Unit II: Vedic and Later Vedic Period:

Unit II: Vedic and Later Vedic Period

Dr Amita Gupta

Objective
Introduction
5.1 Vedic literature
5.2 Original Home of Aryans
5.3 Early Vedic period (c1500-1200 B.C.)
5.4 Polity
5.5 Economy
5.6 Society
5.7 Later Vedic Period (c 1200-600BC)
5.8 Polity
5.9 Economy
5.10 Society
5.11 Religion
Summary
Keywords/Glossary
Self-Assessment
Review Questions
Answers for Self-Assessment
Further Readings

Objective
After this chapter, you will be able to:

• gain familiarity with Vedic literature, including the four Vedas, the Brahmanas, and
subsequent Vedic literature.
• identify the Rig Vedic politics, society, religion, and economics; evaluate the Later Vedic
polity and social developments.
• develop an understanding of the growing ceremonies and rituals in the Later Vedic people’s
religious life; and
• examination the origin of the Aryans.

Introduction
We explored the evolution of India from prehistory to protohistory in the previous unit. We
discovered that throughout the Harappan period, India had the initial stages of urbanization.
However, the prosperous Harappan society and its architectural splendor suffered a steady collapse,
owing primarily to environmental factors. We identify a new nomadic society in the Saptasindhu
region after the demise of the Harappan civilization around 1500 BC. They were pastoralists who
spoke Sanskrit instead of English. They worshipped nature and exhibited their religion via sacrifices,
such as Yajnas. They made prayers (Richa/shloka) and recited them while performing sacrifices as a
form of worship. ‘Veda’ was the name given to a collection of prayers. The ‘Aryans’ were the people
who spoke Sanskrit, the language in which the Vedas were written. Aryans were a mixed race, yet

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they all said the same vocabulary. ‘Vedic Culture,’ on the other hand, is the culture that gave birth to
the Vedas.
The Aryans began their journey in the Saptasindhu region, which is located in India’s north-western
corner. The Indus, Ravi, Sutlej, Biyas, Zelum, Chinab, and Sarasvati rivers run through the region,
giving it Saptasindhu. They had a uniform culture at that point. In pursuit of pasture, they traveled
to the interior of India after two to three centuries. They met a variety of tribes and groups who were
unfamiliar to them at this point. Such new relationships altered their culture, and we find Aryans
who practiced a different civilization during this time period. Thus, there are two stages of Vedic
culture’s growth, referred to as the “Early Vedic Period” (Saptasindhu area) and the “Later Vedic
Period” (more internal part of India). They generated literature during these two periods that reflect
the Vedic Aryans’ cultural transformation. This chapter discusses who those people were and what
their society was like.

5.1 Vedic literature

The ‘Aryans’ practiced ‘nature worship,’ expressing their religion via sacrifices. They produced a
significant body of Sanskrit literature in order to express their faith. Several Vedic scholars wrote the
prayers. These were not written at the beginning. The prayers or literature were passed down from
generation to generation through the ‘Teacher and Disciple’ tradition. In this transmission, the norms
of accurate pronunciation were carefully followed.
We have just this ‘Vedic literature’ at our disposal in order to comprehend Vedic culture. Vedas (Rig-
Veda, Yajur-Veda, Sam-Veda, Atharva-Veda) and their appendices (Brahmanas, Aranyakas,
Upanishads) as well as several Vedic explanatory kinds of literature (Vedanga, Shad-darshanas).
They are collectively referred to as ‘Vedic literature.’ This is how it goes:

Early Vedic Literature -Rig-Veda (2 to 9 mandalas)

The Rig-Veda is the most ancient Vedic text. It was created when Aryans wandered through the
Saptasindhu region. It contained ten mandalas, although the Rig-Veda only had 2 to 9 mandalas
throughout this period, i.e., the Early Vedic period. It is a compilation of prayers attributed to various
scholars. The prayers, known as ‘Richas,’ are dedicated to natural forces like rain, fire, wind, sun,
dawn, etc. Indra, Varuna, Agni, Marut, Surya, Usha, and other gods were worshipped. Some Gods
are benevolent, while others are nefarious.

Later Vedic Period literature

Aryans were relocated to the eastern/internal parts of India before and during this period. They
underwent different cultural modifications as a result of their interactions with foreign lands and
groups. The literature they produced during this period of transition can help us grasp this ‘cultural
transformation.’

Rig-Veda (1 and 10th mandalas):

During this time, the remaining mandalas, such as 1 and 10, were made. One ‘Purush-sukta’ made
up the tenth Mandal. This sukta contains an early allusion to Vedic society’s divisions, such as
Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.

Yajur-Veda:
The Rig-prayers Veda’s were recited during sacrifices, as we all know. The Yajur-Veda was written
to explain how such sacrifices were carried out. As a result, the majority of the prayers in the Yajur-
Veda are borrowed from the Rig-Veda. Shukla and Krishna are the two portions of the Yajur-Veda.

Sam-Veda:
Sam-Veda was created to explain how to recite prayers in Rigveda. As a result, the majority of Sam-
prayers Veda’s are derived from Rig-Veda. The Sam-Vedas is divided into two parts: Archaic and
Uttararchik.

Atharva-Veda:
This is the fourth and final Veda, and it deals with a variety of topics like mysticism, sorcery and dark
magic, betrayal, and so on. ii. Vedic Appendices (Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads) In order
to describe the Vedic knowledge, the Vedic Aryans constructed a new body of prose writing. As a
result, each Veda contains its own collection of Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads, such as:

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Rig-Veda has Brahmanas named Aiterya and Kaushitaki, Aranyakas named Aiterya and Kaushitaki,
and Upnishadas named Aiterya and Kaushitaki. Taitariya, Shatapath Brahmanas, Taitariya, Brihad
Aranyakas, and Aitariya, Kaushitaki Upanishads are all found in Yajur-Veda. Atharva-Veda has its
Mundak, Prasha Upanishads. Sam-Veda has its Tandya, Jaiminiya Brahamanas, and Chandogya.
The Brahmanas discuss sacrifice rules, whereas the Aranyakas and Upanishads discuss philosophical
and spiritualistic issues from the Vedas, such as the structure of the Universe, one’s soul’s
relationship with God, and one’s own existence.

Vedic explanation books (Vedangas, Shada-darshanas)

Vedangas: The Vedangas were created to aid in the proper and systematic understanding
of the Vedas, including Shiksha (correctly pronounce prayers), Kalpa (rules for performing
sacrifice properly), Vyakaran (grammar), Nirukta (the etymology of Vedic words), Chanda
(musical rules of recitation), and Jyotish (the proper time to perform sacrifices).
Shad-darshanas: The Shad-darshanas were created to explain the philosophical content of
the Vedas, such as Nyaya (of Gautam, explaining logic), Sankhya (of Kapil, demonstrating
the unity of soul with God), Yog (of Patanjali), Vaisheshik (Kanand, regarding atoms),
Purva-mimosa (Jaimini, Vedic rituals), Uttar-mimasa (Badaraya, structure of Universe,
spiritualism), etc.
5.2 Original Home of Aryans
We have never been able to determine the Aryans’ original home. Numerous theories have been
advanced regarding this; some claim they originated outside India, while others claim they have
Indian ancestors. We would like to take a moment to reflect briefly on this debate in this section.

