Biology Notes Form 1 4
Biology Notes Form 1 4
Biology Notes Form 1 4
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SECONDARY SCHOOL BIOLOGY NOTES
BIOLOGY FORM ONE NOTES
INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY
What is Biology?
Biology is the branch of science that deals with the study of living things. In Greek, Bios means life while
Logos means knowledge.
Branches of biology
There are two main branches:
1. Botany: Study of plants
2. Zoology: Study of animals
The others include:
1. Ecology: Study of living things in their surroundings.
2. Genetics: The study of inheritance and variation.
3. Entomology: Study of insects
4. Parasitology: Study of parasites
5. Taxonomy: Study of classification of organisms
6. Microbiology: Study of microscopic organisms
7. Anatomy: Study of structure of cells
8. Cytology: Study of cells
9. Biochemistry: Study of chemical changes inside living organisms
Name at least six other smaller branches of biology (6 marks).
Importance of Biology
1. Solving environmental problems e.g. Food shortage, poor health services, pollution, misuse of
environmental resources etc.
2. Choice of careers e.g. Medicine, Agriculture, public health, Veterinary, Animal husbandry,
Horticulture, Dentistry etc.
3. Acquiring scientific skills e.g. observing, identifying, recording, classification, measuring,
analyzing, evaluating etc.
4. International co-operation e.g. Development of HIV\AIDS vaccine, fight against severe Acute
respiratory Syndrome (SARS), fight to save ozone layer from depletion, management of resources
through international depletion.
Others
Help on study of other subjects
Learn what living things are made up of and their bodies work
Acquire knowledge about plant and animal diseases and their treatment.
Know the effects of our bodies on drug and substance abuse and can kill.
Learn about HIV\AIDS diseases and other viral diseases e.g. its treatment—balanced diets,
proper hygiene, spreading, sexual behavior, cultural practices etc.
List five professional occupations that require the study of biology. (5 marks)
Characteristics of living things;
1. Nutrition: Process by which living things acquire and utilize nutrients: plants photosynthesize;
animals feed on already manufactured foods.
2. Respiration: energy-producing process occurring in all the cells of living things.
3. Gaseous Exchange: where living things take in air (oxygen) and give out air(carbon iv oxide)
across respiratory surfaces.
4. Excretion: Process by which waste or harmful materials resulting from chemical reactions within
cells of living things are eliminated. Excess of such materials poison living things.
5. Growth and Development: Growth –is the irreversible increase in size and Mass.—Essential for
body function. Development –Irreversible change in complexity of the structure of living things.
6. Reproduction: Process by which living things give rise to new individuals of the same kind.
7. Irritability: Is the ability of living things to perceive changes in their surroundings and respond to
them appropriately. E.g. reaction to changes in temperature, humidity, light, pressure and to the
presence of certain chemicals.
8. Movement: Change in position by either a part or the whole living thing. Locomotion –
Progressive change in position by the whole living thing. In animals, movement include;
swimming, walking, running, flying. In plants, closing of leaves, folding of leaves, closing of
flowers, growing of shoots towards light etc.
Question
1. List four uses of energy obtained from the process of respiration. (4 marks).
2. List six characteristics of living things (6 marks).
Collection of specimens
Apparatus used
1. Sweep net: for catching flying insects.
2. Fish net: For trapping small fish and other small water animals.
3. Pooter:For sucking small animals from rock surfaces and tree barks.
4. Bait trap: For attracting and trapping small animals e.g. rats.
5. Pit fall trap: For catching crawling animals.
6. Pair of forceps: picking up small crawling animals e.g. stinging insects.
7. Specimen bottles: keeping collected specimen. Larger specimens require large bottles.
8. The magnifying lens: Instrument used to enlarge objects. Lenses are found in microscope
and the hand lens (magnifier). Its frame is marked e.g. x8 or x10—indicating how much
larger will be the image compared to object.
Precautions during Collection and Observation of specimens
Collect only the number of specimen you need.
Do not harm the specimens during the capture or collection exercise.
Handle dangerous or injurious specimens with care e.g. stinging plants or insects i.e. use
forceps or hand gloves.
The teacher will immobilize highly mobile animals. (diethyl ether, formalin, chloroform)
Do not destroy the natural habitat of the specimens.
Practical activity 2
Practical activity 3
Comparison between plants and animals
Plants Animals
1. Green in colour( have chlorophyll) 1. Lack chlorophyll thus feed on
readymade food.
2. Their cells have cellulose cell walls. 2. Cells lack cellulose cell walls.
3. Respond slowly to changes in the 3. Respond quickly.
environment.
4. Lack specialized excretory organs. 4. Have complex excretory organs.
5. Do not move about. 5. Move about in search of food and
water.
6. Growth occurs in shoot and root 6.Growth occurs in all body
tips.(apical growth) parts9intercalary growth).
Revision questions
CLASSIFICATION I
INTRODUCTION
Living things are also known as living organisms.
Organisms (forms of life) have distinguishing characteristics and therefore are grouped.
The Magnifying lens
-Is used for enlarging small objects.
(Diagram)
Practical activity 1
To collect and observe animal specimens
To collect and observe plant specimens
What is classification?
-Is an area of biology that deals with the grouping of living organisms according to their structure.
Organisms with similar structures are put under one group referred to as a taxon—taxa (plural).
The groupings also consider evolutionary relationships (phylogeny)—since all living organisms had a
common origin at one time.
Taxonomy—Science of classification.
Taxonomist—Biologist who studies taxonomy.
Need for classification.
Reasons
1. To identify living organisms into their correct groups for reference and study
2. To bring together living organisms with similar characteristics but separate those with different
features.
3. To arrange information of living organisms in an orderly manner. This avoids chaos and
confusion.
4. To understand the evolutionary relationship between different organisms
Taxonomic Units
Are groups (taxa) into which organisms are placed as a matter of convenience.
Groups are based on observable characteristics common in the group.
In a classification scheme (taxonomic units or groups, a hierarchy of groups are recognized starting with
the first largest and highest group; the Kingdom to the smallest and lowest unit; the species.
There are 7 major taxonomic units.
KINGDOM
PHYLUM/ DIVISION
CLASS
ORDER
FAMILY
GENUS
SPECIES
The Kingdom
There are five Kingdoms of living organisms, namely:
1. Kingdom Monera: bacteria
2. Kingdom protoctista: algae, protozoa, amoeba, paramecium
3. Kingdom Fungi: Moulds, Yeast, Mushrooms
4. Kingdom Plantae: Moss plants, ferns, maize, garden pea, pine, meru oak, bean etc.
5. Kingdom Animalia: hydra, tapeworms, bees, human beings etc.
A kingdom is divided into Phyla in animals or divisions in plants and sorts out organisms based on body
plan and form.
Plan is the adaptation to a special way of life.
The Class is further divided into small groups; Orders using structural features.
Orders are divided into families using structural features, then Families into Genera (singular genus) –
based on recent common ancestral features that are less adaptive.
Genus is divided into species i.e. kind of plant, or animal.
Down the hierarchy, the number of organisms in each group decreases but their similarities increases.
The Species group members naturally interbreed to produce fertile off springs.
Minor differences are exhibited in the species groups e.g. on colour of the skin in human beings and
varieties of plants.
The groups of the species are termed to as varieties, races or strains.
Classification of A human being and a maize plant
Taxonomic unit Human being maize bean
kingdom Animalia plantae plantae
Phylum or division Chordata Angiospermaphyta Angiospermae
class Mammalia monocotyledonae Dicotyledonae
order Primates Graminales Rosales
family Hominidae Graminaceae Leguminosae
genus homo zea Phaseolus
species sapiens mays Vulgaris
CLASSIFICATION 1
Review of the magnification lens
Calculating Magnification
External characteristics of plants and animals
Diversity of Living Organisms
Organisms with similar characteristics are placed under one group called taxon (taxa).
The science of classification is known as taxonomy.
Biologists who study taxonomy are called taxonomists.
Need For Classification
1. Help in identifying living organisms into their correct groups for reference.
2. It brings together organisms with similar characteristics and separates those with different features.
3. Help to organize information about living organisms in an orderly manner avoiding any confusion.
4. Help to understand the evolutionary relationship between different living organisms.
Historical Background of Classification
Long time ago classification was artificial where living things were classified as either plants or
animals.
Plants were classified as herbs, shrubs and trees.
Animals were further divided into carnivores, herbivores and omnivores.
Today modern classification uses evolutionary relationships between living organisms.
Taxonomic Units of Classification
This refers to the groups into which living organisms are placed in classification.
These units start from the first largest and highest group (kingdom) to the smallest and lowest unit
(species).
There are seven taxonomic units as shown below.
1. Kingdom
Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) initially introduced the two kingdom system of classification. However
many new life forms have been discovered which are neither animals nor plants. This has led to a more
accepted classification system that adopts five kingdoms. These are;
i.) Monera .eg bacteria
ii.) Protoctista e.g algae and protozoa
iii.) Fungi e.g. mushrooms, moulds and yeast.
iv.) Plantae e.g. maize, ferns and all types of trees.
v.) Animalia e.g. man, cow tapeworm, flies etc.
Kingdom is further divided into several phyla in animals or divisions in plants.
2. Phylum (phyla) or Division in plants.
It is the second largest and further divided into classes.
3. Class
Each class is divided into several orders.
4. Order
Orders are divided into smaller groups called families.
5. Family
Family is divided into several Genera.
6. Genus
Here members are closely related. It is further divided into the species.
7. Species
This is the smallest unit of classification.
Species is defined as a group of organisms whose members naturally interbreed to produce fertile
offspring’s.
Members of a given species have small differences such as skin colour, height etc.
Classification of Man and Maize plant. ( Table 2.1 Page 15 KLB Bk 1)
Scientific Naming of Living Organisms.
Today organisms are given two names in Latin language. This was developed by Carolus
Linnaeus.
Latin language was used because it was widely spoken during his time.
In scientific naming, an organism is given the genus and the species name.
This double naming system is known as Binomial system (two name System)
Binomial Nomenclature.
This is the double naming system of organisms where organisms are assigned two names i.e. the generic
name and the specific name.
Revision Questions
CELL PHYSIOLOGY
This is the study of the functions of cell structures.
Membrane Structure and Properties
A membrane is a surface structure which encloses the cell and organelles. Membranes regulate the
flow of materials into out of the cell or organelle.
Examples of membranes: cell membrane, tonoplast (membrane surrounding the vacuole), nuclear
membrane, mitochondrial membrane, chloroplast membrane etc.
The Cell Membrane
It has three layers, two protein layers and a phos-pholipid layer sandwiched in between the two.
Diagram
The difference in concentration of particles between the region of high concentration and the
region of low concentration is known as the diffusion gradient.
Role of Diffusion in Living Organisms
1. Absorption of Materials
Mineral salts in the soil enter the root by diffusion since their concentration in the soil is greater
than in the root hair cells.
Digested food (glucose and amino acids) diffuse across the wall of the ileum into the blood for
transport to rest of the body.
2. Gaseous Exchange in Plants and Animals
In both plants and animals, respiratory gases (oxygen and Carbon (IV) oxide) are exchanged
through simple diffusion depending on their concentration gradient.
3. Excretion of Nitrogenous Wastes
4. Transport of Manufactured Food form Leaves to other Plant Parts.
5.
Factors Affecting Diffusion
a) Diffusion Gradient
A greater diffusion gradient between two points increases the rate of diffusion.
b) Surface Area to Volume Ratio
The higher the ratio the greater the rate of diffusion and the lower the ratio the lower the rate.
This means that small organisms expose a large surface area to the surrounding compared to large
organisms.
Small organisms therefore depend on diffusion as a means of transport of foods, respiratory gases
and waste products.
Diagrams
c) Thickness of Membranes and Tissues
The thicker the membrane the lower the rate of diffusion because the distance covered by the
diffusing molecules is greater. The thinner the membrane, the faster the rate.
Size of the Molecules
Small and light molecules diffuse faster than large and heavy molecules.
d) Temperature
Increase in temperature increases the energy content in molecules causing them to move faster.
Osmosis
This is the process where solvent molecules (water) move from a lowly concentrated solution
(dilute) to a highly concentrated solution across a semi-permeable membrane.
Diagram fig 4.6
The highly concentrated solution is known as Hypertonic Solution.
The lowly concentrated solution is called Hypotonic solution.
Solution of the same concentration are said to be Isotonic.
Osmosis is a special type of diffusion because it involves the movement of solvent (water)
molecules from their region of high concentration to region of low concentration across a semi
permeable membrane.
Practical activity 2
Practical activity 3
Osmotic Pressure
This is the pressure which needs to be applied to a solution to prevent the inward flow of water
across a semi permeable membrane. This is the pressure needed to nullify osmosis.
Osmotic pressure is measured using the osmometer.
Osmotic Potential
This is the measure of the pressure a solution would develop to withdraw water molecules from
pure water when separated by a semi permeable membrane.
Practical Activity 4
Wilting
When plants lose water through evaporation and transpiration, cells lose turgidity, shrink and the
plant droops. This is called wilting.
If water supply from the soil is inadequate, plants do not recover hence permanent wilting.
Study Question 6
Role of Osmosis in Organisms
1. Absorption of water from the soil
Root hair cells of plants absorb water from the soil by osmosis.
2. Support
Cells of herbaceous plants, which are less woody, absorb water, become turgid hence support.
3. Opening and closing of the stomata
During the day, guard cells synthesize glucose, draw in water, become turgid hence open the
stomata.
During the night, they lose turgidity since there is no photosynthesis. As a result, they shrink
thus closing the stomata.
4. Feeding in insectivorous plants
These plants are able to change their turgor pressure on the leaves which close trapping insects
which are digested to provide the plant with nitrogen.
5. Osmoregulation
In the kidney tubules, water is reabsorbed back to the body by osmosis.
2. Tissues.
These are cells of a particular type that are grouped together to perform the same function.
Animal tissues include;
- Epithelial tissue – which is a thin continuous layer of cells for lining and protection of
internal and external surfaces.
