostly faced east Mostly faced west

Materials Mostly andesite stone Mostly red brick

Bima temple, one of Dieng temples. It was one of the earliest temples in Java.
There are material, form, and location exceptions to these general design traits. While
the Penataran, Jawi, Jago, Kidal and Singhasari temples, for

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"Geomancy" is derived from the Latin "geomantia," which in turn is derived from the Greek for
"divination by earth." The Arabic name for geomancy, "'ilm al-raml," means "the science of the
sand." In its original form, the geomantic figure was created by making lines of random numbers
of dots in the sand, hence the name. Medieval European writers agreed that it was also acceptable
to draw the dots on a piece of parchment or paper. In keeping with the Arabic origin of geomancy,
most writers recommend making the dots from right to left, the direction in which Arabic is
written. From the dots or points, the geomancer draws a series of figures which are arranged into
the geomantic tableau. There are sixteen possible figures consisting of single or pairs of points.
Each figure has a name, associations with the elements, planets, etc., and good or bad qualities.
Interpretation depends on the meanings of the figures in particular locations in the tableau, and
owes a great deal to the practice of medieval astrology. Unlike astrology, however, geomancy
requires no instruments or complex calculations.

Casting the Points

The first step is usually called "casting" or "sowing" the points. In this step, the
geomancer draws sixteen lines of points, from right to left, while concentrating on the

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question he or she wants answered. Some treatises advise the geomancer to pray before
casting the points. No effort should be made to count the points as they are made,
although the geomancer is usually advised to make at least twelve. The casting of the
points is the critical process in geomancy; if the geomancer does not cast the points
correctly, the tableau will be invalid. The sixteen lines of points are grouped in fours, and
the points are then counted off two by two, from the right to the left, and connected in
pairs, so that each line of points ends either with a pair or with a single point. These
single or odd and paired or even points will be grouped to create the first four figures of
the geomantic tableau:

The Geomantic Tableau

The Mothers
These first four figures of the geomantic tableau are called the "mothers" or matres and
are drawn horizontally from right to left:

The Daughters
The next four figures, called the "daughters" or filiae, are created by adding the points of
the mothers sideways from right to left. For example, here the first row of points across
the mothers is two-one-one-two, the second row is one-two-one-one, the third row is
two-two-two-two, and the last row is one-one-one-two. These four figures are drawn
next to the mothers, continuing horizontally from right to left:

The Nieces
The next four figures, sometimes called the "nieces" or neptes are created by adding
together the points in pairs of two figures above. If there are an even number of points,
two points are put down; if there is an odd number of points, one point is put down. For

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example, the first "niece" is created by adding the points of the first and second
"mothers." Again, the geomancer proceeds from right to left:

The Witnesses and the Judge

Finally, the tableau is completed by adding points in the same way to create three more
figures. The first two are called the "witnesses" or testes and the last is the "judge"
or iudex (If the judge is a figure that does not have an even number of points, a mistake
has been made in the addition, "and then must you turn again to make correction".)
A sixteenth figure called the "super judge" is sometimes drawn by "adding" the points of
the first and fifteenth figures.

Interpretation

The medieval texts describe several methods for interpretating the completed tableau.
Some methods are purely mechanical, while the more complex methods owe a great deal
to medieval astrological practices. All the methods depend on interpreting the meaning
of particular geomantic figures in particular locations in the tableau; as in astrology, the
more sophisticated techniques also take into consideration the relationships of the figures
to one another.
The Geomantic Figures
There are sixteen possible figures in the geomantic tableau. Each figure has a name and a
set of attributes or qualities. The figures and their names are:

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Each figure is good or evil in some degree. Each is associated with a planet, a zodiac
sign, and either day or night, which is crucial to the more astrological methods of
interpretation. Each also is associated with an element (earth, air, fire, water); a humor
(sanguine, choleric, melancholy, phlegmatic); a gender; a measure of time (hours, days,
weeks, months, years). Figures pointing downwards are said to be entering and stable;
figures pointing upwards are said to be exiting or passing forth and movable (the four
symmetical figures are either, depending on the nature of the figures from which they
were generated).
The Geomantic Houses
The geomantic houses are borrowed from medieval astrological practice. There are
twelve houses, and geomantic tableaux are sometimes laid out in the same square form
as the medieval horoscope (see the geomantic figure in Of Geomancy for an example). In
addition, the geomantic tableau has two extra "houses" for the "witnesses" and a final
"house" for the "judge." The houses are numbered from right to left as follows:

As in astrological practice, each house governs an area of life. These are:

House Latin English

1 Vita Life

2 Lucrum Riches

3 Fratres Brothers

4 Genitor Father

5 Nati Sons

6 Valetudo Health

7 Uxor Wife

8 Mors Death

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9 Itineris Journeys

10 Regnum Kings

11 Benefacta Good Fortune

12 Carcer Prison

An understanding of the houses is fundamental to interpreting the geomantic tableau.

Any possible question can be assigned to one of the houses. For example, questions
about marriage are assigned to the 7th house; a question about whether a ship will return
safely from a voyage belongs to the 9th house; a question about whether a sick person
will recover belongs to the 6th house. (Like astrological texts, medieval and Renaissance
geomantic texts give the reader an excellent idea about the day-to-day concerns of people
living in those times.) Most geomantic treatises include long lists of the types of
questions appropropriate to each house, and some compress this information into tabular
form. For example, in Martin of Spain's De geomancia, questions assigned to the 10th
house, the house of kings, include:
Whether a man shall get honor or kingdom. Whether a king shall be honored in his
kingdom. Whether a king shall be deposed from his kingdom. Whether he that is deposed
shall enter again. Whether a foreign king shall subdue a king.
Methods of Interpretation
The simplest method of interpreting the geomantic tableau is to determine which house
governs the subject of the question, consider the qualities and properties of the figure in
that house, and judge the question accordingly. However, most geomantic treatises
advise the geomancer to consider a number of other factors before giving judgement.
These include, among others:
 the nature of the figure in the first house, which signifies the querant
 locus: is the figure in a favorable or unfavorable house?
 aspectus: are the figures in favorable or unfavorable aspect to one another? (The
geomantic aspects, similar to the aspects of astrology, are association, trine,
square, sextile, opposition, translation, occupation, conjunction, mutation, and
prohibition.)
 motus: how to the figures pass from one house to another?
 paternitas: which figures generated the figure in question?
 the nature of the witnesses, the judge, and the super-judge
 various numerical procedures, e.g., is the total number of points in the tableau
odd or even?
 the via puncti or way of the point

The astrological method (which is briefly described in Turner's Of Geomancy) involves

drawing up a horoscope in which the positions of the planets and signs in the houses are
determined by the geomantic tableau rather than by calculations based on astronomical
tables or the use of an astrolabe. However, the symbolization of enlightenment these
stupas represent is not intended to be merely aesthetic. Buddhist stupas and mandalas are
understood as “spiritual technologies” that harness spiritual “energies” in the creation of
sacred space. The repetition of form and the circumabulatory progress of the pilgrim
mimic, and thereby access, the cosmological as a microcosm. The clockwise movement

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 around the cosmic center reproduces the macrocosmic path of the sun. Thus, when one
emerges from the dark galleries representing the realms of desire and form into the light
of the “formless” circular open air upper walkways, the material effect of light on one’s
physical form merges concomitantly with the spiritual enlightenment generated by the
metaphysical journey of the sacred path.
Light, in all its paradoxes, is the ultimate goal. The crowning stupa of this sacred
mountain is dedicated to the “Great Sun Buddha” Vairocana. The temple sits in cosmic
proximity to the nearby volcano Mt. Merapi. During certain times of the year the path of
the rising sun in the East seems to emerge out of the mountain to strike the temple’s peak
in radiant synergy. Light illuminates the stone in a way that is intended to be more than
beautiful. The brilliance of the site can be found in how the Borobudur mandala blends
the metaphysical and physical, the symbolic and the material, the cosmological and the
earthly within the structure of its physical setting and the framework of spiritual paradox.