Early Philological Attempt:

Sir William Jones, founder of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta in 1786, discovered a close relationship
between Sanskrit, the Indo-Aryan language, and Greek, Latin, German, and Celtic languages. His
seminal discovery laid the groundwork for a systematic philological study of the Indo-European
family of languages, which now numbers many more members than Jones initially believed.
Unfortunately, the severe scholarship of the early philologists who discovered these linguistic
affinities was later eclipsed by nationalists who attempted to link speakers of these ancient languages
to modern nations traced back to a mythical Aryan race. Scholars had already agreed in the late
nineteenth century that the Aryans originated in the steppes of Eastern Europe and Central Asia.
However, nationalist German historians and, more recently, Indian nationalists staked a claim for
their respective countries as the original home of the Aryans in the twentieth century. This has
developed into a significant issue in contemporary Indian historiography.
Hangeri: According to Gails and Macdonald, the flora mentioned in the Rig-Veda is found in the
cold region of Hangeri; thus, Aryans may have originated there.
North Pole: Tilak asserted that Aryans originated in the arctic region of the North Pole based on
their attraction to the dawn and the description of long nights and days in Rig-Veda.
Scandinavia: Due to their similarity in language, German scholars classify both as ‘Indo-European’
and thus originated in a Scandinavian country.
Theory of Central Asian Origins: Intensive archaeological research conducted over the last
decades in Russia and the former Soviet Union’s Central Asian republics, as well as in Pakistan and
northern India, has significantly increased our understanding of the Indo-Aryans’ possible ancestors
and their relationship with cultures in West, Central, and South Asia. Excavations in southern Russia
and Central Asia convinced the international archaeology community that the Eurasian steppes were
once the ancestral home of Indo-European language speakers. Their culture has been defined by the
domestication of horses and cattle, copper and bronze tools and weapons, and horse-drawn chariots
with spoked wheels since the fourth millennium B.C. In the third millennium B.C., this Kurgan
culture spread eastward into Central Asia from the steppes west of the Ural. Tribes of this nomadic
population located in modern-day Kazakhstan and associated with the timber-grave culture are now
regarded as the ancestors of the Indo-Iranian peoples. By the third millennium, the Indo-Aryan tribes
appear to have broken away from their Iranian kin.
While the eventual arrival of the Iranian and Indo-Aryan speaking peoples in Iran and northwest
India is well documented in their respective sacred hymns, the Avesta and Veda, the details and
chronology of their migrations from Central Asia remain a source of contention among

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archaeologists, historians, and scholars of Indo-Iranian languages. Earlier historians believed that
between the end of the Indus civilization and the arrival of the Aryans, there was an identifiable gap
of about five centuries (eighteenth to thirteenth centuries B.C.). These scholars focused on the Vedic
Aryans, but more recent archaeological research has altered our understanding of this period nearly
as dramatically as it changed our understanding of the Indus civilization’s antecedents. The alleged
division between Late Harappan and Early Vedic India is no longer as well defined as it once was.
On the one hand, it is becoming increasingly clear that some Late Harappan traits persisted into the
Early Vedic period in some regions of South Asia.
On the other hand, intrusive elements associated with early Indo-Aryan migrations into South Asia
can be traced in the Late Harappan sites. Excavations in Baluchistan (for example, Mehrgarh VIII and
nearby Nausharo III) have uncovered many new cultural elements dating from around 2000 B.C.
These findings suggest a close connection to Greater Iran’s contemporary Bronze Age culture, as
evidenced by archaeological sites such as Namazga V in southern Turkmenistan and Teppe Hissar
III in northwest Iran. This culture may have been ruled by a semi-nomadic elite believed to be
composed of Indo-Iranian language speakers.
Suppose the Indo-Aryan identification of the people of these early migrations in the early second
millennium B.C. could be confirmed. In that case, some Indo-Aryan tribes must have had direct and
even active contact with the still-thriving Indus civilization. However, this identification does not
indicate that these early Indo-Aryans are the (later) Rigvedic people’s direct forebears. The Rigveda,
the oldest Vedic text, shows a socio-economic and cultural setting devoid of indications of urban life,
as will be addressed more below. Scholars who believe that these early Central Asian migrants in the
Late Harappan period were Indo-Aryans claim that the Indus civilization quickly absorbed the
Greater Iranian Bronze Age Culture (Parpola). The fact that the traces of these Central Asian and
Iranian Bronze Age carriers stop around the sixteenth or fifteenth century B.C. in northwest India
supports this view. On the other hand, this absorbed group may have become the upholder of an
Indo-Aryan cultural synthesis, mixing Indo-Harappan (and possibly Dravidian) traits with their
Central Asian Aryan ancestry. These people were most likely responsible for maintaining critical
aspects of Harappan civilization, such as animal and tree worship, which influenced and enhanced
Vedic culture over the next two millennia.
India: According to some researchers, the Aryans were not migratory but rather native to India.
Their arguments are based on the fact that Rig-Veda did not mention any other geographical regions
other than India; there is no mention of ‘coming from outside’ in Rig-Veda; Rig-Veda solely mentions
geographical sites in India.
Evidence of Boghazkoy: The first historical evidence of these Vedic Aryans, however, comes from
upper Mesopotamia and Anatolia, not Central Asia or India. Around 1380 BC, a Mitanni king and
the Hittite monarch Suppiluliuma I signed a pact invoking the Vedic gods Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and
the Nasatyas. In addition, a guidebook regarding horse training was discovered among the tablets
unearthed at Boghazkoy, the Hittite capital, and contains a large number of pure Sanskrit words.
Thus, the governing class of the Mitanni state had a very close cultural and linguistic tie with India’s
Vedic Aryans. However, this does not rule out that these ‘West Asian Vedic Aryans’ are Indians. It’s
more plausible that Vedic tribes began independent migrations to India and West Asia from their
familiar homelands in southern Central Asia. Their brothers in West Asia appear to have had some
older Aryan forebears, just as the Vedic Aryans in India had. For example, the Kassite monarchs of
Babylon may have been of Aryan ancestry in the early sixteenth century B.C. Still, their names have
little resemblance to Sanskrit, the Vedic Aryan language.
The arrival of multiple new people in South Asia who spoke Indo-European languages may thus be
pinpointed to the early half of the second millennium, roughly 2000-1400 BC. In the last few decades,
the overall chronological framework of these migrations has thus been significantly expanded.
However, there are still many unanswered questions. This is especially true when it comes to the
Vedic Aryans’ cultural and historical basis. Their early hymns make no mention of Central Asian or
Iranian toponyms. Still, they include rivers in eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan’s Northwest Frontier
Provinces, such as the Kumbha and Suvastu are today known as the Kabul and Swat rivers. In
addition, archaeologists have discovered the Gandharan Grave Culture ‘in this region, which
includes new burial practices, fire altars, horses, and the usage of bronze and copper. However,
archaeologists are divided on whether these artifacts may be attributed to early pre-Rigvedic Aryans
or to groups of Vedic Aryans on their way to the Indus valley plains. In this regard, researchers’
earlier conclusion that there is currently no evidence to distinguish between pre-Vedic and Vedic
waves of migration is still valid. The Vedic scriptures, particularly the Rigveda, are still our primary
source for information about the early stages of Vedic civilization in northwest India.