- Skeletal – it is a bundle of elongated cells with fibres that can contract. Its contraction and
relaxation brings about movement.
- Blood tissue – this is a fluid containing red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. It
transports many substances and protects the body against infections.
- Connective tissue – made up of strong fibres that connect other tissues and organs holding
them together.
Plant tissues include:
- Epidermal tissue of a plant – this is a single layer of cells protecting the inner tissues of the
plant.
- Palisade tissue – this is a group of cells rich in chloroplasts containing chlorophyll. They
absorb light energy during photosynthesis.
- Parenchyma tissue – it is made thin walled irregularly shaped cells. They store water and
food.
- Vascular bundle – consists of the xylem and phloem. Xylem conducts water and mineral salts
while phloem conducts food substances.
3. Organs
Many tissues
become specialized
and grouped
together to perform
a functional unit
called the organ.
Examples of organs in plants include; roots, leaves, flowers and stem.
In animals they include heart, lungs, kidney, brain, stomach and the liver.
4. Organ systems.
This is made of several organs whose functions are coordinated and synchronized to realize an
effective action is called an organ system. Examples include; digestive, circulatory, excretory,
respiratory, reproductive and nervous system.
Revision Questions
MICROSCOPE
Microscope Parts & Function
Parts of the Microscope
1. Eyepiece Contains a magnifying
lens that focuses the image
from the objective into
your eye.
Practical Activity 1
Cell Structures as Seen Under the Light Microscope
The following cell organelles can be seen under the light microscope.
- Cell wall.
- Cell membrane
- Cytoplasm
- Nucleus
- Vacuole.
- Chloroplasts.
Diagrams- plant and animal cells
The Electron Microscope.
It is more powerful than the light microscope.
It can magnify up to 500,000 times and has high resolving power.
The high resolving power of the electron microscope enables it to separate objects which lie close
to one another.
Electron microscope uses a beam of electrons instead of light to illuminate the object.
Study Question 2
Practical Activity 2
Nutrition
This is the process by which organisms obtain and Assimilate nutrients.
There are two modes of nutrition; Autotrophism and Heterotrophism.
Autotrophism
This is where living organism manufacture its own complex food substances from simple
substances such as carbon (iv) oxide, water, light or chemical energy.
Where sunlight is used as a source of energy, the process is referred to as photosynthesis.
Photo means light while synthesis means to make.
Some none green plants make their own food using energy obtained from certain chemicals
through a process called chemosynthesis.
Organisms that make their own food are referred to as autotrophs.
Heterotrophism
This is where organisms take in complex food materials such as carbohydrates, proteins and fats
obtained from bodies of plants and animals.
Organisms that feed on already manufactured foods are called Heterotrophs.
Autotrophism
External Structure of a Leaf
A leaf is a flattened organ which is attached to the stem or a branch of a plant.
Diagrams
Parts of a leaf
Lamina: This is the flat surface. It is green in colour and contain the photosynthetic tissue.
Midrib: This is a thick structure running through the middle of the leaf
Veins: They arise from the midrib to forming an extensive network of veins.
Leaf Apex: This is the tip of the leaf and usually it is pointed.
Petiole: It attaches the leaf to the stem or branch.
In some monocotyledonous plants the leaves are attached to the stem by the leaf sheath.
Practical Activity 1: To examine the External Features of a Dicotyledonous and Monocotyledonous
leaf
Study Question 1
Internal Structure of a Leaf
Internal structure of the leaf is composed of the following parts.
i.) Cuticle.
It is a thin waterproof and transparent layer that coats the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf.
It reduces excess water loss and protects the inner tissue of the plant against mechanical injury.
It also prevents entry of disease causing micro organisms.
Since it is transparent, it allows penetration of light for photosynthesis.
ii.) Epidermis.
It is a one cell thick tissue on both the upper and lower leaf surfaces.
It secretes the cuticle and also protects the inner tissues from mechanical damage and prevents
entry of pathogens.
Epidermal cells have no chloroplast except the guard cells.
Guard cells are special bean shaped cells. They have chloroplast and are able to carry out
photosynthesis hence controlling the opening and closing of the stomata.
Air moves into and out of the leaf through the stomata.
iii.) Palisade layer.
This is layer of cells located beneath the upper epidermis.
It is made of cylindrical shaped cells closely packed together. They have numerous chloroplasts
containing chlorophyll.
Their position and arrangement enables them to receive maximum light.
iv.) Spongy Mesophyll Layer.
This is below the palisade layer. The cells are irregularly shaped and loosely packed creating
large air spaces in between them.
The air spaces allow gases to diffuse in between the cells. They contain fewer chloroplasts as
compared to the palisade cells.
v.) Leaf Veins.
Each vein is a vascular bundle consisting of xylem and phloem.
Xylem conducts water and mineral salts from the roots to the leaves while the phloem translocates
manufactured food from the leaves to the rest of the plant.
Study Question 2
Adaptations of
Leaves to
Photosynthesis.
1. Broad
and flat lamina to
increase surface
area of Carbon
(IV) oxide and sunlight absorption.
2. Thin transparent cuticle and upper epidermis; to allow easier penetration of light to photosynthetic
cells;
3. Thin; for faster diffusion of gases;
4. Palisade cells placed next to the upper surface; to trap maximum light for photosynthesis;
5. Palisade cells with numerous chloroplasts; to trap maximum amount of light for photosynthesis;
6. Large/ intercellular air spaces in the spongy mesophyll layer; for storage of Carbon (IV) oxide for
easier gaseous exchange;
7. Waxy water proof cuticle; to reduce water loss sand reflect excess light;
8. Leaf mosaic/ non-overlapping leaves; for maximum exposure to light;
9. Guard cells, modified cells to open and close stomata; to control amount of water loss from the
leaf and allows gaseous exchange;
10. Leaves have leaf veins; xylem to conduct water to photosynthetic cells, Phloem to translocate
products of photosynthesis to other parts of plant;
The Chloroplast
They are disc shaped organelles found in the cytoplasm of plant cells.
Each chloroplast has a double membrane; the inner and outer membrane.
Chloroplasts are made of layers of membranes called lamellae contained in a fluid matrix called
stroma.
Several lamellae come together to form the granum (grana).
Granum contains chlorophyll molecules and other photosynthetic pigments.
The stroma contains enzymes that speed up the rate of photosynthesis.
Rate of
Photosynthesis
Light intensity
ii.) Carbon (IV) oxide concentration
Increase in Carbon (IV) oxide concentration increases the rate of photosynthesis linearly up to a
certain level after which it slows down and levels off.
Rate of
Photosynthesis
iv.) Water
Plants need water for photosynthesis. Hydrogen atoms required in the dark stage during Carbon
(IV) oxide fixation are derived from water during photolysis.
Study Question 6
Practical Activity 4: To Investigate Factors Necessary for Photosynthesis.
a) Light
Study Question 7
b) Carbon (IV) oxide.
Study Question 8
c) Chlorophyll.
Study Question 9
Study Question 10
Practical Activity 5: To Investigate the Gas Produced During Photosynthesis.
Study Question 11
Chemical Compounds Which Constitute Living Organisms
Cells, tissues and organs are made of chemicals which are referred to as chemicals of life.
The study of chemical compounds found in living organisms and reactions in which they take part
is called Biochemistry.
Chemicals of life include carbohydrates, lipids and proteins.
a) Carbohydrates
They are compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio of 1:2:1 respectively.
Carbohydrates have a general formula of (CH2O)n where n represents the number of carbon atoms
in a molecule of carbohydrate.
Carbohydrates are divided into three groups; Monosaccharide’s, Disaccharides and
Polysaccharides.
i) Monosaccharides
They are the simplest carbohydrates and have a general chemical formula of (CH2O)n where n = 6.
Their chemical formular is therefore C6H12O6. They include; glucose, fructose, galactose etc.
Properties of Monosaccharides
i) They are soluble in water to form sweet tasting solutions.
ii) They are crystalissable.
iii) They have the reducing property where they reduce copper sulphate in Benedicts solution to
red copper (I) oxide.
Functions
i) They are oxidized to release energy during respiration.
ii) When condensed together, they form polysaccharides such as starch, cellulose or glycogen.
ii) Disaccharides
They are formed by linking two Monosaccharide molecules through the process of condensation
where a molecule of water is liberated.
Condensation
Monosaccharide + Monosaccharide Disaccharide + Water.
C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 C6H22O11 + H2 O
Examples
Glucose + Glucose Maltose +
Water.
Glucose + Fructose Sucrose + Water
Glucose + Galactose Lactose +
Water.
The type of disaccharide formed depends on the monosaccharide units that condense together.
Properties of Disaccharides
i) Soluble in water to form sweet tasting solutions
ii) They are non reducing sugars. Some such as the maltose can reduce copper sulphate in Benedict’s
solution when heated together and are therefore referred to as complex reducing sugars.
iii) They are readily broken into their constituent monosaccharide molecules in a process known as
Hydrolysis in the presence of water.
Hydrolysis
Disaccharide + Water Monosaccharide + Monosaccharide
C6H22O11 + H2 O Hydrolysis C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Sucrose + Water Hydrolysis Glucose + Fructose
Lactose + Water Hydrolysis Glucose +
Galactose
Maltose + Water Hydrolysis. Glucose + Glucose.
Naturally disaccharides are hydrolyzed by enzymes. In the laboratory, hydrolysis is achieved by
boiling them in dilute Hydrochloric acid.
Functions
They are hydrolyzed by enzymes into monosaccharide’s which are then oxidized to produce
energy.
iii) Polysaccharides.They are made of many monosaccharide molecules hence are long and more
complex.
They have a general formula of (C6H10O5) n; where the value of n is a very large number.
Examples of polysaccharides
i) Starch
It is present as stored food in plant tissues e.g. maize, wheat, potatoes, rice etc.
ii) Cellulose
This is the component of the cell wall in plants. Cellulose gives the plant cells their definite shape.
iii) Glycogen
This is the form in which carbohydrates are stored in animal tissues. Excess glucose is converted
into glycogen for storage in the liver.
Properties of Polysaccharides
i) All are insoluble in water.
ii) Do not have a sweet taste hence are referred to as non-sugars.
Study Question 12
Practical Activity 6: To Carry out Food Tests for Carbohydrates
i) Starch
ii) Reducing sugars
iii) Non Reducing Sugars
b)Lipids
These are the fats and oils. Fats are found in animals while oils are found in plants.
Oils are liquid while the fats are solid at room temperature.
They contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen just like the carbohydrates. However they contain
fewer number of oxygen atoms than in carbohydrates.
Lipids are made up of three fatty acid molecules and one molecule of Glycerol.
The nature of a lipid formed, depends on the fatty acids it contains. Glycerol remains the same in
all lipids.
Diagram
Complex lipids are formed through condensation of many lipid molecules just like in
carbohydrates.
Examples of complex lipids include; phospholipids, waxes, steroids and cholesterol.
Presence of lipids in a food sample is detected using the grease spot test or emulsion test.
Properties of Lipids
1. When fats are heated they change into liquid while oils solidify under low temperature.
2. Both fats and oils are insoluble in water. They however dissolve in organic solvents such as
alcohol to form emulsions and suspensions.
3. Lipids are inert hence can be stored in the tissues of organisms.
Functions of Lipids
i) Source of energy
They give almost twice as much energy as the Monosaccharides.
ii) Source of metabolic water
When oxidized, lipids release more water than Monosaccharides. Such water is referred to as
metabolic water.
iii) Structural compounds
Lipids are constituents of plasma membrane and protoplasm.
iv) Heat insulation
Fats are deposited under the skin of animals forming the adipose tissue which acts as a heat
insulator.
Mammals in the temperate regions have thick adipose tissue to greatly reduced heat loss.
Thick adipose tissue in aquatic animals helps them to be buoyant in water.
v) Protection
Fat is deposited around the major organs such as kidney, heart etc where they act as shock
absorber.
Wax in plant cuticles reduces excessive water loss.
Study Question 13
Practical Activity 7: testing for the Presence of Lipids
i) The Grease Spot
ii) The Emulsion Test
c) Proteins
Like carbohydrates and lipids, proteins are compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
In addition they contain nitrogen and sometimes phosphorous and sulphur.
Some proteins such as haemoglobin contain other elements such as iron.
Proteins are made up of small units called amino acids. There are about 20 different types of amino
acids.
All amino acids contain the amino group (-NH2) which consists of hydrogen and nitrogen.
Two amino acids combine to form a dipeptide molecule through the process of condensation.
The bond between two amino acids is called peptide Bond. Many amino acids join together to
form a long protein chain called polypeptide chain.
The type and sequence of amino acids contained in such a chain determine the uniqueness of the
protein being formed.
Properties of Proteins
i.) They dissolve in water to form colloidal suspensions (not true solutions) where particles remain
suspended in water.
ii.) They are denatured by temperatures above 40 0C. Heat alters the structure of the protein molecule.
Chemicals such as detergents, acids, bases and organic solvents also denature proteins.
iii.) They are amphoteric whereby they have both acidic and basic properties. This property enables
them to combine with non-protein compounds to form conjugated proteins such as mucus, and
haemoglobin. In mucus the non protein compound is a carbohydrate while in haemoglobin, iron is
a non protein.
Functions of Proteins
i.) Structural Functions
Proteins make the framework of living systems e.g. plasma membrane, connective tissues,
muscle fibres, hair, nails, hooves, skeletal materials etc.
ii.) Metabolic Regulators
These are divided into two
a) Enzymes
Enzymes are organic catalysts which speed up the rate of metabolic reactions such as
respiration, photosynthesis, digestion etc.
b) Hormones
They are chemical messengers which regulate many body processes such as growth,
reproduction, amount of sugars, salts and water in the blood etc.
iii.) Source of Energy
Under extreme starvation, proteins are broken down to release energy.
Study question 14
Practical Activity 8
To Test for Proteins
Enzymes
They are organic catalysts which are protein in nature. They speed up or slow down the rate of
chemical reactions in the body without themselves being used up.