What is the function of arts to their culture of Borobudur Temple?- The Buddhist
teaching of the means of attaining Nirvana through rightness of belief, resolve, speech,
action, livelihood, effort, thought, and meditation — see four noble truths.At Borobudur,
geometry, geomancy, and theology all instruct adherents toward the ultimate goal of
enlightenment. Meticulously carved relief sculptures mediate a physical and spiritual journey
that guides pilgrims progressively toward higher states of consciousness.
Astrogeographical position of the Temple of Borobudur for morhogenetic field level 3
(surrounding area) which describes the energetical topics, function and atmosphere of
the temple: The temple is located in the mystic, spiritual water sign Pisces which because of
its significance for the place of Buddha’s enlightenment at Bodh Gaya can be considered as
one of the most basic and most important astrogeographic aspects for Buddhist temples.
Anyway Pisces as the sign of the unconscious, invisible, transcendental is the most important
indicator for places of the communion, contact and communication with the spheres and
beings of the divine and the spiritual plane in general.

The second resonance coordinate is located in highly alert, dynamic, masculine fire
sign Aries the sign of action, ignition, speed, warfare and an indicator for the role of a
temple as a site of worship before going to war. Aries stands for the phallic principle
embodied by a stupa as well as for the one-dimensionality of the temple, which has been
created as one piece without any side-buildings. This element of form hints at an interesting
feature of Aries, which as the first sign and structural element in the systemical zodiac stands
for a stage in the development of existence and of life where organisms are unicellular. For
Aries as the sign of unicellular structures compare my blog: Aries as the Sign of Unicellular
Structures.1
Borobudur is made in the form of a Hindu Meru which is a vertical representation of the Sri
Yantra. Apparently this was the shape of a Buddhist mandala. The height of the whole edifice
before renovation was 42 meters but currently 34.5 meters since the lowest level has been
used to support the superstructure.

The Mahabodhi Temple Tower in Bodhagaya

Another example for a central tower located in Aries is the Mahabodhi Temple at the site of
Buddha`s enlightenment. The Mahabodhi (literally: Temple of Awakening) Temple in Bodh

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Gaya was first constructed in the 3rd century BC. The current structure is as old as the 5th
century AD.

The tip of Mahabodhi Temple is an element of form that is to be examined as an element of

form that resonates with the position in fire sign Aries. ph: Hiroki Ogawa, ccbysa3.0
RIGHT PIC- The rocket like shape of the Mahabodhi Temple is an element of form related to
Aries whereas the square ground plain and symmetrical arrangement of the 4 towers on the 4
corners resonates with Libra photo: Ken Wieland, ccbysa2.0

Astrogeographical resonance coordinates of the site for morphogenetic field level 4 (exact
position) of the temple which describes the energetical topics of the building itself: the site
has one resonance coordinate in dynamic, male fire sign Aries the sign of action, speed,
warfare, ignition, erection and mobilization. The 2nd coordinate is located in service

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orientated air sign Libra the sign of harmony, balance, beauty, symmetry, openness and
angels.

1. https://astrologicalworldmap.com/2011/09/14/the-wonderful-temple-at-borobudur-in-
indonesia/

The resonance coordinate for morphogenetic field level 3 – the next larger size level of fields
has both coordinates in highly relaxed, mystic, spiritual water sign Pisces the sign of the
spiritual plane and of temples as such. The position in Pisces stands for the importance of the
site as a spiritual temple of nature dedicated to deep relaxation, letting go of control, the past,
duties and of the attitudes and routines of everyday life. This aspect is not particularly
reflected in the architecture but rather in the importance of the site for the re-connection with
spirituality through meditation and Buddhism.

The temple consists of a central tower with an ornamentation that resembles a typical Hindu
temple tower, but with a conical, sharp, stupa-like tip.