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5.3 Early Vedic period (c1500-1200 B.C.)
Vedic Aryans are wandering in the Sapatasindhu region around 1500 BC. They were pastoral nomads
who practiced a simple form of government. We will learn about living during the Early Vedic period
in this section.

5.4 Polity
We find certain phrases that denote a specific type of Vedic administrative division. As a result, the
Vedic Aryans were nomads who were gathered into one tribe. As a result, various Vedic Aryan tribes
can be found.
Vedic Tribe Units: Each tribe was made up of a number of families. ‘Kula’ was the name of a family
(head-Kulap). ‘Visha’ was the name given to a group of such ‘Kulas’ (head-Vishpati). That is to say,
the Visha was the entire population of that tribe, which was known as ‘Jana’ (Janapati). The ‘Rashtra’
was the larger form (Raja). The tribe’s home was referred to as ‘grama,’ while the larger grama was
referred to as ‘janapada.’ The ‘Grama’ was the primary physical structure, whereas the ‘Kula’ was
the primary social organization.
The emergence of a king and polity: These tribes (known as the ‘Janas’) constantly fought each
other. As we have seen, the wars/fights were about the topic of ‘cattle theft and ‘defense against
cattle-theft,’ which was collectively referred to as ‘Gavishti.’ Vedic tribes’ warriors used to take on
the task of fighting such wars. Through marriage relationships, these warriors eventually became
acquainted with one another. As a result, a distinct class of ‘warriors’ formed from the Vedic tribe.
‘Rajanya’ was the name given to such a warrior dynasty.
Regular battles/wars necessitated a bold leader capable of leading the troops on the battlefield. As a
result, the Vedic people felt the need for a ‘king.’ As a result, the ‘Sabha’ (or people’s assembly-visha)
resolved to elect a king. The monarch was chosen from a warrior dynasty. He was given the task of
fighting wars or defending the tribe from outside attacks. As a form of payment, the people chose to
offer him gifts on their own initiative.
As a result, a monarch was born. He was crowned with pomp and circumstance. He had to swear
that he would rule according to canon law. His responsibilities included protecting his tribe and
capturing as much cattle as possible from rival tribes. He was the leader of his tribe, but he was
constrained by a number of factors, including Sabha-Samiti (for his selection), People/Vish (for gifts
or money), Rajanyas/lineage of warriors (for he was chosen from among them), and Mantri (for he
was selected from among them) (for, they gave him advice). He was also reliant on his tribe’s priestly
class. Because priests used to coronate him and give his power religious sanction because he was so
tightly monitored if he deviated from his duties, his position was taken away from him, and a new
king was chosen.

Administration:
With the support and control of the Ministry and Sabha-Samiti, the King managed his administrative
structure.
Ministry: The King was aided by ministers or mantris to ensure good rule. Purohit (priest), who
was the King’s primary minister, was part of this cabinet. He was tasked with providing the monarch
with political and religious guidance. He was also the one who gave the King religious validity. As
a result, his position was potent. In addition, he was expected to provide religious guidance. Senapati
(commander) was the military’s in-charge. He was expected to protect, fight a war, and set up war
camps, among other things.
Her/Duta (spy) The spies were appointed to ensure that information flowed smoothly. He was the
spies’ commander. In addition, he oversaw international relations as a ‘duta.’ Gramini (village-
headman) Due to the small region under the King’s administration, the Gramini was also assigned
to the King’s ministry. The monarch was expected to reign with the permission and advice of these
ministers.
Sabha and Samiti: To manage their grama, the Visha (or people) congregated at a specified location
in the grama. ‘Sabha’ and ‘Samiti’ were the names given to the place or gathering. The ‘Samiti’ was a
gathering of all the tribe’s people (visha). People used to congregate there to discuss various issues

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History of India upto Ad 650
and concerns, play, eat and drink. Samiti meetings were held regularly, and administration issues
were openly discussed. As a result, it can be compared to today’s legislative assembly.
On the other hand, the’ Sabha was made up of a small group of people who addressed sensitive
subjects. Executing choices were made here, such as whether to conduct war or enter into a treaty,
whether to assist the monarch in judicial problems, and whether to adopt laws governing weights
and measures, among other things. Because the King was chosen by both the Sabha and the Samiti,
both assemblies had power over the King.

Income
System of Taxation: There was no explicit taxation system; instead, the government (and its
salaries) were based on voluntary gifts from the vish/people. Raids were another source of revenue.
In addition, cattle, food grains, gold, horses, and other sources of income were used.

Judiciary
With the support of his ministry and Samiti, the King used to resolve court disputes. The law was
derived from Vedic literature, tradition, and the wisdom of elders. The crimes included stealing,
banditry, forgery, cattle-lifting, and indebtedness, all of which were punishable by death.

Military Structure
There are also references to military units such as infantry, cavalry, and war chariots, although they
are not permanent and are not well organized. The bow and arrow, swords, mace, spears, swing ball,
and other weapons were used. We also get references to armors, which may or may not be made of
leather.

5.5 Economy
Pastoralism
The earliest Vedic people were pastoralists. Animals were raised for milk, wool, leather, agriculture,
and drawing chariots. They were compelled to use cattle. Pastoralism: thus, ‘cattle’ was their source
of wealth. Their entire culture was centered on cattle as a source of wealth. As a result, the family
unit was dubbed ‘Gotra’ (lit.=cattle pen). This means that the families were identified by their
particular cattle pen, for example, Vasisthta Gotra or Bharadwaj Gotra. The time when cattle returned
from pastures was regarded as auspicious. Thus, ceremonies were held during this time period,
dubbed ‘Goraja Muhurta.’ The wars were fought primarily for cattle-lifting or defending cattle-
lifting. As a result, the term ‘Gavishti’ for war was coined. Aryans’ staple diet consisted mainly of
milk products. Cattle’s ears were cut in a specific manner to facilitate identification. They possessed
unique pastureland that was communally owned.
Agriculture:
We find evidence of some areas being cultivated. Families were the landowners. The farming was
carried out with the assistance of bulls. The Vedic Aryans were familiar with basic agricultural
techniques such as fertilizer application, crop cutting with sickles, and water distribution. Wheat and
barley were the primary crops, while rice/paddy cultivation was in its infancy. It should be noted,
however, that cultivation of this stage was strictly subsistence.
Craft/industry:
Numerous crafts are mentioned in the Early Vedic period; however, they are limited in scope. These
included:
Carpentry has involved constructing agricultural equipment, chariots, bullock carts, boats, homes,
and toys.
Weaving, The Vedic Aryans wore vibrant cotton and wool garments. Dyers added the colors.
Women then embroidered these rich fabrics; a technique is known as ‘Peshaskari.’ The weaver is
referred to as ‘Vaya,’ while the Charakha is referred to as ‘Tasar.’
Smithy, the smithy was exclusively concerned with copper. Although iron was not wholly unknown
(Krishna-ayas), its metallurgy was unknown.

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Gold-smithy, ‘Hiranyakar’ was the name given to the goldsmith. He used to create gold jewelry for
both humans and horses.
Cobbler Cobblers made water bags, shoes, bridles, whips, and thread for bows, among other things.
Pot-making at this early stage, there were no social divisions; thus, anyone could pursue any
occupation.
Additionally, fishing was a part of the occupation.