They are divided into two;
a) Extracellular Enzymes
Extracellular enzymes are produced within the cells but are used outside the cells which
produce them e.g. the digestive enzymes.
b) Intracellular Enzymes
They are secreted and used within the cells which produce them e.g. the respiratory enzymes.
Excretion in Plants
Plants do not have complex organs for excretion because;
i. There is very little accumulation of toxic wastes such as nitrogenous wastes.
ii. Some waste products are re-used in the same plant such as Co2, oxygen and water.
iii. Some of these gases are removed by simple diffusion through the stomata and lenticels.
iv. Some plants store wastes in their tissues in non-toxic forms such as nicotine, caffeine, tannins,
resins, quinine, morphine etc.
Economic Importance of Plant Excretory Products
i. Tannins – They are deposited in dead tissues of wood and barks of trees e.g. in acacia and
wattle tree. Tannin is used to treat leather.
ii. Caffeine – it is stored in coffee berries and tea leaves. It is used as a stimulant.
iii. Quinine – it is stored in the leaves of aloe and bark of cinchona tree. It is used in the treatment
of malaria.
iv. Cocaine – it is obtained from the leaves of coca plant and is used as an anesthetic.
v. Cannabis – found in the leaves and flowers of Cannabis sativa (bhang). It is used to
manufacture some drugs.
vi. Nicotine – found in leaves of tobacco plant and is used in the manufacture of insecticides and
narcotic drugs. It also manufactures cigarettes.
vii. Rubber – it is made from latex of rubber plant. It is used in shoe industry and manufacture of
chewing gum.
viii. Colchicines – it is used in plant breeding and treating of cancer.
ix. Pappain- it is obtained from raw paw paw and it is used as a meat tenderizer.
x. Khat/miraa – it’s chewed and acts as a mild stimulant.
Excretion and Homeostasis in Unicellular Organisms
Most simple organisms such as the protozoa (amoeba and paramecium) live in aquatic
environment.
They depend mainly on diffusion as the means of excretion.
Their bodies have a large surface area to volume ratio providing a large surface area for gaseous
exchange and excretion to take place by simple diffusion.
Waste products diffuse from the cytoplasm where they are highly concentrated across the cell
membrane into the surrounding water where their concentration is low.
The organisms also use the contractile vacuole to achieve excretion.
Amoeba and paramecium live in an aquatic environment that is hypotonic to their body fluids.
Water therefore tends to move into their cytoplasm by osmosis.
The excess water and dissolved chemicals accumulate in the contractile vacuole which releases
them to the surrounding water.
Diagram
Excretion in Mammals
Mammals have an elaborate excretory system since their bodies are complex.
The main excretory organs in mammals include; lungs, skin, kidneys and the liver.
A Structure and Function of the Mammalian Skin
Skin is the largest body organ covering the whole body surface.
It has the following functions.
i. Protection of the underlying tissues from entry of micro-organisms, physical damage and ultra
violet rays from the sun.
ii. Regulation of body temperature.
iii. Excretion of salts, excess water and traces of urea.
iv. Reception of stimuli such as heat, cold, pain, touch and pressure.
v. Synthesis of vitamin D.
vi. Storage of fats.
Diagram
The skin is made up of two layers;
a) Epidermis (upper and outer layer)
b) The dermis (inner layer)
a) Epidermis (upper and outer layer)
It is made up of three other layers;
i. Cornfield layer.
ii. Granular layer.
iii. Malphigian layer.
i. Cornifield layer
The Cornifield layer of the epidermis consist of dead cells which form a tough outer coat; that
protects the skin against mechanical damage, bacterial infection and water loss;
ii. Granular layer
It’s the middle layer of the epidermis and is made up of living cells that give rise to the Cornifield
layer.
iii. Malphigian layer
Malphigian layer consists of actively dividing cells that contain fine granules of melanin; that
prevents the skin against ultraviolet light rays from the sun; melanin gives the skin its colour.
b) The Dermis (inner layer)
It is thicker than the epidermis and consists of the following structures;
1) Sebaceous glands produce an oily secretion sebum which give hair its water repelling property;
that keeps the epidermis supple and prevents it from dying
Sebum also prevents bacterial attack due to its antiseptic property;
2) Has blood vessels; that dilate and contract;
In hot conditions, they dilate; increasing blood flow near the skin surface enhancing blood flow
near the skin surface; minimizing heat loss;
Blood vessels supply nutrients and oxygen to skin tissues and also remove waste products and
carbon IV oxide.
3) Has Hair follicle ;hairs stand during cold weather thus trapping a layer of air which prevents heat
loss; In hot weather they lie close to the skin surface; to enhance heat loss to the atmosphere.
4) Have many sensory neurons which detects environmental changes; increasing sensitivity of the
skins.
5) Has subcutaneous layer; contains fat which acts as a heat-insulating layer and a fuel storage.
6) Lymphatic vessels; they drain excess tissue fluid.
7) Sweat glands; are involved in temperature regulation through loss of excess heat by the
evaporating water.
Sweat also excretes excess water, mineral salts, urea and lactic acid.
B The Lungs
They are involved with the removal of carbon VI oxide which is released by cells during their
metabolism.
Carbon IV oxide would be toxic if it was left to accumulate in the tissues.
C Structure and Function of the Kidney
Diagram fig. 4.3; generalized urinary system of a mammal (page 88 KLB)
Mammals have a pair of kidneys which are bean shaped and dark red in colour.
The kidneys are surrounded by a layer of fat which cushions them against mechanical injury.
Above each kidney are the adrenal glands which secrete hormones.
Renal artery supplies blood to the kidneys and the renal vein removes the blood.
Ureter transports urine from the kidney to the bladder which temporarily stores the urine.
The mammalian kidney has three distinct regions; cortex, medulla and pelvis.
Diagram fig. 4.4(a) and 4.4(b) (page 89 KLB)
Cortex
It is the outermost region and is dark red in colour.
Medulla
It is red in colour and extends to form conical structures called pyramids.
Pyramids open up into the pelvis.
Pelvis
It’s white in colour and narrows down to form the Ureter.
The human kidney contains urinary tubules called the nephrons.
Nephron
It is the basic functional unit of the kidney. Each nephron is made up two main parts;
Renal tubule
Glomerulus.
Diagram fig. 4.6. The structure of the kidney nephron
The renal tubule has 5 main parts.
1. Bowman’s capsule
2. Proximal convoluted tubule
3. Loop of Henle
4. Distal convoluted tubule
5. Collecting tubule
1. Bowman’s capsule
It is a thin walled and cup shaped structure which contains the glomeruli.
Glomerulus is a fine network of blood capillaries enclosed by the Bowman’s capsule.
It is made the afferent and efferent arterioles.
Blood entering the kidney via the renal artery is rich in nitrogenous wastes such as urea.
Also it has dissolved food substances, plasma proteins, mineral ions, hormones and oxygen.
Afferent arteriole entering the Glomerulus is wider than the efferent arteriole leaving it.
This creates extremely high pressure in the Glomerulus coupled with the fact that renal artery
branches directly from the aorta where blood is at high pressure.
Diagram: structure of the nephron
Due to the high pressure in the glomeruli, the liquid part of the blood and dissolved substances
of low molecular sizes including urea, glucose, salts and amino acids are forced out of the
Glomerulus into the cavity of the Bowman’s capsule.
The large sized molecules in the plasma such as proteins and blood cells are not filtered out.
This is because the capillary walls of the Glomerulus and bow mans capsule have very small
pores.
This process is known as ultra-filtration and the filtrate formed is called glomerular filtrate.
The filtrate then enters the proximal convoluted tubule.
Diagram of ultra-filtration at the Glomerulus
2. Proximal convoluted tubule
As the filtrate flows along the renal tubules, most of the filtered substances in the glomerular
filtrate useful to the body are selectively reabsorbed back into the blood.
The following substances are actively reabsorbed using energy in the proximal convoluted
tubule; All glucose, Amino acids and Mineral salts.
The proximal convoluted tubule is adapted in the following ways for efficient re-absorption of
these substances.
i) Presence of mitochondria in the cells lining to provide with energy required
ii) Cells of the tubule have micro-cilli (infoldings) which increase surface area for re-
absorption.
iii) Tubule is long and coiled to increase the surface area.
iv) Coiling of the tubule reduces the speed of flow of filtrate giving more time for efficient re-
absorption.
v) Tubule is well supplied with blood capillaries.
3. Loop of Henle
This is where particularly sodium chloride is actively reabsorbed into the blood.
Loop of Henle has counter current flow between the flow of filtrate and the flow of blood i.e.
the filtrate and blood flow in opposite directions.
The hormone Aldosterone secreted by the adrenal glands regulate the absorption of sodium
salts.
Low content of sodium salts in the blood stimulates adrenal glands to secret more Aldosterone
hormone and therefore more salts are reabsorbed from the filtrate.
4. Distal convoluted tubule
When the filtrate reaches here, some water is reabsorbed into the blood by osmosis.
This is made possible by the following;
- Active intake of sodium salt into the blood at the loop of Henle increases the osmotic
potential of the blood.
- The antidiuretic hormone (ADH) secreted by the pituitary gland. ADH increases the
permeability of the tubule and blood capillaries to water
When there is excess water in the body there is less production of ADH and less water is
reabsorbed hence production of large amounts of dilute urine.
If the body has lost a lot of water such as through sweating, this raises the osmotic pressure of
blood. Pituitary gland releases more ADH which increases permeability of the kidney tubules
to water. More water is reabsorbed hence production of little but concentrated urine.
The distal convoluted tubule has large surface area, it is has a wall that is one cell thick and is
surrounded by may blood capillaries.
5. Collecting tubule
The filtrate in the collecting tubule becomes the urine and moves to the collecting duct.
Urine flows into the pelvis via the pyramids and is finally emptied into the urinary bladder
through the ureter. About 1-2 litres of urine are formed in a day.
About 250ml of urine in the urinary bladder initiates the urge to urinate. The sphincter muscles
relax and urine pass.
Urine Composition
Substance % Composition.
Water 95%
Urea 2%
Uric acid 0.03%
Creatine 0.1%
Salts 1.4%
Ammonia 0.04%
Proteins 0%
Glucose 0%
The remaining carbon skeleton oxidized to carbon IV oxide and water; this process leads to
release of energy. The carbon skeleton may be converted to glucose to be used during
respiration;
2. Detoxification
Toxic substances are made harmless in the liver e.g.
Ammonia from the process of deamination is converted in the liver into urea; which is less
toxic.
Bacterial toxins are converted to less toxic substances by liver cells;
Hydrogen peroxide produced by respiring cells is broken down into water and oxygen which
are harmless by the enzyme catalase found in the liver.
Enzyme
Hydrogen Peroxide Water + Oxygen
(H2O2) Catalase (H2O) (O2)
3. Regulation of plasma proteins
The liver produces most of the proteins found in blood; fibrinogen and prothrombin which play
a role in blood clotting. Albumin and globulins are also produced by the liver. Globulins act as
antibodies;. Albumin contributes to the maintenance of osmotic pressure in the body; Non
essential amino acids are synthesized by the liver;
4. Storage of vitamins A, B,D,E and K and mineral salts
The liver store vitamins A, B, D, E and K. Iron released from the breakdownof erythrocytes is
stored in the liver cells; in the form of a compound called ferritin. The liver therefore is a good
source of these vitamins and iron;
5. Heat production (Thermoregulation)
The various metabolic activities of the liver lead to release of heat energy; This energy is
distributed by the blood to other parts of the body hence contributing to maintenance of
constant body temperature;
6. Inactivation of hormones and drugs
After performing their functions, hormones and drugs are chemically modified to inactive
compounds; The by-products are eliminated through the kidneys and faeces and via bile;
7. Storage of blood
The large size and high capacity for contraction and expansion of its veins enables the liver to
hold a large volume of blood; It therefore regulates the volume of blood in the general
circulation depending on the body’s requirements ;
8. Regulation of cholesterol and fat metabolism
When carbohydrates are in short supply in the body, fats in different parts of the body are
mobilized and taken to the liver; The fats are oxidized to carbon (IV) oxide and water with the
production of energy or modified and sent to tissues for oxidation;
9. Manufacture of red blood cells in foetus.
Liver Diseases and Disorders
1. Liver Cirrhosis
This is the hardening of the liver tissues due to death of liver cells.
This is caused by ingestion of toxic chemicals such as alcohol.
Bacteria, viruses and parasites such as liver flukes can also cause the disease.
Control
Avoid excess alcohol.
Avoid fatty diets.
Low salt intake
2. Hepatitis
This is a viral disease causing inflammation of the liver.
It is transmitted through contaminated food, milk and water.
There are two types of hepatitis; Hepatitis A and B.
3. Jaundice
This is characterized by the yellowing of the skin due to the failure of the liver to
excrete bile.
Homeostasis
This is the maintenance of internal environment of cells under constant Conditions E.g.
temperature, osmotic pressure, blood sugar and chemical constituents.
Principles of Homeostasis
Various body systems such as circulatory, excretory, endocrine (hormonal) and nervous
work in a coordinated way to bring about homeostasis.
These systems work on a feedback mechanisms. There are two types of feedback
mechanisms.
a) Negative Feedback Mechanism
When a factor in the body such as temperature or blood sugar level falls below normal or rises
above the normal, it is detected and corrected via the negative feedback mechanism.
Such an action is through:
i) An increase in the level if it is dropping
ii) A decrease in the level if it is increasing
This restores the condition to the normal.
Further Excess
Excess Corrective
Mechanism
(Negative
Feedback)
(Negative
feedback)
Corrective
Deficiency Mechanism
Positive feedback
Further deficiency
b) Positive Feedback Mechanism
In positive feedback mechanism, a change below or above the normal is not corrected.
The following are some of the factors regulated through homeostasis.
Temperature
Osmoregulation (water and salt balance)
Ionic content regulation
Blood sugar regulation
a) Temperature Regulation. (Thermoregulation)
Hypothalamus of the brain is the thermoregulatory center. It also controls other homeostatic
processes such as Osmoregulation, and blood sugar level.