The tower is placed on a square platform with 4 equally tall small towers occupying the 4
corners. The central position of the tower is a clearest element of design often found in
Aries. The attempt to ground the tower by creating a balance between the central main tower
and the surroundings area by the 4 corner towers and the symmetrical, square design and
decoration is symptomatic of the presence of Libra.

The world-famous Javanese temple of Borobudur is located at the westernmost end of a straight line
which includes two “satellite” temples, Mendut and Pawon. Originally, the three buildings were
probably connected by a processional path running along this line. It is shown here that the
alignment points, at the horizon, where the sun sets in the days of the zenith passages. This
orientation is likely intentional and related to a ritual procession which connected the three temples,
mimicking the path of the sun in the sky

These three temples at Borobodur belong to the Mahayana Buddhism. The details of the cults
practised are unsure, but a relationship certainly existed between the temples and the proclaimed
divine nature of the kings who ordered their construction. In this connection, a possible, symbolic
relationship between the three monuments was investigated in details by Moens (1951). In this
controversial but anyhow scholarly work, the idea is that the temples were connected by a “magical
birth” ritual, in which the monarch’s consecration occurred both as the Buddha and as King. Moens
proposed a ritual based on an analogy with the sun path in the sky in one day, and thus endowed
with three main “stations”: east, zenith, and west. To these steps corresponded for the west, the
beginning of the western staircase at Borobudur; for the east, Mendut; and for the zenith, Pawon.
Although this interpretation is well known, it has never been referred explicitly to the specific days
of the zenith passages, a connection which instead looks natural: if the “solar path” ritual had to be
referenced into in the architecture of the temples, and if the zenith culmination of the sun was, as it
seems, a fundamental ingredient of the ritual, then we would expect the procession to go in the
direction from sunrise to sunset, and the processional path to be oriented in such a way as to
indicate the zenith sunset, as it actually occurs. Finding comparison belonging to the same cultural
context would also be of help, but one the problems is that Borobodur architectural conception is
almost unique. Besides the already mentioned Bayon, as far as the present author is aware the

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unique, vaguely reasonable comparison is the so-called 108 stupas monument, located on a hillside
directly on the western bank of the Yellow River at Qingtongxia, Ningxia, China. The monument is
slightly later than Borobodur, as it was constructed during the Western Xia dynasty (1038–1227 AD),
as part of a greater Buddhist temple complex. It is composed by 108 stupas of sun-dried mud bricks,
arranged in rows disposed in a triangular formation which narrows with height, from 19 stupas on
the first row to the uppermost single one. A front view of this monument is actually quite
reminiscent of one side of Borobodur. As far as the present author is aware, the orientation of the
108 stupas monument has never been studied. The azimuth is 120° which, with an horizon height
close to zero, gives a impressive declination -24° that is, very close to the winter solstice sunrise. The
monument is therefore, with hardly any doubt, astronomically oriented although not to the same
solar phenomenon of the Borobodur axis; of course however, at the latitude of Ningxia about 37°
north, zenith passages do not occur.

Thus presumably the said triad owes its existence as a sacred unity thanks to the circumstance that
in the process of its enlargement and embellishment Barabudur — originally a modest stupa
sanctuary on the mount [= hillock] — gradually was given the character of a dynastic temple. For the
sake of a grand ritual to secure dynastic continuity — a magical ritual that would have included
Mendut’s pre-eminently favorable location — the need would have been felt for adding a third
temple to the pair. This temple, Pawon, was, according to Van Erp, both “in ground plan and
profiling a reduced copy in many respects”6 of Mendut. The new temple was also situated close to
the confluence of two large rivers (the Elo and Progo), a locality that is considered sacred in classical
(also in the Central Javanese) literature since “the sacred nature of each river is doubled by means of
contact with the other.”7

Partly based on and excerpts reproduced from

Archaeoastronomy of the “Sun path” at Borobudur, Giulio Magli School of Architecture, Urban
Planning and Construction Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, Italy Giulio.

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