Trade
The trade was conducted solely based on exchanges, which was a ‘barter system. Generally, cloths
and leathers were exchanged in these transactions. It was accomplished with the assistance of
bullock-carts and pack-bulls; occasionally, boats were also used. The traders were referred to as
‘Pani.’ Although the medium of exchange was cattle, we find references to emerging currencies such
as Nishka, made of gold. It was used for coins as well as ornaments.

5.6 Society
Family life
The Vedic family was joint and patriarchal, organized around the family’s eldest member (grihapati).
The head of the family was responsible for religious duties, economic responsibilities, and guest
hospitality. All members are expected to show obedience to the family head. The family strictly
adhered to society’s morals. The family’s prestige was prioritized above all other family members.

Education
The education is conducted in the homes of teachers and is funded by rulers. The doors were open
to both boys and girls, with a separate female teacher provided for the latter. Students received
vocational education as well as moral values education in these gurukuls. There were no written
records; however, knowledge was passed down orally.

The Social Division of the Varna system

We discover no signs of division in their society during their stay in the seven-river area. However,
as they traveled deeper into India’s interior, they came into contact with indigenous people. Thus,
we find the earliest mention of social division in the Rig-Purusha-sukta Veda’s (tenth mandala). We
see a clear division of society in this sukta into four Varnas: Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and
Shudra. However, it should be noted that this mandala dates from the later Vedic period, as we never
encountered the latter two Varnas in any other Rig-Vedic mandala. Thus, it appears as though there
was no clear-cut discrimination in the early period. At first, the entire community was referred to as
visha. Then, based on occupation, two powerful classes emerged from visha, namely the Brahmans
and Rajanya (Kshatriya). Additionally, references are scattered throughout the text mentioning
various occupation groups in society, such as weavers, ironsmiths, cobblers, and chariot-makers.

Diet
Naturally, because the early Vedic people practiced pastoralism, their primary diet consisted of milk
products and meat. Additionally, they consumed multiple foods, including oilseed, barley, wheat,
vegetables, and fruits. Generally, a non-vegetarian feast is held in conjunction with ceremonies,
festivals, and marriages. Additionally, they consumed intoxicating liquids regularly. The Vedic
literature, on the other hand, condemns this type of intoxication.

Houses
Initially, the Vedic people were pastoralists who were constantly on the move in search of new
pasture. They settled in the area of seven rivers in northwest India in search of pastures. They
inhabited wattle-and-daub huts. Certain prosperous families live in wooden houses. These hoses
contained rooms for various purposes, including a hall, a bedroom for women, a space for worship
(which housed the yajnya-bhumi), and a spacious courtyard.

Dress & Hairstyle

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The Vedic people wore cotton, wool, and animal hide garments. Clothes were referred to as ‘nivi,’
‘same, ‘adhivasam,’ and ‘drapi.’ They used natural pigments. They wore an upper garment (uparane,
a long piece of cloth) and a lower garment (dhoti), as well as headgear (of soft cloth). A variety of
hairstyles characterizes this era. Men cut their hair regularly, while others wore their hair in a single
knot. Some men kept their beards, while others shaved them. Combs enabled women to create a
variety of hairstyles. In addition, they adorned their hair with a distinctive ornament known as
‘Kurir.’

Ornaments
Women and men alike were generally fond of various types of ornaments. Bronze, ivory, gold, and
jewels were used to create the decorations. In addition, women wore bangles, earrings, rings, and
armlets, among other accessories.

Entertainment
Generally, Vedic people enjoyed animal races and fights. They also went hunting for entertainment.
They were musically inclined. We discover references to various musical instruments made of animal
hide, including string instruments and percussion instruments. Additionally, they enjoy community
dance. During the festival season, both men and women participated in a common dance. Apart from
that, gambling was a popular pastime. As a result, gambling is mentioned in almost every social
gathering.

Religion
The early Vedic people were nature worshippers. They humanized and deified nature’s benevolent
and malevolent powers and prayed to them.

Indra
Indra was viewed as the God of War. Cattle, as pastoralists, were regarded as a source of wealth by
the Vedic people. As a result, we see a high frequency of cattle raids and cattle protection during this
time period. So, naturally, ‘wars-on-cattle’ was a source of concern; as a result, Indra gained
prominence among the other gods.

Varuna
According to Vedic belief, the entire Universe is governed by a set of rules known as ‘Rita.’ Varuna
was regarded as the ‘Rita’s controller. Thus, Varuna is worshipped by the Vedic people in order to
maintain order in the Universe.

Agni (fire)
It is believed that ‘yajnya’ serves as a conduit for food to reach the Gods. Thus, in order to appease
the Gods, the Vedic people used to make oblations into yajnas. Naturally, yajna was an integral part
of the Vedic people’s daily/occasional religious rites/rituals. Domestic and communal activities are
deemed incomplete without yajna performance. As a result, Agni (fire) was revered by the Vedic
people as a connecting link between people and God. They referred to it as the earth’s replica of the
sun.

Surya (Sun)
Vedic people worship the sun as ‘Mitra’ (friend). It is regarded as an energy source. Later on, the
‘Surya’ became a prominent God and eventually merged with ‘Vishnu.’

Usha (dawn)
Usha is regarded as a source of enthusiasm and inspiration by the Vedic people. Therefore, numerous
verses in the Rig-Veda are dedicated to the Usha.’

Prithvi (earth)
Prithvi was revered as the mother of all living creatures.

Yama
Yama is a death god. Not for his favor, but in order to avoid him, he was worshipped.

Rudra
Rudra was a storm god. As with Yama, he was worshipped in order to evade his wrath.

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These deities assist us in reconstructing the Vedic people’s religious concepts in the following ways:

• Vedic pastoralists were nomadic and straightforward. They were unable to comprehend the
‘cause’ of natural blessings/calamities. They elevated these misfortunes/favors to the status
of Gods. They either feared them or expected them to show them favor regularly. They
worshipped these Gods for this purpose.
• Again, as simple people, they believed that the Gods lived in the sky or above the
earth. However, we are aware that smoke from the fire rises to the sky. As a result,
the Vedic people regarded ‘smoke’ as a link between earth and sky, i.e., Gods. As
a result, we see the significance of fire/Agni in their religious lives.
• In connection with that, the Vedic people believed that submitting food to the
fire/Agni would reach the Gods in the form of smoke. Thus, it would appease the
gods, and they would either favor them or cease to trouble them. As a result, Agni
became a conduit between Gods and humans. As a result, it became an integral
part of the Vedic people’s religious life. Thus, the Fire/Agni became a
sacrifice/yajna,’ and these yajnas were accompanied by entire religious rites (and
prayers).
• Surya (Sun), like Agni, is significant because it is a sky symbol of yajna. As a result,
another minor God such as ‘Vishnu’ merged with the sun and became a prominent
God among the others after several centuries.
The Rig-Veda’s primary corpus is a collection of prayers to these Gods. These are the prayers that are
recited at sacrificial priers. The sacrifices, or yajna, are viewed as a vehicle for expressing one’s faith
in God. Generally, it was done to ensure victory in battles and to acquire cattle and sons. At their
homes, each Vedic family or kula performed those scarifications.
It is worth noting that these prayers and sacrifices were not made in order to attain spiritual bliss or
quench one’s philosophical thirst. On the contrary, it was carried out to obtain simple material
benefits from those perceived to be robust and uncontrollable.