Skin and Thermoregulation
The skin is adapted in the following ways to effect thermoregulation;
1. It has Hair shaft;
Connected to erector pili muscles;
In low Temperature Erector pili muscle contract raising hair shaft erect;
Hair traps air which insulates the body/poor conductor of heat.;
In high temperature, the Erector pili muscle relax and extends;
Hair shaft lies on the skin;
Little or no air is trapped;
Skin loses heat through convection /conduction /radiation ;
1. Blood vessels
In High temperature they vasodilate;
More blood flows near skin surface;
Heat is lost through conduction /convection/ radiation;
In Low temperature they Vasoconstrict;
Little blood flows near the skin;
Less heat or ho heat lost through conduction/convection/ radiation;
Diagrams
3) Sweat gland
In High temperature, Sweating occurs and ( evaporates) and Carries latent heat of vaporization;
cooling the body;
4) Has subcutaneous layer; contains fat which acts as a heat-insulating layer. Organisms in cold areas
have thick subcutaneous layer for heat insulation.
Homoiotherms and Poikilotherms
Homoiotherms (Endotherms)
They are the animals whose body temperature is maintained at a constant body temperature
despite the wide fluctuations in the temperature of the external environment e.g. birds and
mammals.
Poikilotherms (Ectotherms)
These are organisms with variable body temperature according to the temperature of the local
atmosphere e.g. in organisms such as reptiles, amphibians, insects, and fish.
Methods of Regulating Body Temperature in Animals.
i) Metabolic activities of the Body, such as shivering to raise body temperature.
ii) Insulatory mechanisms such as dilation or constriction of blood vessels, hair movement etc.
iii) Behavioral activities such as clustering together, burrowing, basking, hibernation, aestivation,
putting on warm clothes etc.
iv) Presence of adaptive features such as hair/fur, subcutaneous tissue etc.
Hibernation is where animals go into deep sleep for long period of time due to cold.
Aestivation is where animals go into deep sleep due to dry and harsh conditions.
Differences Between Homoiotherms and Poikilotherms.
Poikilotherms Homoiotherms
i) They are sluggish under cold i) They remain active even under cold
conditions. conditions.
ii) They hibernate to avoid death by ii) Only the small animals hibernate
freezing under very cold conditions. because they have large surface area
to volume ratio hence lose a lot of
heat.
iii) They aestivate under very hot iii) They do not aestivate because they
conditions. can maintain constant body
temperature.
iv) They are easy prey to predators due to iv) Not easy to prey because they active
their hibernation and aestivation. always.
v) Require less food because they get v) Require more food because they use
heat from the environment to warm it to generate heat for maintaining the
their bodies. temperature constant.
b) Osmoregulation (Water and Salt Balance).
The osmotic pressure of the body fluids must be kept at a constant so as to have a favourable
environment for the normal functioning of cells. This is determined by the relative amounts of
water and solutes (salts) in the body fluids.
If the osmotic pressure of these fluids falls below that of the cells, the cells take in water by
osmosis, swell and may burst.
If the osmotic pressure of thee fluids was higher than that of the cells, the cells would lose
water and shrink.
The hypothalamus and the Pituitary gland are involved in Osmoregulation in the following
ways;
i) When the osmotic pressure of the blood rises due to dehydration, the hypothalamus is
stimulated and sends an impulse to the pituitary gland which secretes the Antidiuretic
Hormone (ADH) or Vasopressin into the blood. ADH increases permeability of the kidney
tubules to water. More water is reabsorbed, osmotic pressure of the blood falls hence
production of little but concentrated urine.
ii) When osmotic pressure of the blood falls due to excess water in the body there is less
production of ADH and less water is reabsorbed hence production of large amounts of dilute
urine.
Diabetes Insipidus
This is a condition whereby large quantities of dilute urine are produced when the pituitary
gland fails to produce ADH or produces it in inadequate amounts. This condition is also known
as Diuresis.
c) Regulation of Ionic Content
Important ions must be regulated within narrow ranges for efficient functioning of the cells.
Ions are involved in processes such as respiration, protein synthesis, muscle contraction etc.
The level of sodium ions is regulated by a hormone called Aldosterone produced by the
adrenal glands.
When the level of sodium ions is low in the blood, more Aldosterone is released which
stimulates reabsorption of sodium ions into the blood.
If sodium ions concentration in the blood rises above the optimum level, adrenal glands
produce less Aldosterone into the blood and less amounts of sodium ions are reabsorbed.
d) Regulation of Blood Sugar Level.
All sugars such as galactose, lactose and fructose are converted to glucose.
Glucose is broken down to release energy and excess is converted into glycogen and stored in
the liver or converted into fats as stored as adipose tissue.
Some glucose flows in general circulation of blood and is maintained within a narrow range of
90-100mg per 100cm3 of blood.
The pancreas produces two hormones Insulin and Glucagon that are responsible for blood
sugar regulation.
When there is excess sugar in the blood, insulin is produced and regulates the blood sugar level
by the following;
i) Converts excess glucose into glycogen for storage.
ii) Inhibits conversion of glycogen to glucose.
iii) Converts glucose into fats.
iv) Increases breakdown of glucose to release energy.
When the level of the blood sugar falls, glucagon is secreted and corrects the situation by the
following;
i) Increases the breakdown of glycogen into glucose.
ii) Increases the conversion of fats and proteins into glucose.
iii) Inhibits the conversion of glucose into energy.
NB/. The hormone adrenaline produced by the adrenal glands also has homeostatic effect on glucose.
It is released during emergencies to avail glucose for fight or flight.
Diabetes Mellitus (Sugar Disease)
This is due to a deficiency in insulin secretion from the pancreas.
This leads to very high levels of sugar in the blood that cannot be utilised by cells hence
eliminated by kidney in urine.
Symptoms
Presence of glucose in urine
Loss of body weight due to breakdown of fats and proteins
Chronic starvation
Thirst sensation.
Control
Insulin injection into the blood stream
Avoid foods rich in sugars.
Avoid excessive intake of alcohol.
Question
Explain why insulin is not administered orally (through the mouth)
Revision questions
Gaseous Exchange
This is the process by which respiratory gases (oxygen and carbon IV oxide) are passed across the
respiratory surface.
Gases are exchanged depending on their concentration gradient.
In simple organisms such as amoeba, diffusion is enough to bring about gaseous exchange.
CO2 diffuses out into the surrounding water while oxygen diffuses from the water across the
plasma membrane into the amoeba.
Diagram
Importance of Gaseous Exchange
1. Promote oxygen intake for respiration.
2. Facilitate carbon IV oxide removal from the body as a metabolic waste product.
Gaseous Exchange in Plants
During the day, green plants take in carbon IV for photosynthesis.
Oxygen is given out as a byproduct of photosynthesis and is released into the atmosphere.
Examples of respiratory Surfaces in Plants
Stomata in leaves
Roots e.g. pneumatophores
Lenticels in woody stems
Structure and Function of the Stomata
They are tiny openings on the leaf surfaces. They are made up of two guard cells.
Guard cells are the only epidermal cells containing chloroplasts. They regulate the opening and
closing of the stomata.
Adaptations of Guard Cells
i) They are bean shaped/sausage shaped.
ii) Contain chloroplast hence can photosynthesize.
iii) Inner walls are thicker while outer wall is thin to facilitate the opening and closing of stomata.
Diagram
Mechanism of Opening and Closing of Stomata
There are three theories that try to explain how the stomata open and close.
i) Photosynthetic theory
ii) Starch Sugar inter-conversion Theory. (effect of changes in pH of guard cells)
iii) Potassium Ion Theory.
i) Photosynthetic theory
During the day, guard cells photosynthesize forming glucose.
This glucose increases the osmotic pressure in the guard cells.
Guard cells draw in water from the neighbouring epidermal cells and become turgid.
The stoma opens.
During the night, there is no photosynthesis due to absence of light.
Glucose is converted into starch lowering the osmotic pressure in the guard cells.
Guard cells lose water and become flaccid closing the stomata.
ii) Starch Sugar inter-conversion Theory. (effect of changes in pH of guard cells)
This is under the influence of pH in the guard cells.
During the day CO2 is used up during photosynthesis raising the pH in the guard cells.
In this high pH, enzymes convert more starch into glucose.
Osmotic pressure of the guard cells increases and water enters into them, making them turgid
hence opening the stomata.
During the night, there is no photosynthesis. The level of CO2 increases lowering the pH.
Enzymes become inactivated and starch is not converted into glucose.
Osmotic pressure of guard cells falls making them to lose water by osmosis.
Guard cells become flaccid and stoma closes.
Mechanism of Gaseous Exchange in Plants
Oxygen diffuses from the atmosphere where it is more concentrated into the plant.
CO2 diffuses out as a metabolic waste product along a concentration gradient into the atmosphere.
a) Gaseous Exchange through the Stomata
Stomata are modified in number of ways depending on the habitat of the plant.
Xerophytes: These are plants adapted to life in dry areas.
They have less number of stomata that are small in size.
Stomata may be sunken, hairy and in some they open during the night and close during the day.
Hydrophytes: These are the aquatic plants (water Plants)
They have many stomata that are large in size and mainly found on the upper leaf surface.
Hydrophytes have the aerenchyma tissue with large air spaces to store air for gaseous exchange.
Diagrams
Mesophytes: They are plants growing in areas with adequate amounts of water.
They have a fairly large number of stomata found on both leaf surfaces.
b) Gaseous Exchange through the Lenticels
They are openings found on woody stems and they are made of loosely packed cells.
They allow gaseous exchange between the inside of the plant and the outside by diffusion.
Actual gaseous exchange occurs on some moist cells under the lenticels.
Diagram
Different animals have different respiratory surfaces depending on the animal’s size, activity and
the environment in which it operates as shown below.
The respiratory surface is the basic unit of any breathing system upon which actual gaseous
exchange occurs by diffusion.
Respiratory surfaces have the following main characteristics.
i) Must have a large surface area.
ii) Must be moist to allow gases to diffuse in solution form.
iii) Have a dense network of blood capillaries for efficient gaseous exchange.
iv) Have a thin membrane to reduce the diffusion distance.
Gaseous Exchange in Insects
Insects have their gaseous exchange system made of many air tubes forming the tracheal system.
Tracheal system is made up of spiracles and Tracheoles.
Spiracles are external openings found on both sides of the abdomen and thorax.
Spiracles have valves to control their opening and closing. They also have hairs to prevent
excessive water loss from the body tissue.
Spiracles open into tubes called trachea. Trachea is reinforced with spiral bands of chitin to keep
them open.
Trachea subdivides into finer air tubes called Tracheoles. Tracheoles are in direct contact with
body tissues and organs and they supply individual cells with oxygen.
Tracheoles do not have bands of chitin and therefore they allow gaseous exchange across their thin
moist walls.
Diagram
Mechanism of Gaseous Exchange in the Tracheal System of an Insect
Air is drawn into and out of the tracheal system by muscular movement of the abdominal wall.
When spiracle valves are open, air is drawn into the tracheal system. The valves close and air is
forced along the system by muscle movement.
Oxygen diffuses into the tissue fluid and into the cells.
CO2 diffuses out of the cells and into the tissue fluid then into the tracheal system.
If the water and blood were flowing in the same direction, gaseous exchange will not be that
effective.
Where the oxygen is 50% in water, there is no concentration gradient because blood also has 50%
oxygen concentration.
Diagram
Mechanism of Gaseous Exchange in Amphibians
Amphibians live on both land and water and therefore exhibit the following methods of gaseous
exchange.
1. Gaseous exchange through the lining of the buccal cavity
2. Gaseous exchange through the lungs
3. Gaseous exchange through the skin
a) Gaseous exchange through the mouth (buccal) cavity
Air is taken in or expelled from the mouth cavity by raising and lowering of the floor mouth.
Lining of the mouth cavity is moist to dissolves oxygen.
There is a rich supply of blood capillaries under the lining of the mouth cavity. Oxygen diffuses
into the blood and is carried by haemoglobin to all parts of the body.
Carbon IV oxide from the tissues is brought by the blood to the mouth cavity where diffuses out.
Gaseous exchange through the lungs
The frog has two lungs which are connected to the buccal cavity.
T he inner lining of the lungs is moist, thin and is richly supplied with blood capillaries.
During inspiration, the floor of the mouth cavity is lowered and nostrils are open. Air rushes
through the open nostrils into the mouth cavity.
Nostrils close and the floor of the mouth cavity is raised. This reduces the volume and increase the
pressure in the mouth cavity forcing air into the lungs.
Carbon IV oxide from the tissues diffuse into the lung while the oxygen from the lungs diffuses
into the tissues.
Regulation of Breathing
This is controlled by a part of the brain called Medulla oblongata.
RESPIRATION
Process by which food substances are chemically broken down in living cells to release energy,
carbon (iv) oxide, water or alcohol.
Respiration takes place mainly in the mitochondria. It has two membranes, inner and outer.
Inner membrane is folded into projections called cristae. Cristae provide a large surface area for
respiratory enzymes. Respiratory enzymes are bound to the cristae.
Diagram
Practical Activity 1
To investigate the gas given off when food is burnt.
Types of Respiration
Aerobic Respiration
Anaerobic Respiration.
Aerobic Respiration
Process by which food substances such as glucose are broken down in the presence of oxygen to
release energy, water and carbon (IV) oxide.
The energy is stored in the form of a chemical substance called Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP).
This energy is released in small quantities since a lot of heat energy would burn the body cells.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (ATP)
Respiration takes place in two phases with each phase consisting of series of reactions.
Respiratory
First Phase (Glycolysis)
This takes place inEnzymes
the cell cytoplasm. Oxygen is not required in this stage.
Glucose is broken down into a 3 carbon compound called Pyruvic acid through a process called
glycolysis.
In glycolysis one molecule of glucose gives 2 molecules of ATP.