5.7 Later Vedic Period (c 1200-600BC)

The Aryans expanded their territory within India during the later Vedic period. As a result, they
wielded near-total control over vast and expansive swaths of territory. Throughout their migration,
they encountered a variety of communities, tribes, and polities. In a nutshell, the situation has
widened and become more complex; it has also grown in quality and quantity.

5.8 Polity
King’s ascension to autocracy and divine Kingship
Additionally, wars expanded in scope and became more dangerous in nature. As a result, the King’s
role became critical in light of the altered circumstances. The King reaped the benefits of this
circumstance. To maintain his power, he and the priests devised a system of polity.
He began by offering large-scale sacrifices such as Rajasuya and Ashvamedha and generously
donating to priests. The performing priests (who benefited financially from such sacrifices) elevated
the King to a divine status. As a result, the King was equated with the Gods or perceived to embody
aspects of heavenly Gods. Thus, the concept of ‘Divine Kingship’ was born. As a result, the King and
his lineage developed into a powerful class in Vedic society. The Aiterya Brahmana names later Vedic
kings Adhiraja, Rajadhiraja, Samrat, Ekrat, and Virat. His tribe was initially identified by the King’s
name and clans, such as Kuru, Puru, and Turvashu. And, because the King’s legitimacy was
contingent upon the priestly class, the latter became powerful.
To maintain power in the hands of the King/ruling class and priests, they devised a birth-based
Varna system. Thus, the children of the ruling class and the priestly class were automatically crowned
kings or priests. Therefore, these two classes retained political, economic, and religious powers. The
Vishas were obligated to remain Vishas and pay taxes to the King under the same rules. Thus, Visha’s
children automatically became Visha and were required to pay taxes. Whereas the children of

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Shudras became Shudras automatically. Thus, through the Varna System, power was divided
between two classes (ruling and priestly), and adequate provision of tax (from Vishas) and manual
labor (from Shudras) was ensured. This system was then reinforced by the theory of ‘Rebirth,’
according to which the class of Visha and Shudras possessed no chance of liberty.

Administration
Ministry
Advisors aided the King’s administration. While the early ministers were retained, some new ones
were added, such as

• Mahishi Main Queen of King Purohit (priest)

• Sénéni (commander) Prior Senapati
• Sangrahit’s obligation (treasurer) To oversee the kingdom’s revenue and expenditure.
• The Bhagdut (tax-collector)
• The Gramini (Village-headman)
• Suta (Chariot-driver) This minister held a unique position within the ministry. He was a
charioteer for the King. He accompanied the King on all of his travels, including hunting,
rides, and wars. As a result, he was a close confidant of the King. As a personal friend of the
King and witness to numerous incidents, he was replete with tales about the King and his
associates. As a result, he was invited to tell his masters’ story. These stories were later
incorporated into the main corpus of epics such as the Mahabharata and Ramayana.
Thus, we discover a systematic kingly ministry in the later Vedic period. However, it should be noted
that such advice was unnecessary because he was solely accountable to the Gods. The
recommendations were not made mandatory to follow. As a result, the previous control of ‘Mantris’
was lost.

Sabha and Samiti

Naturally, because the King was divine, his power became hereditary and remained within his
family. Thus, no need for him to seek sanction from Sabha-Samiti remained. There was no selection
at this point. As a result, the significance of Sabha and Samiti waned. Due to the vastness of the ruled
area, it was also impossible to regularly hold assembly meetings. As a result, the Sabha and Samiti
ceased to exist within a few years.

Income
Due to his hereditary status and divine Kingship, the King is now solely accountable to the Gods. He
could now coerce the fish into giving him gifts. Thus, the gifts ceased to be voluntary; they became
‘taxes.’ He instituted a system of systematic taxation. Thus, Vish’s previous hegemony over the King
was dissolved. However, there was still a need for human support. As a result, the King began
redistributing whatever gifts he had received during sacrifices.
These taxes became the kingdom’s primary source of revenue. Along with raids, loot was another
source of income.

Judiciary
He also became the people’s supreme leader; thus, all authority was vested in him. Therefore, he
could draught laws, carry them out, and punish criminals.

Military System
King’s military system became systematized as a result of the frequency of wars. Thus, a proper
military system was established during this era. A hierarchy was established, and rules were
established. His army was divided into infantry, cavalry, archers, elephants, and war chariots.
Meanwhile, the concept of ‘Dharmayudha’ was developed. Death on the battlefield became heroic,
whereas fleeing the battlefield became an embarrassment and source of great humiliation. Women,
children, and the unarmed were deemed unethical targets. Additionally, fighting before Sunrise and
after Sunset was regarded as illegal.

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5.9 Economy
Although pastoralism was the primary occupation of the Vedic people, the majority of them were
agriculturalists.
Agriculture: Agricultural technology has been developed recently. All stages were completed
thoroughly and methodically, including plowing, seeding, cutting, and thrashing. Farmers began
plowing the land with the assistance of six to twenty-four bulls. Bundling rivers and streams
preserved water for the entire year. Due to advancements in agro-irrigation technology, farmers can
now cultivate various crops, including wheat, barley, rice/paddy, cotton, vegetables, pulses,
oilseeds, and fruits. Now Vedic Aryans have begun to produce a significant surplus. As a result, they
now had to consider the investment. Thus, the expansion of agricultural surplus facilitated the
development of crafts and commerce.
Craft/industry: The earlier crafts were continued in this stage but with increased specialization.
However, the majority of these crafts were of a cottage nature. The weaving and dyeing industries
flourished during this time period, as is the case with leatherwork. Mats and carpets were woven
from cane and grass. Additionally, we encountered some other artisans such as musicians,
astrologers, cooks, drivers, and messengers. However, due to the rigid varna/caste system,
hereditary occupations and their compartmentalization/specialization according to castes exist.

Trade
Agriculture’s expansion and subsequent development of crafts propelled the trade forward. The
Vedic Aryans now controlled a much larger area than they did previously. As a result, markets were
expanded along with regions. The previous period’s exchanges have developed into legitimate trade
in goats, leather, cloths, and ornaments. The growth of commerce compelled traders to band together.
As a result, this period sees the emergence of early trading organizations or proto guilds. In response
to increased trade, we find the introduction of early coins in India, such as Nishka and Karshapana;
however, they are limited to smaller transactions. The measuring instrument was dubbed ‘Krishnal.’
Initially, the trade was conducted via bullock carts; now, waterways were also utilized. Finally, we
discover the sea trade via 100 ships.
This period did not see the completion of the barter system. To deal with such situations and for
convenience’s sake, we see the rise of central locations in vast areas. These were primarily craft and
commercial centers. However, this development in the later Vedic period was in its infancy, and thus
the necessary modalities awaited. Nonetheless, during this period, the infrastructure required for the
sixth century B.C.’s second urbanization was laid.

5.10 Society
The people dispersed in various parts of India during the later Vedic period. As a result, new
connections were created with people from other cultures. This had an impact on Vedic people’s
social structures, making them more complicated. In light of this, the Vedic jurist felt compelled to
tie society with certain concerted and stringent norms and regulations. Varna-system, ashram-
system, marriage-system, samskara, and other social systems were formed for this reason.

Patriarchal Family System: The Vedic people adopted a patriarchal family system similar to that
of prior periods. The eldest male member of the family, regarded as the family’s head, is known as
‘grihapati.’ He has complete family command. The idea of Kingship emerged on a more significant
macro level, such as the state, based on this system at the micro-level, such as the family.
Concept of Purushartha: Every man was supposed to follow four primary responsibilities in his
life: Dharma, Artha, Kama, and Moksha.
Dharma: He was expected to obey Vedic canons’ religious laws and regulations. In addition, he
should make regular sacrifices in his life. As a result, by practicing ‘Dharma,’ he may be free of Gods’
‘Rina’ (lit.=loan; responsibility).
Artha: He was also required to work and earn money throughout his life. The Kama was supposed
to marry and have children. It is thought that by marrying and having children, he will break away
from his parents’ ‘Rina.’
Moksha: After achieving ‘kama’ and ‘artha,’ he anticipated pursuing Moksha or salvation. He
should always focus on his ultimate objective: to be free of the illusions of ordinary existence and be
united with the Gods while fulfilling his tasks. This is the state of Moksha.

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In short, Vedic individuals were supposed to be honest in their domestic obligations. But, at the same
time, he was responsible for society; thus, he had to carry out his societal responsibilities. In addition,
in order to sustain the Vedic system, he must do religious duties.

Varna concept:
Due to cultural homogeneity, the spiritual authority formalized social discrimination and created a
clear-cut social divide known as Varna. The first reference of social separation can be found in the
10th mandala of the Rig-Purushsukta. Veda’s This system assigns specific responsibilities to each
Varna, including as:
Brahman: a person who teaches, learns, performs, and hosts sacrifices. As a result, they became the
sole authority on religion during this time period. The monarchs also provided significant quantity
payments to the Brahmans for the religious legitimization of their power, as their authorization was
required for them to reign.
Kshatriya: Knowledge, sacrifice, and people and land preservation. This Varna is populated
primarily by rulers and warlords/warriors. The Kshatriya legalized their status with the help of
Brahmans to keep this authority in their hands. Thus, this Varna wields real political power.
Vaishya: Agriculturists, traders, and craftsmen belonged to this Varna. Vaishya: Trade and
agriculture; agriculturists, traders, and artisans belonged to this Varna. They were a major Varna in
Vedic culture because they held economic power. They were the society’s taxpayers. Despite their
financial clout, traders and artisans were never accorded complete reverence in the Vedic religious
system. As a result, in later years, they turned to non-Vedic religions.

Shudra: the lowest of the Varna-ladder, with no powers or rights in society; this was the weakest of
the Varna-ladder and had no abilities or rights. They lacked control over any type of production
mode or later production. Some historians claim that the inhabitants of Varna were indigenous to the
area. The Varna system of the later Vedic period has the following highlights:

• In a few centuries, the Varna-System became or was rendered hereditary, which implies
that Varna membership is based on birth in a specific Varna. As a result, Varna became Jati
(a caste system based on birth). As a result, castes form throughout this time period.
• The Varna system was structured hierarchically. However, because such a system lacked
movement and flexibility, it grew inflexible during this time period, favoring only the first
three Varnas.
• During this time, sacrifices grew more critical, and as a result, the Brahmans, who had sole
authority over religion, gained a higher social rank.
• In this period, the emergence of a pre-State situation (although on a lineage level) made
Kshatriya powerful in society.
• The Vaishya, or taxpayers, agriculturists, and traders became powerful as well.
• The three (Brahmans, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas) are considered traivarnikas, or men of
higher Varnas. The Shudras, on the other hand, remained weak and were forced to work
for the traivarnikas.
• From the concept of purity, a class of untouchables began to emerge alongside these four
Varnas.

Concept of Ashrama
The ashrama system was supplied to society to suppress the rebellious character of some people and
enhance the family structure and one’s social commitment. A person’s life was split into four
segments in this system, and he was assigned chores based on his age. Like
Brahmacharya-ashrama: The importance of education was emphasized during this ashrama. He
was supposed to spend his boyhood at his teacher’s hermitage in this ashrama. When he was eight
years old, the religious sacrament (samskara) of ‘upanayana’ sanctified his admittance into this
ashrama. After the Upanayana, he was expected to spend the next 12 to 14 years in the teachers’
hermitage. He acquired the Vedas, literature, warfare, political science, trade, and other knowledge
systems. Learn-by-heart was used as the sole technique of instruction in this case. He should learn

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while also helping his teacher with manual labor. As a result of his schooling, he was now prepared
for the next part of his life, ‘Grihastha-ashrama.’
Grihastha-ashrama: During his stay at the ashram, he was expected to fulfill his familial
obligations and social obligations. He was expected to marry and start a family with his sons. He
should also carry out the responsibilities that the scriptures have allocated to him. Four
Purushararhtas or responsibilities were entrusted to him: dharma (social and religious obligations),
artha (occupation), Kama (marital life), and Moksha (liberation) (to strive for union with God). He
was supposed to do the first three responsibilities during this ashrama, whereas the next two
ashramas required him to thirst for Moksha, the fourth one. He should look after his parents and
contribute to society. In addition, a room was created for his rebellious nature through Vanaprastha-
ashrama and Sanyasa-ashrama.
Vanaprastha-ashrama: During this ashrama, he was required to abdicate all domestic duties and
delegate his responsibilities to his son. He could stay in his home, but he should spend more time
alone, remembering God.
Sanaysa-ashram: He has reached the end of his life. He was expected to leave his house during this
time and spend the remainder of his life in the woods or at God’s feet. Therefore, this ashrama system
played an essential role in maintaining social order at this time, such as:

• All of a person’s needs were met promptly, which resulted in a healthy and satisfying life.
• The family institution was preserved and strengthened through grihastha ashrama. It also
looked after the family’s elderly members. Thus, it developed into a pillar of society. As a result,
society is also maintained via this ashrama. Thus, with domestic and social responsibilities
fulfilled, the entire Vedic society was maintained and sustained during this period.
• Through the last two ashramas, tensions between generations have been resolved, and the issue
of generation gaps has been resolved.