In absence of oxygen Pyruvic acid is broken down into lactic acid in animals and into alcohol
(ethanol) in plants.
Second phase (Krebs Cycle)
This takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria and involves a series of enzyme controlled
reactions that require oxygen.
Pyruvic acid formed in the first phase is oxidized by oxygen in a series of enzymatic reactions
(Krebs cycle) into energy, water and carbon (IV) oxide.
In this phase one molecule of glucose gives 38 molecules of ATP.
Respiratory Substrates
These are energy rich foods which when oxidized release energy. They include;
i. Carbohydrates –
They are the main source of energy mainly in the form of simple sugars such as glucose, fructose
and galactose.
They produce about 17KJ (2898/mole) per gram when completely oxidized.
ii. Fats –
They produce more energy than carbohydrates or proteins. One gram of fats yields about 38 KJ of
energy when completely oxidized.
They are however not the main substrate because they are not very soluble in water hence not
easily transported to the sites of respiration. It also requires more oxygen to oxidize one gram of
fats than one gram of glucose.
iii. Proteins –
They are not normally used in respiration unless in cases of extreme starvation.
One gram of proteins yields 22KJ of energy when completely oxidized.
Assignment
Where do plants and animals get the following from;
- Carbohydrates.
- Fats
- Proteins
Respiratory Quotient (RQ) and its Significance
RQ is the ratio showing the relationship between the amounts of carbon (iv) oxide used against the
amount of oxygen used in respiration.
RQ =
RQ varies with the type of substrate being oxidized. For example carbohydrates have a RQ of 1.0
when fully oxidized, fats have 0.7 and proteins have 0.9.
RQ can therefore be used to indicate the type of substrate being oxidized and also whether aerobic
respiration or anaerobic respiration is taking place.
RQ is also affected by factors such as age, health of the organism and the temperature.
Factors Affecting the Rate of Respiration
i. Oxygen concentration. When the amount of oxygen increases, the respiration rate also increases.
Decrease in oxygen concentration will lead to decreased respiration rate.
ii. Substrate concentration. Increase in sugar concentration increases respiration and vice versa.
iii. Hormones. Presence of some hormones such as adrenaline and thyroxine in the body increases
the rate of respiration.
iv. Surface area to volume ratio (Body size). If the SA/volume ratio is high, the organism would lose
more heat energy. As more heat is lost to the surrounding more is required to replace the lost
energy hence more respiration.
v. Age. Young people require more energy because their cells are actively dividing hence respiration
rate is higher in them than in older people.
vi. Occupation. People engaged in heavier tasks have higher rate of respiration.
vii. Sex. Generally male’s have faster respiration rate than females due to presence of more muscles in
their bodies.
viii. Basal metabolic rate. This is the energy required to maintain normal body functions such
breathing, heartbeat, blood circulation etc while at rest.
Revision Questions
ECOLOGY
Introduction
Ecology is the study of the interrelationships of organisms to each other and to their environment (biotic
and Abiotic factors).
Autecology; study of single species within a community and how it relates with both the biotic and
Abiotic factors.
Synecology. This is the study of many different species of organisms’ interacting among themselves
within an ecosystem.
Ecology helps to address the following issues.
Sustainable food production
Pollution control
Natural resources conservation
Pest and disease control
Population control
Eco-tourism
Prediction of adverse weather conditions
Concepts of ecology
Biosphere/ecosphere. This is the part of the earth and atmosphere inhabited by living organisms.
Habitat. This is a specific locality with a particular set of conditions where an organism lives.
Habitats can be terrestrial or aquatic.
Ecological niche. This is the position occupied by an organism in a habitat. It includes the physical
space where an organism is found and its role in the habitat.
Population. This refers to all members of a given species in particular habitat.
Community. This refers to all organisms belonging to different species interacting in the same
habitat. Many populations make up a community.
Ecosystem. This is a natural unit made of biotic and Abiotic factors whose interactions lead to a
self sustaining system. E.g. a tropical rain forest, a small pond etc.
Biomass. This is the total dry weight of living organisms at a particular Trophic (feeding) level or
per unit area.
Carrying capacity. This is the maximum number of organisms an area can comfortably support
without depletion of the available resources. E.g. the maximum number of cows a pasture land can
comfortably hold without overgrazing.
Study Question 1
Factors in an Ecosystem
Abiotic Factors
Light. This is required by plants and photosynthetic bacteria to manufacture food. The sun is the
source of light energy. Light intensity and quality (wavelength) affects the rate of photosynthesis,
flowering and germination in plants, while in animals it affects migration, hibernation and
reproduction. Light intensity is measured using a Photographic Light meter while a Seechi disc
measures light penetration in water.
Atmospheric pressure. Variation in atmospheric pressure affects the availability of oxygen and
carbon (IV) dioxide in the atmosphere. These two gases in turn affect the distribution of living
organisms. Low atmospheric pressure increases the rate of transpiration. Barometer is used to
measure it.
Humidity. This is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. It affects the rate of water loss
from plants and animals surfaces through transpiration and sweating respectively. The higher the
humidity the lower the rate of loss and vice versa. It is measured using the hygrometer.
Salinity. This refers to the salt concentration of the water. This divides the aquatic environment
into marine, estuarine and fresh water. Only organisms with adaptable osmoregulatory features
can comfortably occupy such habitats. In estuaries, there are fluctuations of salt concentrations at
different times. When the sea tide is low, the salt concentrations are low due to the greater diluting
effect of the fresh water being discharged. High tide raises the salt level. Estuarine organisms must
therefore be adapted to cope with such wide salt variations.
Wind. This is moving air. It increases the rate of water loss from organisms affecting their
distribution. It also influences rain formation. It helps in formation of sand dunes in deserts which
become habitats for the growth of deserts plants. Its an agent of seed and fruit dispersal
Temperature. This affects the distribution of organisms in any habitat. Very low temperature may
inactivate enzymes while very high temperatures denature them. Temperature varies due to
seasons, altitude, and latitude and diurnally in hot deserts.
pH (hydrogen ion concentration.)
This is the measure of acidity or alkalinity of water in aquatic habitats or soil solution. This
influences the distribution of plants and animals in soil and aquatic habitats. Different organisms have
different pH requirements. pH is determined using the pH meter.
Study Question 2
Practical Activity 1
Study Question 3
Biotic Inter-Relationships
Competition
Living organisms compete for resources such as nutrients, space, light and mates. There are two types of
competition.
i.) Inter-specific competition. This is the competition between individuals of different species for
the same resources. For example. An experiment6 was carried out on two closely related species
of paramecia- Paramecium caudatum and Paramecium aurelia. It was observed that when each
species is grown separately in controlled cultures with constant food supply, they show normal
population growth. When they are grown together in the same culture, thre is competition and
Paramecium caudatum is eliminated. See graphs.
However, closely related species can live together without competition. For example, when Paramecium
caudatum and Paramecium bursoria are grown in the same culture, there is no competition because each
species occupies a different part of the culture. Similarly, browsers and grazers can occupy same habitat
without competition because they feed at different levels of the same plants. For example, the zebras eat
the softer shoots, followed by the wild beasts, and the gazelles which eat the fibrous left over of the same
grass.
Study Question 4
ii.) Intra-specific competition. This is the competition between members of the same species for the
same resources.
When there is competition the best adapted organisms survive while the less adapted ones may die or be
forced to migrate.
Predation
This is the relationship where one organism kills another for food and feed on it either as a whole or a part
of it. The predator is the one which kills while the prey is the one being killed for food.
Predators have various adaptations to enable them to be efficient in capturing the prey. These include;
Sharp eyesight as in eagles, kites and hawk
Fast flight,
Modified beaks
Strong jaws with carnassial’s teeth as in leopards and lions.
Large claws on strong forelimbs.
Colour camouflage such as the spotted pattern of the leopard blends well with the background
colour of the bushes and trees.
Moving against the wind while stalking the prey. Preys also have structural and behavioural
adaptations. These include:
Swift movement e.g. the antelope and gazelle
Camouflage e.g. in gazelles and stripes of the zebra.
Large eyes on the sides of the head to giving them a wide field of view
Confrontational display in porcupine
NB/. When the number of the prey increases that of the predators also increases. An increase in the
number of predators leads to a decrease in the population of the prey. This decrease in prey population
leads to a fall in predator population which in turn gives space for the increase in the population of the
prey. This is the basis of biological control. See the graph below.
Parasitism
This is the relationship where an organism [parasite] obtains nutrients from another live organism
[host] without killing it. The parasite obtains food and shelter from the host causing some harmful effects.
Parasites may weaken the host and also transmit diseases which may kill their host thus reducing their
number an d distribution. There are two types of parasites;
Ecto-parasites
Endo-parasites
Study Question 5
Symbiosis
This is an association between two of different species in which both benefit. For example the association
of colon bacteria with humans and other animals, especially plant-eating animals, the ox-pecker bird and
the ox etc.
The Rhizobium bacteria help the leguminous plants to fix nitrogen while the bacteria obtain shelter and
carbohydrates from the plants.
Diagram
Saprophytism
This is where organisms obtain nutrients from dead organisms causing decomposition hence releasing
nutrients into the ecosystem. Saprophytes include the bacteria and fungi.
The Nitrogen Cycle
This refers to the cycling of nitrogen and its compounds in the natural environment.
Although nitrogen is abundant in the atmosphere as nitrogen gas, it cannot be utilised by plants. It
has to be converted into a form that can be absorbed by plants through a process called nitrogen
fixation.
Nitrogen fixation is done in two ways;
Biological fixation. This can occur in two forms
1. Nitrogen fixation by symbiotic bacteria such as Rhizobium spp. They are found in the
root nodules of legumes. They convert nitrogen gas into ammonia which is then converted
into nitrates for plant utilisation.
2. Nitrogen fixation by free living bacteria e.g. Clostridium, Azotobacter, and some algae
such as Anabaena, chlorella and Nostoc.
Non-Biological nitrogen fixation. This is done by lightning. During thunderstorms, lightning
energy combines atmospheric nitrogen gas with oxygen to form nitrous and nitric acid. These are
then converted into nitrates.
Plants absorb nitrates and convert them into plant proteins. Animals feed on these plants and
obtain the proteins. They are then digested into amino acids and become assimilated into animal
proteins.
When living organisms die, saprophytic bacteria and fungi break down the proteins in their bodies
into ammonia. Nitrifying bacteria convert this ammonia into nitrates thorough a process called
nitrification. Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus convert ammonia into nitrites and Nitrobacter
convert nitrites into Nitrates.
Some soil micro organisms such as Pseudomonas denitrificans & Thiobacillus denitrificans
utilise the oxygen in the nitrates reducing it to nitrites, ammonia and eventually into nitrogen gas.
This is called de-nitrification.
This reduces the amount of nitrogen available to plants but it frees the nitrogen so that it becomes
available for the cycle to continue.
Diagram
Practical activity 2
Study question 6
Pyramid of Biomass
Biomass of an organism is its constant dry weight. In an ecosystem, the producers have the highest
biomass followed in decreasing order by primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary consumers.
Study Question 10
Practical activity 3
Study Question 11
Population
Populations change in size, structure and organisation.
Characteristics of a population.
Density. This is the number of individuals per unit area. E.g. 50 gazelles per Km2.
Dispersion. This is the distribution or spread of organisms in a habitat.
Population growth. This refers to the rate of increase in numbers.
Population Estimation Methods
Usually a representative sample is used to estimate the population of organism in a big habitat. A sample
is a small number of individuals taken from the habitat that is a representative of the whole population.
The following methods are used when sampling.
Quadrat method.
Line transect.
Belt transect.
Capture-recapture method.
Adaptations of plants to various Habitats
An adaptation is a change to suit environment: the development of physical, physiological or
behavioural characteristics that allow organisms to survive and reproduce in their habitats. There are four
main groups of plants namely;
Xerophytes.
Mesophytes.
Hydrophytes.
Halophytes.
Xerophytes
These are plants adapted to survive in the dry habitats. These habitats have the following characteristics.
i.) Unpredictable and poorly distributed rainfall between 250-350mm per year.
ii.) Very high day temperatures and very low night temperatures hence high diurnal temperature
range.
iii.) They are very windy.
iv.) Low humidity.
Adaptations of Xerophytes
i.) Shedding of leaves during the dry season to reduce the surface exposed to transpiration.
ii.) Reduced leaves in size such as in pine or modified into spines as in cactus. This reduces the
surface area over which transpiration occurs.
iii.) Leaves have a thick waxy cuticle to reduce the rate of transpiration.
iv.) Some store water in large parenchyma cells contained in succulent stems and leaves.
v.) Some have reversed stomatal rhythm.
vi.) Sunken stomata
vii.) Folded leaves reduced the surface area.
viii.) Reduced number of stomata
ix.) Some have deep roots to absorb water from deep in the soil. Others have superficial roots growing
horizontally close to the surface to absorb water after a light
Mesophytes
These are plants growing in well watered areas. Such habitats have the following general characteristics.
Adequate rainfall; 950-1800mm that is well distributed throughout the year.
Relatively high humidity
Thick clouds
Moderate to high temperatures
Shallow water table
Less windy
Adaptations of Mesophytes
They show various adaptations depending on where they grow. Some of these adaptations are for
reduction of water loss, others for increased water, loss and some are also adapted to light conditions.
Forest Ecosystem
i.) Vegetation grows fast to compete for light.
ii.) Trees grow very tall to compete for light.
iii.) Some develop buttress roots or prop roots for extra support such as the Ficus natalensis.
iv.) Climbers such as lianas support themselves on stems of tall trees to reach light.
v.) Epiphytes support themselves on the branches of tall trees.
vi.) Others are adapted to carry out photosynthesis under low light intensity by having many
chloroplasts that are sensitive to low light intensity.
vii.) They show leaf mosaic pattern to minimise overlapping enhancing trapping of light for
photosynthesis.
Those in areas with a lot of water have broad leaves, thin cuticle and many stomata on both
surfaces to encourage high rate of transpiration.