Marriage System
Marriage was regarded as the primary duty of the Vedic people and thus became a point of religious
significance. A person enters grihastha ashrama following brahmacharya ashrama. The canons
expect him to marry in this ashrama. We know that it is believed that by marrying and bearing
children, one can be liberated from his parents’ ‘rina’ (lit. loan=responsibility). It was one of the Vedic
religion’s sixteen major religious sacraments (samskara). ‘Inter-Varna’ marriages were frowned upon
during this era, while similar-gotra/family marriages’ were prohibited. As a result, they were forced
to marry in their own Varna and families other than their own.
However, during this period, we find instances of ‘inter-Varna’ marriages. Most of these instances
compelled Vedic jurists to devise a new system that accommodated and legalized such ‘inter-Varna’
marriages. As a result, they proposed two legalized marriage structures: Anuloma marriages
(between a bridegroom from higher Varna and a bride from lower Varna) and Pratiloma marriages
(between bridegroom from lower Varna and bride from higher Varna)
Additionally, as is well known, the Vedic people encountered other cultures in India during this time
period. Within a few years, the Vedic society was profoundly influenced by these people’s customs
and institutions. It shook the Vedic society’s fundamental structure. Thus, in order to incorporate
these communities or their influences, they needed to allow for and accommodate their institutions.
As a result, we see eight distinct types of marriages that were prevalent in society. These
classifications reflect Vedic people’s contact with a variety of cultures. Like
Brahma-vivaha: Father hands over his daughter to the knowledgeable and well-behaved
bridegroom with proper rites and rituals,
Daiva-vivaha: Father hands over the bride to the priest engaged in sacrifice,
Prajapati-vivaha: Father greets the bridegroom and urges the couple to adhere to religious
obligations.
Arsha-vivaha: After receiving a pair of cattle from the groom, the father gives the bride’s hand to
the groom,
Gandharva-vivaha: marriage-at-will, i.e., with the bridegroom’s and bride’s consent only.

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History of India upto Ad 650
Asur-vivaha; The bridegroom pays the bride’s father and other relatives to purchase her for
marriage,
Rakshasa-vivaha: Forceful kidnapping and mutilation of a crying girl
Paishacha-vivah: forcibly rendering the girl unconscious and violet her chastity.
Vedic jurists recommended only the first four types of marriage. However, in order to enforce the
patriarchal system, jurists regard marriages-at-will with contempt. Additionally, there were
references to inter-caste marriages such as Anuloma (a higher Varna daughter with a lower Varna
daughter) and Pratiloma (a lower Varna daughter with a higher Varna daughter) vivaha.
In this period, marriages are now governed by the patriarchal head of the family and the religion. As
a result, the early period’s ‘marriage-at-will’ was despised during this period. Simultaneously, the
average age of marriage decreased. Additionally, polygamy became a prevalent feature of this era.
Thus, the marriage system of the Later Vedic people reflects radical changes from the earlier, more
superficial society. The early period’s ‘self-willed’ ‘domestic’ marriages are now regulated by various
methods, including patriarchy, society, and religion. Thus, it developed into a significant ‘institution’
of society, which has persisted today.

Concept of Samskaras
To provide socio-religious sanctions for each stage of a person’s physical and psychological
development and the requirement for his social commitment, jurists devised the samskara system.
Every step of his life, from embryo to death, is sanctified by such samskara, which is traditionally
sixteen in number. Several of them fall into the following categories:

Embryological stage (to give support to the pregnant woman)

Garbhadan to invoke the blessings of a good child.
Simantonnayana to calm and refresh the pregnant woman’s mind.
After the birth
Jatkarma is fed honey and butter immediately after the birth of the child. This samskara is permitted
to be provided by the mother.
Namkarana, the child, is named 13 days after birth.
Nishkramana After four years, the child is permitted to leave home.
Karnavedha Child’s ears have been pierced.
Annaprashana first bite of food the child
Vapan’s The child’s first hair was shaved.
Brhamchary ashrama
Upanayana Before proceeding to the teacher’s hermitage for instruction, the child should undergo
this sacrament.
Keshanta Hair removal before entering the educational system.
Samavartana, His education, and brahmacharya ashram come to an end.
Grihastha-ashrama:
Vivaha-Marriage,
Aginiparigrhaana-Placing a sacrificial fire in one’s home and regularly worshipping it,
Anteysthi-Funeral Education
Education
Later Vedic people recognized the critical role education plays in the development of the individual
and society. During this period, the hermitage of learned sages became the epicenter of education. It
is referred to as ‘Gurukul.’ These centers received generous donations and patronage from rulers and

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affluent people. A child was expected to attend school by living with the teacher at the teacher’s
residence. He was fed and housed exclusively at the teachers’ residence.
The child enters ‘Gurukul’ through the sacrament of ‘Upanayana. These centers are geared toward
the development of a child’s overall personality. Not only was he expected to learn, but also to
perform manual labor. Thus, he could preserve society’s regard for physical work. The day begins
with cleaning the hermitage campus at these centers, milking the cows, carrying wood, and filling
water tanks, among other tasks. Then the entire day was devoted to learning. He was required to
serve his teachers in the evenings and then retire to sleep.
The knowledge was imparted orally, i.e., by heart. Apart from discussions, debates, and practicals,
these centers’ educational tools are discussions, debates, and practicals. Vedas and their appendices,
warfare, administration, political science, logic, commerce, mathematics, astronomy, philosophy,
medicine, medical science, and moral values were among the subjects covered. Acharya, Pravakta,
Shrotiya, and Adhyapak were the four types of teachers.

Dress
The people of this era wore vibrantly colored cotton, woolen, and silk fabrics. The delicate cotton
cloth was woven with gold thread and embellished with exquisite embroidery. The dressing style
remained consistent with that of the preceding era.

Dietary Habits
The dietary habits prevalent during the early period persisted during this period as well. However,
during this time period, the proportion of non-vegetarian food increased. In addition, this was the
era of lengthy Vedic sacrifices. As a result, a large number of animals are sacrificed during such
occasions. Thus, no festival would be complete without animal meat. Rather than that, it became
incorporated into religious rituals.

Entertainment
Similar to the preceding era, the Vedic people entertained themselves with a variety of objects and
activities. This was the era of powerful rulers and lengthy festivals. Subsequently, the proportion of
entertainment increased during this period, and as a result, racing, hunting, and gambling became a
part of every gathering of people. Additionally, during lengthy sacrifices, bards were invited to
deliver eulogies on rulers’ exploits. Crowds gathered to hear this poetry, which later legitimized
rulers’ position/status. It should be noted that the epics emerged during this period from the
collection of such bardic eulogies.

5.11 Religion
In the Later Vedic period, Vedic people transformed, as we all know. During this time, religion got
increasingly complex.

Changes in Deities and Worship Methodologies

The importance of the prominent deities in the Early Period was diminished throughout this time.
Indra, Varuna, and Surya became unpopular gods. New Gods evolved, such as Vishnu, Rudra, and
Shiva. People began to worship such Gods in a devotional manner. As a result, we saw the rise of
‘Devotional worship,’ or Bhakti, during this time period; nevertheless, it was at a very early stage.
New deities and rites entered the Vedic pantheon and rituals due to social connections with other
cultures. In Vedic culture, this gave rise to many forms of idol worship, animism, magic,
superstitions, etc. Magic, superstitions, female notions, and blind faith all formed part of religious
life. Furthermore, the concept of 16 samskaras evolved to apply social consequences to various
changes in a person’s life. Whereas similar to ashrams, the idea of four purusharthas, namely
Dharma, Artha, Kama, and Moksha, was proposed to control a person’s life in society.