Those in dry areas have waxy and shiny cuticle to reflect light. Others are deep rooted to obtain
water from deep in the soil.
Hydrophytes
These are plants growing in fresh water either partially or wholly. Such habitats have the following
general characteristics.
Low concentration of dissolved gases such as oxygen
Presence of waves and currents
Inadequate light in water
Adaptations of hydrophytes
i.) Broad leaves with maximum number of stomata on upper leaf surface providing a large surface are
for transpiration.
ii.) They have a large air filled tissue called aerenchyma tissue. The air reduces the density hence
creating buoyancy to the plants and also aids in gaseous exchange.
iii.) Submerged ones have dissected leaves to offer large surface area for light absorption required
during photosynthesis.
iv.) They have chloroplasts sensitive to low light intensity.
v.) They have poorly developed leaves and lack the root hairs to reduce water absorption
vi.) Flowers are raised above the water to allow for pollination.
Diagrams
Halophytes
These are plants which are able to tolerate very salty conditions in soil and marine water. Such habitats
have the following general characteristics.
High concentration of mineral salts
Low concentration of dissolved gases
Low light intensity in marine water
Presence of waves and currents in marine water
Adaptations of Halophytes
i.) They root cells which concentrate a lot of salts to enable them to absorb water by osmosis.
ii.) Some have salt glands that secrete excess salts.
iii.) Many have water storage tissues.
iv.) Some like the mangroves have breathing roots called pneumatophores. These rise above the water
surface to obtain oxygen from the atmosphere.
v.) Mangroves growing on mud flats have buttress roots for support.
vi.) Submerged halophytes are adapted to photosynthesise under low light intensity.
vii.) Their fruits are adapted for dispersal by having aerenchymatous tissue for air storage to make
them buoyant.
CLASSIFICATION II
Classification, in biology is the identification, naming, and grouping of organisms into a formal system
based on similarities such as internal and external anatomy, physiological functions, genetic makeup, or
evolutionary history.
Study Question 1
General Principles of Classification
Organisms that have similar and common features are grouped together while those that have different
features are grouped separately.
Taxonomy is the study of grouping of organisms according to their relationship. There are seven major
taxonomic units (taxa).
Kingdom
Phylum (phyla) or Division in plants
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
As you move from the kingdom to the species the differences decrease as the similarities increases.
Species is a group of organisms that can freely interbreed to give rise to viable/fertile offsprings.
Sometime members of different species may interbreed to give an offspring which is sterile. E.g. a donkey
and a horse can interbreed to give rise to a mule which is infertile.
Binomial Nomenclature
This is the double naming system of organisms where organisms are assigned two names i.e. the generic
name and the specific name.
Examples
In binomial nomenclature the following rules are observed.
v.) Generic name is written first followed by the specific name.
vi.) First letter in the generic name is in capital and the rest are in small letters.
vii.) Specific name is written in small letters.
viii.) The two names are underlined separately when handwritten or italicised when printed.
Study Question 2
The Five Kingdoms of Classification
Carolus Linnaeus initially introduced the two kingdom system of classification. However many new life
forms have been discovered which are neither animals nor plants. This has led to a more accepted
classification system that adopts five kingdoms. These are;
Monera
Protoctista
Fungi
Plantae
Animalia.
Fig. 1.2
1. Kingdom Monera
The kingdom is made up of mainly the bacteria e.g. nitrobacter, azotobacter. Vibrio cholerae etc.
General characteristics
i.) They are unicellular and microscopic. Some are single cells while others are in colonies. They
have different body shapes.
Fig. 1.4
ii.) Most are heterotrophic, feeding either saprophytically or parasitically. Some are autotrophic.
iii.) They are prokaryotic i.e. their nuclear material is not enclosed by a nuclear membrane.
iv.) They have few organelles which are not membrane bound. They don’t have mitochondria.
v.) They have a cell wall though not made of cellulose.
vi.) They reproduce asexually mainly through binary fission.
vii.) Most of them respire an-aerobically but some respire aerobically.
viii.) Most of them move by use of flagella.
Diagrams
Study question 3
2. Kingdom Protoctista
Examples include paramecium, amoeba, plasmodium, chlamydomonas, euglena, spirogyra, and
trypanosome.
General characteristics
i.) They are eukaryotic whereby their nuclei is bound by a nuclear membrane.
ii.) Some are heterotrophic while others are autotrophic.
iii.) They have may organelles including mitochondria all of which are membrane bound.
iv.) They have different body forms; some are unicellular or colonial while others are multicellular.
v.) Reproduction is mainly asexual by fission, fragmentation or sporulation. Some reproduce sexually
by conjugation.
vi.) They are mobile and move by means of cilia, flagella or pseudopodia.
vii.) Some may have specialised structures that perform specific functions such as contractile vacuole
for osmoregulation.
Diagrams
3. Kingdom Fungi
Examples
Saprophytic ones include mushrooms, toadstools, bread moulds, penicilia, yeast etc.
Parasitic ones cause plant diseases such as wheat rust, potato and tomato blight and animal diseases such
as athlete’s foot and ringworm.
Practical Activities 3
General characteristics
i.) They are eukaryotic.
ii.) Most have cell walls made of chitin but a few have cellulose cell walls.
iii.) They store food particles in their cytoplasm in the form of glycogen or oil droplets but not starch.
iv.) The basic unit is the hyphae. Hyphae are thin filaments and many of them make up structures
called mycelium.
v.) Fungi have neither the chloroplasts nor the chlorophyll. They feed on already manufactured food.
Hyphae act as the roots and are sent into the food material to obtain nutrients. In saprophytic fungi
the hyphae are referred to as rhizoids and in parasitic ones as haustoria.
vi.) They reproduce sexually (fusion of nuclei in hyphal branches) and asexually (spores and budding).
Examples
Study Question 4
4. Kingdom Plantae
Study question 5
General Characteristics
i.) They are eukaryotic and multicellular.
ii.) In most their body is differentiated into leaves, stem and roots.
iii.) They reproduce both sexually and asexually.
iv.) Their cells have cellulose cell walls
v.) They have photosynthetic pigment hence are autotrophic.
vi.) Majority have a transport system
vii.) They show alternation of generation.
A. Division Bryophyta
These are the mosses and the liverworts.
General Characteristics
i.) The lack the vascular system
ii.) Contain chlorophyll and are therefore photosynthetic.
iii.) They have rhizoids for anchorage and water and mineral salts absorption.
iv.) They show alternation of generations.
v.) Fertilisation depends of availability of water. Male gametes are produced by the antheridia and
female gametes by the archegonia.
vi.) They grow on damp substratum such as walls, rocks and marshes.
vii.) They are thalloid as in liverworts or differentiated into simple leaf like and stem like structures as
in mosses.
Diagrams.
B. Division Pteridophyta
This includes ferns and horsetails.
They are more advanced compared to the bryophytes.
General Characteristics
i.) They have leaves, stems and roots but no flowers.
ii.) They are photosynthetic.
iii.) They have a clearly defined vascular system made of xylem and phloem.
iv.) They have compound leaves with leaflets called pinna.
v.) On the lower side of mature leaves are the spores bearing structures (sporangia) which occur in
groups called sori (sorus-singular). see diagram.
vi.) They show alternation of generations where the sporophyte (fern plant) is the dominant one while
the gametophyte is a heart shaped structure called Prothallus. See diagram.
vii.) They have sexual reproduction which is dependent of water.
Study Question 6
Practical Activity 4
Study Question 7
Practical Activity 5
C. Division Spermatophyta
This comprises of all the seed bearing plants.
General Characteristics
i.) They contain chloroplasts hence are photosynthetic.
ii.) The plant body is differentiated into roots, stems, leaves and seed bearing structures.
iii.) Vascular system is highly developed with xylem tissue consisting of both xylem vessels and
tracheids.
iv.) Sexual reproduction is well defined.
v.) Seeds are produced after fertilisation.
vi.) They show alternation of generation.
The division Spermatophyta is made up of two main subdivisions i.e.
Gymnospermaphyta
Angiospermaphyta
Gymnospermaphyta
General Characteristics
They bear male and female cones.
After fertilisation seeds are borne on the female cones and they are naked i.e. they are not enclosed
in a fruit wall.
They show xerophytic characteristics such as needle like leaves, rolled leaves, thick waxy cuticle
and sunken stomata.
Phloem doesn’t contain companion cells and xylem mainly consists of tracheids.
Study question 8
Practical activity 6
ix.) Kingdom Animalia
Study Question 9
General characteristics
i.) Most show locomotion but a few are sessile
ii.) Most reproduce sexually and a few asexually
iii.) They are eukaryotic and multicellular
iv.) All are heterotrophic
v.) Their cells have no cell walls
Kingdom Animalia has nine phyla but only two will be discussed i.e. Arthropoda and chordata.
Phylum Arthropoda
Practical Activity 7
General Characteristics
i.) They are segmented.
ii.) They are bilaterally symmetrical.
iii.) They have open circulatory system where blood flows in open cavities called haemocoel.
iv.) Head is well developed with eyes, sensory structures and a fairly developed brain.
v.) Gaseous exchange is through the tracheal system which opens through the spiracles to the outside.
Some aquatic ones use gills.
vi.) Reproduction is mostly sexual with internal fertilization. They have different sexes.
vii.) They have jointed appendages hence the name arthropoda.
viii.) They have a body covered with exoskeleton made of chitin. This provides a surface for muscle
attachment. It is shed periodically to allow growth through a process called moulting.
ix.) Most have their body divided into head, thorax and abdomen. In some, the head and the thorax are
fused to form Cephalothorax. The thorax and the abdomen are all segmented.
The phylum arthropoda is divided into five classes.
Crustacea
Chilopoda
Diplopoda
Arachnida.
Insecta.
Different members of the phylum are placed to their respective classes based on;
Number of limbs
Presence and number of antennae
Number of body parts.
1. Class Crustacea
Examples. Daphnia, crayfish. Crab and prawn.
General Characteristics
i.) Head and thorax are fused to form cephalothorax.
ii.) They have two pairs of antennae.
iii.) They have between five and twenty pairs of limbs modified for different functions e.g. locomotion
defence and feeding.
iv.) They have a pair of compound eyes.
v.) Gaseous exchange is through the gills.
vi.) They have three pairs of mouth parts made of one pair of mandibles (lower) and two pairs of
maxillae (upper).
2. Class Chilopoda
These are the centipedes.
Diagram
General Characteristics
i.) Body is divided into two parts, the head and the trunk.
ii.) The body is dorsa-ventrally flattened.
iii.) Body is made up of 15 or more segments.
iv.) Head has a pair of simple eyes.
v.) Each segment has a pair of walking legs.
vi.) Head has a pair of antennae.
vii.) Have poison claws n the head and are therefore carnivorous.
viii.) Have a tracheal system for gaseous exchange.
ix.) Have separate sexes.
3. Class Diplopoda
These are the millipedes.
Diagram
General Characteristics
i.) They have cylindrical body.
ii.) Have three body parts, head, and thorax and body trunk.
iii.) They have two clumps of many simple eyes.
iv.) They have no poison claws and are therefore herbivorous.
v.) Heads has a pair of short antennae and mandibles.
vi.) Each body segment has a pair of spiracles for breathing.
vii.) Body has between 9-100 segments.
viii.) Each segment has two pairs of walking legs except the first thoracic segment.
4. Class Arachnida
These include the scorpions, spiders, ticks and mites.
Diagrams
General Characteristics
i.) Body has two parts, cephalothorax and abdomen.
ii.) Cephalothorax has two chelicerae which produce poison to paralyse the prey.
iii.) Cephalothorax has four pairs of walking legs each having seven joints.
iv.) At the end of each leg are two toothed claws.
v.) Cephalothorax has eight simple eyes.
vi.) Most have lung books for gaseous exchange, some use gill books or tracheal system.
vii.) They have no antennae but have a pair of pedipalps which are sensitive to touch.
5. Class Insecta
They include grasshoppers, bees, houseflies, butterflies, termites, beetles etc.
Insects form half the population of animals on earth. They occupy all habitats i.e. air, water, and land.
Their food is varied such as plant tissues, animal fluids, dead animals and excretions of animals making
them to be found almost everywhere on earth.
General Characteristics
i.) Body is divided into three parts, head, thorax and abdomen.
ii.) Thorax is made up of three segments with three pairs of legs. Some have one or two pairs of wings
on the thorax.
iii.) Head has one pair of antennae.
iv.) They undergo complete or incomplete metamorphosis.
v.) Excretion is through the malpighian tubules which remove uric acid.
vi.) Gaseous exchange is through the tracheal system but they breathe through the spiracles.
vii.) The head a pair of compound eyes and several simple eyes.
viii.) Abdomen is made up of 11 or fewer segments. The terminal segments are modified for
reproduction.
ix.) Mouth parts consist of the mandibles, maxillae and labium. The mouth parts are modified
according to their feeding habits such as sucking, biting, chewing etc.
Assignment
Discuss the economic importance of arthropods.
Study Question 10
Practical Activity
Phylum Chordata
Chordate, common name for animals of the phylum Chordata, which includes vertebrates as well as some
invertebrates that possess, at least for some time in their lives, a stiff rod called a notochord lying above
the gut. About 43,700 living species are known, making the chordates the third largest animal phylum.
In animals such as the Amphioxus the notochord persists but in others it is replaced at later stages of
development by the vertebral column.
Members in this phylum inhabit both aquatic (marine and fresh water) and terrestrial (burrowers and
arboreal) environments.
General Characteristics
i.) Members have a notochord at some stage of their development.
ii.) They are bilaterally symmetrical.
iii.) Heart is ventrally placed. Blood flows from the heart through the arteries and gets back to the heart
through the veins.
iv.) They have a post anal tail although it is greatly reduced in some.
v.) They have an endoskeleton.
vi.) They have a closed circulatory system.
vii.) They have visceral clefts where in fish they become the gills in higher chordates they are only
present in the embryo.
viii.) They have a tubular dorsal nerve cord. It develops anteriorly into brain and posteriorly as the
spinal cord. Spinal cord is enclosed by the vertebral column.
ix.) They have segmented muscle blocks called myotomes on either side of the body.
The main classes of the phylum chordata are;
Pisces
Amphibia
Reptilia.
Aves.
Mammalia
Pisces
Diagram
These are the fishes. They include those with a skeleton made of cartilage e.g. shark and those with a bony
skeleton such as the tilapia, Nile perch, lung fish, dog fish, and cat fish etc.
General Characteristics
i.) The move by fins
ii.) Bodies are covered with scales
iii.) Have gills for gaseous exchange in water.
iv.) They don’t have a middle or inner ear.
v.) They have streamlined bodies.
vi.) They have a lateral line for sensitivity.
vii.) Their heart has two main chambers i.e. the auricle and the ventricle.
viii.) They are poikilothermic/ectothermic.
ix.) Eyes are covered by a nictating membrane.
Amphibia
They include the toads, newts, salamanders and frogs.
The toad is the most advanced amphibian. Its skin is less moist and therefore uses the lungs more for
gaseous exchange. They therefore stay mostly on land and only return to the ponds during reproduction.
Diagrams
General Characteristics
i.) They have a double circulatory system.
ii.) They have a three chambered heart with two atria and one ventricle.
iii.) Fertilisation is external and they breed in water.
iv.) Gaseous exchange is through the skin, lungs and gills.
v.) They have two eyes and an eardrum behind the eyes.
vi.) They are ectothermic.
vii.) They have 4 well developed limbs. The hind limbs are more muscular than the forelimbs.
Reptilia
Examples include tortoise, turtles, snakes, crocodiles, lizards and chameleons.
General Characteristics
i.) They are ectothermic.
ii.) They have a well developed lung for gaseous exchange.
iii.) They have double circulatory system with the heart having three chambers i.e. two atria and a
partially divided ventricle. Crocodiles however have a four chambered heart.
iv.) The body is covered with a dry scaly skin reducing desiccation.
v.) Some have four limbs while others don’t have any limbs such as the snakes.
vi.) Fertilisation is internal. They lay eggs with a leathery shell to avoid desiccation. Some species of
chameleons give birth to young ones.
Aves
Examples include doves, chicken, hawks, eagles and turkeys.
They are terrestrial and arboreal while some have been adapted for aquatic life.
General Characteristics
i.) Bodies are covered with feathers for in insulation.
ii.) They have beaks.
iii.) They internal auditory canal/ meatus
iv.) Fertilisation is internal and they lay hard calcareous eggs.
v.) They have lungs for gaseous exchange.
vi.) They have air sacs which store air in them reducing their body density for flight.
vii.) They are endothermic.
viii.) They have hollow bones.
ix.) They have scales on their hind limbs.
x.) They have double circulatory system with a four chambered heart.
xi.) The sternum is enlarged to form keel for attachment of flight muscles.
Mammalia
Study Question 11
Some are arboreal such as the tree squirrels, and some monkeys.
Some are terrestrial either on the surface of the earth or in tunnels.
Some are aquatic such as the dolphins and whales.
General Characteristics
i.) They have double circulatory system
ii.) They have mammary glands hence the name Mammalia.
iii.) Their body is usually covered with fur or hair.
iv.) They have two eternal ears (pinna)
v.) They have sweat glands.
vi.) They have lungs for gaseous exchange.
vii.) They have four limbs.
viii.) They have a diaphragm which separates the body cavity into thoracic and abdominal cavities..
ix.) The brain is highly developed.
x.) They have seven cervical vertebrae at their neck.
xi.) They are endothermic.
xii.) They have heterodont type of dentition where the teeth are differentiated into four types, incisors,
canines, pre-molars and molars. The number varies in relation to feeding habits.
Although most mammals give birth to live young ones, some are egg laying such as the duck
billed platypus. After hatching, the young ones are fed on milk.
Practical Activity 9
Practical Activity 10.
Leaf Phylotaxy
Leaf type
Leaf venation
Margin
Lamina
Colour
Flower Inflorescence
Flower shape
Number of floral
Stem Type of stem( woody, herbaceous or fleshy)
Shape (rectangular or cylindrical)
Texture of the stem (smooth or spiny/thorny)
Roots Root system (taproot or fibrous)
Storage roots.
Asexual Reproduction
This is the production of offsprings from a single organism without fusion of gametes.
This type of reproduction involves mitosis.
Types of Asexual Reproduction
1. Binary fission in amoeba, plasmodium and bacteria
2. Sporulation in rhizopus
3. Budding in yeasts
1. Binary fission in amoeba
When there is enough food and favourable temperature and pH, a mature amoeba divides into two.
During binary division, in amoeba, internal reorganization of molecules necessary for structural
construction takes place.
Nucleus first divides mitotically (Karyogamy) into two followed by the division of the cytoplasm
(Cytogamy)
Diagrams
2. Sporulation in Rhizopus
This is the formation of spores in substrates like the bread to form bread moulds
A spore is a microscopic reproductive unit which contains a nucleus and a small amount of
cytoplasm.
Spores are produced by bacteria, most fungi, mosses and ferns.
Rhizopus has a vegetative body called the mycelium.
Mycelium is made up of many branched threads called hyphae.
Horizontal hyphae are called stolons.
Vertically growing ones are called sporangiophore.
Tips of sporangiophore swell up to form the sporangia (sporangium).
Sporangia are the spore bearing structures. When fully mature, sporangium wall burst releasing the
spores. If spores land on a suitable medium, they germinate and develop into other rhizopus.
Rhizopus uses structures called rhizoids for anchorage and to obtain nutrients from the substrate.
Diagrams
Budding in Yeast
Under favourable conditions such as plenty of sugar, moisture, oxygen and optimum temperature, the
yeast cell reproduces asexually by budding.
A projection of bud forms on the parent cell.
Nucleus divides into two.
One nuclei moves into the new bud.
Bud grows in size and forms new cell organelles. Later the bud separates off.
Diagrams
i) Calyx (sepals)
Made up of the sepals which are usually green.
If sepals are fused they form gamosepalous calyx.
If they are free, they form polysepalous calyx.
Calyx protects the inner parts of the flower especially during bud development.
Some flowers have sepal like structures below the calyx called the epicalyx.
ii) Corolla/petals
It’s made up of the petals which are brightly coloured, large and conspicuous especially in insect
pollinated flowers.
If fused – gamopetalous.
If free – polypetalous
iii) Androecium – male parts
Made up of one or more stamens
Satmen is made up of the filament and anthers.
Another has four pollen sacs containing pollen grains.
Pollen grains contain the male gametes.
Diagrams
iv) Gynoecium – female parts
It may contain one or more carpels
A carpel consists of the ovary, the style and the stigma.
Ovary contains the ovules.
Ovaries are described as epigynous, hypogynous or perigynous depending on the place they occur
in the flower.
i) Epigynous (inferior) ovary
Ovary is located within the receptacle.
All other floral parts occur above it such as in the apple flowers.
Diagram
ii) Hypogynous (superior) ovary
Ovary is above the receptacle and other floral parts such as in hibiscus.
Diagram
iii) Perigynous ovary
The receptacle surrounds the carpel.
All other floral parts arise around the ovary such as in roses.
Diagram
The gynoecia can also be grouped into different types dependi.ng on the number of carpels present i.e.
monocarpous or syncarpous.
Monocarpous Gynoecium
It has only one carpel e.g. in beans.
Diagram
Polycarpous Gynoecium
It has two or more carpels. It is divided into two.
a) Apocarpous gynoecium
The carpels are free e.g in roses and bryophyllum.
Diagrams
b) Syncarpous gynoecium
The carpels are fused together such as in hibiscus.
Diagrams
Terms Used in Describing a Flower
i) Complete flower – has all the four floral parts; calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium.
ii) Incomplete flower – has one or two floral parts missing.
iii) Unisexual flower – a flower with only one of the reproductive parts either male or female
flower.
iv) Staminate flower – male flower.
v) Pistillate flower – female flower.
vi) Monoecious plant – bears both male and female parts of the flower.
vii) Dioecious plants - the plant is either male or female e.g. in paw paw.
viii) Hermaphrodite or bisexual flower – has both the male and female parts.
ix) Regular or actinomorphic flower – a flower that can be divided into tow similar halves by any
vertical section passing through the center i.e. radial symmetry such as in morning glory.
x) Irregular or zygomorphic flower – can be divided into two similar halves on one particular
plane only i.e. bilateral symmetry e.g. in clotalaria.
xi) Pedicillate flower- flower with a stalk.
xii) Solitary flower – are flowers occurring singly.
xiii) Inflorescence – flowers that grow in clusters.
xiv) Essential parts of the flower – are the androecium and gynoecium.
xv) Non essential floral parts – are the calyx and corolla.
Pollination
This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.
Types of Pollination
i) Self pollination. – Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower.
ii) Cross Pollination – transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the stigma of
another flower but of the same species.
Agents of Pollination
Insect
Wind
Adaptations of Insect Pollinated Flowers (Entomophilous)
i) Flowers are large, conspicuous with brightly coloured petals and inflorescence to attract
insects.
ii) Flowers are scented and produce nectar to attract insects.
iii) Pollen grains are relatively large, heavy, rough or sticky so as to stick on to the body of the
sticks.
iv) They have small and firmly attached anthers to a firm filament.
v) Stigmas are small, sticky and contained within the flower. This ensures that pollen grains from
the body of an insect stick onto it.
vi) Flowers have a tubular or funnel shaped corolla, landing platforms and honey guides.
Adaptations of Wind Pollinated Flowers (Anemophilous)
e.g. maize and other grasses
i) Small flowers with inconspicuous petals, bracts or inflorescence.
ii) Flower structure is simple and flowers have no particular shape.
iii) Stigmas are long, feathery and hang outside the flower to trap pollen grains.
iv) Pollen grains are small, smooth and light to be easily carried by the wind.
v) Flowers are not scented and lack nectar.
vi) Anthers are large and loosely attached to a flexible filament to be easily released when the
wind blows.
Diagram of a grass flower
Filament
Process of Fertilization
Style
Integuments
Ovary wall
Antipodal cells
Egg cell
Synegids
funicle Micropyle
Pedicel
- Pollen grains land stick to the stigma and germinates to form pollen tube, which grows through
the tissue of the style towards the ovary
- The generative nucleus undergoes mitosis, forming 2 male nuclei
- The pollen tube gets into the embryo sac through the micropyle; pollen tube nucleus
disintegrates, creating a passage for the male nuclei.
- The egg cell fuses with one of the two male nuclei to form a diploid zygote. The zygote
undergoes mitosis to form an embryo
- The two polar nuclei fuse with the second male nucleus to form a triploid nucleus.
- The triploid nucleus forms the endosperm. The two con current fertilization incidents are
collectively referred to as double fertilization
Seed and Fruit Development
- Some changes occur to the ovary, ovule and the entire flower after fertilization.
- Calyx dries and falls off or may persist.
- Petals and stamens wither and fall off.
Development of the Seed
- Zygote undergoes mitotic division to become the embryo (plumule and radicle) and one or two
cotyledons.
- Primary endosperm nucleus develops into the endosperm.
- Ovule forms the seeds.
- Ovary develops into a fruit.
- Integuments become the seed coat (testa).
- Testa has got a scar (hilum) which is the attachment point to the placenta.
- A seed a tiny opening called the micropyle which allows water into the seed during germination.
- Water is withdrawn from the seed from about 80% to 15% by mass making the seed dry and
hard.
Development of Fruits
- A fruit is a fully grown fertilized ovary containing fully developed seeds.
- This is brought about by the hormones gibberellins and occurs after fertilization.
- As the ovules develop into seeds, the rest of the ovary develops into the fruit wall or the pericarp.
- Pericarp has two scars indicating the points of attachment to the style and to the receptacle.
- Pericarp has three layers; epicarp/exocarp (outer most), mesocarp (middle) and the endocarp
(innermost).
- In some fruits such as pineapples and bananas fruit formation takes place without fertilization.
This is called parthenocarpy.
- False fruits are formed when other parts of the flower such as the receptacle enlarge and enclose
the ovary e.g. in pineapples, apple, straw berry and cashew nut.
Classification of Fruits
Succulent fruits
They are divided into berry and drupe.
Berry – has a succulent pericarp divided into epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp e.g. orange, tomato, passion
fruit, melon, paw paw etc.
Diagram
Drupe – they have a thin epicarp, fleshy or fibrous mesocarp and a very hard endocarp enclosing the
seeds. In mango the fleshy edible part is the mesocarp while in coconut the mesocarp is a fibrous cover
just before the hard endocarp.
Diagram
Dry Fruits
- They are divided into dehiscent and indehiscent.
Dry Dehiscent fruit
They dehisce to release their seeds. They are divided into;
1. Legume e.g beans
Diagram
Diagram
The internal sex organs of the female consist of the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes (or oviducts),
and ovaries.
The vagina is a flexible tube-shaped organ that is the passageway between the uterus and the
opening in the vulva. Because during birth the baby travels from the uterus through the vagina, the
vagina is also known as the birth canal.
The woman's menstrual flow comes out of the uterus and through the vagina.
When a man and a woman engage in vaginal intercourse, the penis is inserted into the vagina.
The cervix is located at the bottom of the uterus and includes the opening between the vagina and
the uterus. It secretes a plug of mucus, which prevents entry of pathogens into the uterus during
pregnancy.
The uterus is a muscular organ that has an inner lining (endometrium) richly supplied with blood
vessels and glands. During pregnancy, the uterus holds and nourishes the developing foetus.
Although the uterus is normally about the size of a fist, during pregnancy it is capable of stretching
to accommodate a fully developed foetus, which is typically about 50 cm (about 20 in) long and
weighs about 3.5 kg (about 7.5 lbs).
The uterine muscles also produce the strong contractions of labour.
At the top of the uterus are the pair of fallopian tubes (oviduct) that lead to the ovaries.
The two ovaries produce eggs, or ova (the female sex cells that can become fertilized), and female
sex hormones, primarily oestrogen and progesterone.