The prominence of Sacrifices:

The sacrifices were varied and formalized with a variety of laws and regulations, referred to as
karmakanda. Previously, sacrifices were thought to be merely a conduit between a person and God.
During this time, sacrifices and their complex laws grew more prevalent. The public was taught that
the Gods would be forced to bless the performers if they followed the scarifies' regulations. In the
religion of the Later Vedic period, sacrifices assumed the place of God. As a result, the religion was
focused on the proper execution of such sacrifices. Following that, the priestly class rose to
prominence, with the sole authority to carry out the sacrifices in an organized manner. The right to

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perform sacrifices was taken away from kulapati and given to the priest class as a monopoly. As a
result, the sorts of priests and sacrifices became more diverse. There was much wealth-time-violence
involved in these scares. As a result, the system of tolerating an expanding number of priests became
institutionalized. However, due to the period’s religious conservatism and intricacy, there were
specific reactions within Vedic society. The Upanishads frowned upon squandering money, time,
and violence in the form of sacrifices. They sought the truth of religion by introspecting themselves
and pondering on the soul’s relationship to the supreme soul, god. They attempted to replace
religion’s material foundation with a spiritual one.
To summarize, the Vedic people who lived in the Land of Seven Rivers later relocated to other parts
of India. They encountered people from varied cultures, societies, economies, and belief systems. In
Vedic culture, this resulted in social cohesion and intricacy. On the one hand, the economy varied
and grew through agriculture, crafts, and trade; conversely, jurists tightened and rigidified social and
religious regulations to preserve the country’s identity. The Kshatriya and Brahman developed the
Varna system, birth-based and inflexible, in order to monopolize power. Religion assumed a crucial
role in society to justify this process. It took the form of a variety of rites and rituals involving vast
sums of money and scarifies. On the other hand, Taxpayer Vaishya Varna and laborer Shudra Varna,
who gave labor and service, were deprived of a variety of rights and socio-religious punishments.

Summary
The cities of the Harappan Culture had declined by 1500 B.C., according to the discussion above. As
a result, their economic and administrative systems gradually deteriorated. Around this time,
speakers of Sanskrit, an Indo-Aryan language, arrived in north-western India from the Indo-Iranian
region. They would have come in small groups through the passes in the northwest mountains at
first. Their first settlements were in the north-western valleys and the Punjabi plains. They later
relocated to the Indo-Gangetic plains. They were primarily looking for pastures because they were
mainly livestock keepers. By the 6th century B.C., they had conquered all of North India, which they
called Aryavarta. The Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period (1500 B.C.-1000 B.C.) and the Later
Vedic Period (1500 B.C.-600 B.C.) are two periods that span 1500 B.C. to 600 B.C. (1000B.C -600 B.C).

Keywords/Glossary
• Pastoralism: A social and economic system based on the raising and herding of livestock.
• Yajnya: refers to the sacrificial fire - the divine Agni - into which oblations are poured, as it is
believed that everything offered to the fire reaches the gods.
• Purush-Sukta: It is a hymn to creation/genesis and is in the Rig-Veda’s tenth mandala. It tells
us about a sacrifice that resulted in the emergence of a cosmic being or Purusha. The entire world
was created from the Purusha, including the Brahmans (Learned men) from his mouth, the
Kshatriyas (Men of Strength) from his arms, the Vaishyas (Men of Business) from his thighs, and
the Shudras (Men of Work) from his feet.
• Ashvamedha Sacrifice: Literal translation: Horse Sacrifice. The Vedic religion’s most
influential royal ritual. A king could only carry it out to acquire sovereignty over neighboring
provinces.
• Gotra: A group of blood relatives.
• Gurukula: An ancient learning center located at the teacher’s residence or hermitage.
• Kulapati: Head of the family (kula)
• Saptasindhu: The region of NW India (WE Punjab) through which seven rivers flow, including
the Ravi, Biyas, Sutlej, Chinab, Zelum, Indus, and Sarasvati
• Varna: lit. Color; an ancient Vedic social division.

Self-Assessment
Choose the correct alternative:
1. .....................were the founder of Vedic culture in India.
a) Anaryas
b) Dasyus

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 Unit II: Vedic and Later Vedic Period:
c) Aryans
d) Kshatriyas
2. The Aryans are those who belong to the language group of.......................
a) English
b) Sanskrit
c) French
d) Italian
3. We find the earliest reference of Aryans from...........................region.
a) North-West
b) Eastern
c) Northeastern
d) South-western
4. According to................., the origin home of Vedic Aryans was in the Arctic, the region in the
North Pole.
a) Ghosh
b) Maxmuller
c) Tilak
d) Giles
5. ...................discusses the etymology of words in the Vedas.
a) Shiksha
b) Nirukta
c) Jyotish
d) Chanda
6. .............were the founder of Vedic society.
a) Non-Aryans
b) Egyptian
c) Mesopotamian
d) Aryans
7. In the Early Vedic period, the family life was......................
a) Matrilineal
b) Patriarchal
c) Republic
d) Monarchical
8. In..............the mandala of Rig-Veda, we find the earliest mention of the Varna system.
a. 7
b. 8
c. 9
d. 10
9. In the Early Vedic period.....................was the lineage of warriors.
a. Brahamana
b. Shudra
c. Rajanya
d. Vaishya
10. ...................were the people involved in a trade.
a. Pani
b. Gramini

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History of India upto Ad 650
c. Aryan
a. Shudra
11. .....................devoted to free one from the rina of parents.
a. Sanyasa
b. Vanaprastha
c. Brahmacharya
d. Grihastha
12. .....................emerged as an important God in the last stage of the later Vedic period.
a. Vishnu
b. Indra
c. Varuna
d. Surya
13. .........................was the chariot-driver of King.
a. Purohit
b. Suta
c. Bhagdut
d. Sangrahit
14. .........................was the tax collector of King.
a. Senani
b. Suta
c. Bhagdut
d. Gramini
15. ...................was the coin that was used in the later Vedic period.
a. Rupaya
b. Dam
c. Dinar
d. Nishka

Review Questions
1. Describe the socio-religious situation during the Rig Vedic period.
2. Describe the political and economic conditions in the later Vedic period.
3. Write a paper on Vedic literature.
4. Give an account about Aryan’s original homeland.
5. Discuss how the nature of Aryan socio-economic and political aspects changed in the later
Vedic period.

Answers for Self-Assessment

1. A 2. B 3. A 4. C 5. B

6. D 7. B 8. D 9. C 10. A

11. D 12. A 13. B 14. C 15. D

Further Readings
• Allchin, B. and Allchin, R., The Birth of Indian Civilization, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press,1982.

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 Unit II: Vedic and Later Vedic Period:
• Basham, A.L., The Wonder that was India, London: Sidgwick & Jackson,1954.
• Bhan, S., ‗Aryanisation of the Indus Civilization ‘, pp. 41–55, in K. Panikkar et al. (eds),
The Making of History: Essays Presented to Irfan Habib, London: Anthem Press, 2002.
• Chakravarti, R., (ed.) Trade in Early India, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001.
• Chandra, A.N., The Rig-Vedic Culture and the Indus Civilisation, Calcutta: Ratna
Prakashan, 1980.
• Kochhar, R., The Vedic People: Their History and Geography, Hyderabad: Orient
Longman, 2000.
• Kosambi, D.D., The Culture and Civilisation of Ancient India in Historical Outline, 2nd
edn, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1965.
• Mishra, M., The Aryans and Vedic Culture, Delhi: Shipra, 2004.
• Smith, V., The Oxford History of India, 3rd edn, rev. P. Spear, Oxford: Oxford
University Press,1958.
• Thapar, R., Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300, London: Allen Lane,2002.

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