The fallopian tubes have finger like projections at the ends near the ovaries that sweep the egg into
the fallopian tube after it is released from the ovaries.
Movement of ovum is also aided by the smooth muscles of the oviduct.
If sperm are present in the fallopian tube, fertilization (conception) may occur and the fertilized
egg will be swept into the uterus by cilia (hair like projections inside the fallopian tube).
Practical
Diagram
Head has a large nucleus carrying the genetic material, which is haploid (n).
At the tip of the head there is the acrosome containing lytic enzymes. These enzymes digest the
wall of ova.
The short neck contains centrioles.
Middle piece has a large number of mitochondria, which provide with the energy required for
propulsion of the sperm to reach the ova.
The tail propels the sperm forward by its side-to-side lashing action.
In females egg formation begins in the ovary of the foetus before birth unlike in males where
production of sperms starts at puberty.
At birth there are about 70,000 potential egg cells in the ovaries of a baby girl.
A layer of ovary cells called primary follicles, which provide them with nourishment, encloses
them.
Only about 500 of them develop into ova during puberty. During puberty the primary follicles
grow to become Graafian follicle.
At ovulation, the Graafian follicle bursts open to release a mature ovum surrounded by a layer of
cells.
Diagram
Study Question 11
Fertilisation
Process where the nucleus of a male gamete fuses with the nucleus of a female gamete to form a
zygote.
This takes place in the upper part of he oviduct after copulation. Sperms are drawn up by suction
through the cervix into the uterus. They swim up to the oviduct using their tails.
Very many sperms are released but only one is required to fertilise the ovum.
The ovum releases chemical substances, which are neutralised by those released by the acrosome.
When the ovum comes into contact with the egg the acrosome bursts releasing lytic enzymes,
which dissolve the egg membranes.
The acrosome turns inside out forming a filament, which is used to penetrate the eggs.
Diagrams
The Vitelline membrane undergoes a change, which stops any other sperm from entering the
ovum.
Once inside the cytoplasm the head bursts to release the male nucleus, which then fuses with the
female nucleus to form a diploid zygote.
After ovulation the ovum can remain viable for 8-24 hours before it dies.
The sperm can remain viable for 2-3 days in the female reproductive tract.
Study Question 12
Implantation
This is the attachment of the blastocyst to the walls of the uterus by the villi.
After fertilisation, the zygote undergoes various mitotic divisions as it moves down the oviduct. Its
movement is aided by cilia in the oviduct and by the contractions of the smooth muscles lining the
oviduct.
By the time it reaches the uterus it has formed a hollow structure of cells called blastocyst.
Movement of the zygote from the oviduct to the time it is implanted takes about 7 days.
Diagrams
Sometime the zygote may fail to move down to the uterus and gets implanted into the walls of the
oviduct. This condition is referred to as ectopic pregnancy.
Formation of Placenta
During implantation the blastocyst differentiates into three layers, chorion, amnion and allantois.
Diagram
Chorion is the outermost and it has finger like projections called chorionic villi. These villi grow
into the endometrium. During the early stages of embryo development, villi form the sites for
material exchange between the embryo and maternal blood vessels.
Amnion surrounds the embryo forming an amniotic cavity. Amniotic cavity contains the amniotic
fluid, which suspends the foetus providing it with support. It also acts as a shock absorber hence
protecting it against mechanical injury.
The chorionic villi, allantois and the endometrium form the placenta.
The embryo is attached to the placenta by a tube called the umbilical cord.
When the placenta is fully formed, the embryo becomes the foetus at about three months of
pregnancy.
This is a temporary organ found only in placental mammals. It is the only organ in animals
composed of cells derived from two different organisms; the foetus and the mother.
It facilitates the transfer of nutrients and metabolic waste products between the mother and the
foetus. It selectively allows some materials to pass through and not others.
Diagram
Study question 13
During pregnancy, placenta takes over the role of producing hormones oestrogen and
progesterone.
Gestation Period
This is the period between conception and birth. This varies in different animals.
E.g. mice 22 days
Rabbits, 30 days
Man, 9 months
Elephants, 18 month
When the human embryo is two weeks old, allantois, chorion and amnion have already
formed. Embryo then differentiates into tissues and organs.
By the end of the third month, the heart and blood vessels are fully developed. Spinal
cord and the head region, which includes the eyes and the nose, are also well developed.
Limbs show early signs of development.
By the end of 6 months the alveoli and nose are well developed. Foetal movement can as
well be felt.
By the end of the nine months, the foetus head is directly above the cervix.
By now all the organs and systems are fully developed.
If birth occurs before completion of 6 months, this is called miscarriage and the baby
cannot survive.
If the foetal development is interfered with either physically or chemically such that the
foetus is released, this is called abortion.
If birth occurs after 7 months but before term, this is called premature birth. Such
babies are raised in incubators and they do survive.
Pregnant mothers must have a balanced diet. Calcium, proteins, phosphates and iron
should be abundant in her diet.
Calcium and phosphorous are needed for bone formation while iron is for haemoglobin
formation.
Pregnant mother should visit antenatal clinic.
Birth/Parturition
Maternal posterior pituitary gland releases hormone oxytocin. Progesterone level goes
down. Oxytocin stimulates contraction of the myometrium.
Oxytocin is released in waves during labour. This provides the force required to expel the
foetus from the uterus.
The cervix dilates, the amnion and chorion rupture releasing the amniotic fluid.
The uterus starts contacting from the top downwards pushing the foetus downwards head
first through the widened cervix and the birth canal.
After birth, the umbilical cord is ligatured/cut to separate the baby from the placenta.
Placenta is expelled later after birth.
Then newborn baby takes in the first breath, lungs expand and become functional. The
respiratory role of the placenta is taken over by the lungs.
Diagrams
Caesarean delivery
This is the surgical incision of the abdominal and uterine walls for delivery to be
achieved. This is done where there are complications ns such that the foetus cannot pass
through the birth canal.
Parental care
The newborn baby is given food and protection. Placental mammals feed their young
ones on milk. Milk is produced by the mammary glands under the influence of lactogenic
hormones e.g. prolactin.
Mother’s milk is the best as it contains all the nutrients needed for the growth and
development of the body.
For the first 3 days, colostrum is produced which contain antibodies, which provide
natural defence to the foetus against diseases.
Milk is deficient of iron. The baby relies on iron stored in its liver during gestation.
Milk let down is an example of a reflex action.
The prevailing environment as shown below influences it either positively or negatively.
Assignment
Child labour
These are physiological, structural and mental changes associated with masculinity and
femininity. They are controlled by oestrogen in females and androgens in males. They occur at
puberty.
Hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland to release gonadotrophic hormones i.e. FSH and
LH.
FSH stimulates sperm synthesis.
LH is also known as Interstitial Cell Stimulating Hormone (ICSH) and it stimulates
interstitial cells to release Androgens mostly Testosterone. It stimulates the onset of
secondary sexual characteristics mostly at the age of 14. These include;
Menstruation
An average menstrual cycle begins with three to five days of menstruation, the
shedding of the uterine lining, during which hormone levels are low.
At the end of menstruation, pituitary gland secrets FSH which has two functions. It
stimulates new Graafian follicles to develop in the ovary and stimulates the ovary to
secrete the hormone oestrogen.
Oestrogen brings about repair and healing of the endometrium, which is destroyed
during menstruation.
Oestrogen accumulates to levels, which stimulate the release of LH. LH stimulates
the maturity of Graafian follicle. The mature Graafian follicle releases the ovum into
the fallopian tube. This is called Ovulation and occurs on the 14th day.
The empty Graafian follicle forms the corpus luteum, an endocrine body that secretes
progesterone.
LH stimulates corpus luteum to secrete hormone progesterone. This hormone
stimulates thickening and increased blood supply to the endometrium preparing the
endometrium for implantation.
If fertilization takes place, the level of progesterone increases and thus inhibits FSH
from stimulating the maturation of another Graafian follicle.
If fertilization does not take place, the corpus luteum dies and progesterone hormone
levels fall.
Without hormonal support, the uterine lining disintegrates and discharges, beginning
a new menstrual period and cycle.
This cycle lasts for 28 days in human beings.
Assignment
Sanitary Health
Menopause
STI
Advantages of Asexual reproduction
i.) Good qualities from the parents are retained since there is no variation.
ii.) There is faster maturation.
iii.) Its independent of processes such as pollination, fertilisation and fruit and seed
dispersal
iv.) New offspring’s are able to obtain nourishment from their parents and are therefore
able to survive under unsuitable conditions.
v.) There is no wastage of a large number of offspring’s.
Disadvantages
i.) Reduction in strength and vigour in offsprings.
ii.) Undesired qualities are easily inherited.
iii.) Due to faster maturation there are chances of overcrowding and competition.
iv.) Offsprings may not withstand changing environmental conditions due to lack of
variation.
Advantages of sexual reproduction
i.) There is hybrid vigour due to mixing of genetic material.
ii.) There is high adaptability
iii.) Variation form basis for evolutionary changes.
Disadvantages
i.) May produce individuals with undesirable qualities.
ii.) Method is dependent of union of gametes and therefore may not take place if the two
organisms are isolated
Revision Questions
THE EYE
The mammalian eye is spherical; fluid filled and has three layers;
Outer layer or sclera
Middle layer or choroid
Inner layer or retina
Adaptations of the eye
Part Properties Functions
1. Sclera Tough, white opaque Protects delicate inner parts of the eye.
layer. Maintain shape of the eye.
2. Cornea Transparent and front Allow light into the eye.
layer of the sclera. Refract light entering the eye
3. Conjunctiva Thin and transparent Allow light into the eye.
layer before the Protects the cornea.
cornea.
4. Choroid Have cells that have Provide nourishment to the eye.
melanin, arteries & Pigment prevents reflection of light within the
veins eyeball.
5. Ciliary Have thin rings of Produce the aqueous humour
body thickened tissue
arising from choroids.
6. Ciliary Have circular and Muscles alter the tension of suspensory
muscle radial muscles which ligaments.
are antagonistic.
7. Suspensory fibrous Alter the shape of the lens.
ligaments.
8. Pupil Hole at the center of Regulates the amount of light entering the
iris. eye.
9. Iris Contain melanin, Give the eye its colour.
circular and radial Regulates the amount of light entering the eye
muscles.
Diagram
2. Dim Light.
Circular muscles relax and radial muscles contract.
Diameter of pupil increase and more light enters the eye.
This allows in enough light to stimulate photoreceptors on the retina.
Diagram
Defects of the Eye
1. Short sightedness(Myopia)
This is the ability to view near objects clearly but distant objects are blurred.
This is due to a long eyeball and image is formed before the retina.
Correction
Wearing concave (Diverging lens)
Diagram
2. Long sightedness (Hypermetropia)
This is the ability to view distant objects clearly but near objects are blurred.
This is due to a short eyeball and image is formed behind the retina.
Correction
Wearing convex (converging lens)
Diagram
3. Astigmatism
The curvature of the cornea is uneven hence the image is formed on different planes.
It’s corrected by wearing cylindrical lens.
4. Squintedness
Eyeballs face different directions due to defective muscles which move the eye left and
right.
Corrected surgically
5. Old sight (Presbyopia)
6. Cataracts
7. Colour blindness
THE EAR
Functions of the ear
1. Hearing
2. Maintaining body balance and posture
Diagram
Adaptations of the ear to its Functions
The ear is divided into:
1. Outer ear
Pinna.
- Pinna is funnel shaped to direct sound waves into auditory canal;
- its large to offer large surface area for collection of sound waves;
Auditory meatus/canal
- Tube that directs sound waves to ear drum.
- Lined with hairs to trap solid particles.
- Lined with wax secreting cells to trap dust.
- Wax also maintains flexibility of the eardrum.
2. Middle ear. Its air filled
Tympanic membrane/ear drum.
- It’s a thin tough membrane.
- It transforms sound waves into vibrations.
Ossicles
- They are three bones; malleus, incus and stapes.
- They receive vibrations from tympanic membrane and amplify them then transmit
them to the oval window.
Eustachian tube
- Connects middle ear and pharynx.
- Equalizes pressure between the middle ear and outer ear preventing distortion of the
ear drum.
Oval window
- Picks vibrations from the ossicles and transmit them to inner ear.
Round window
- Bring back vibrations from the inner into the middle ear.
3. Inner ear. Its fluid filled
Cochlea
- It’s responsible for hearing
- It’s filled with endolymph and perilymph
- Highly coiled to occupy a small space ; and increase surface area ; for
accommodation of many sensory cells
- Vibrations from oval window are transmitted to perilymph which vibrates
- Sensory cells are stimulated by these vibrations to generate nerve impulses which are
transmitted to the brain for interpretation.
Diagram
Vestibule
- Has utriculus and sacculus that have sensory cells.
- It maintains body balance posture in relation to gravity.
NB/ Auditory nerve – transmits nerve impulses to the brain for interpretations.
GENETICS
Concepts of Variation
Variation refers to observable differences among living organisms.
Types of variation
1. Discontinuous variation – in this type of variation, there are distinct and definite
groups of individuals with no intermediate forms. E.g.
sex either male or female,
blood groups- one can only belong to one of the four blood groups A,B,AB,O
ability to role the tongue
Presence of long hair in the nose and on the ear pinna.
Presence of a free or attached ear lobe.
All these traits are controlled by one or two major genes. These traits are not influenced by the
environment
2. Continuous variation – this variation has a wide range of differences for the same
characteristic from one extreme to the other e.g.
Height
Skin colour/pigmentation
Weight
Length of internodes
Number of leaves, fruits on a tree etc
Finger prints
When these traits are plotted on a graph a normal distribution curve is obtained.
Number of
individuals
Practical Activity 1
Tongue rolling
Finger prints
Height
Causes of variation
1. Gamete formation – during gamete formation two processes contribute to
variation. These are
Independent assortment- during metaphase I of meiotic division,
homologous chromosomes come together in pairs and segregate into daughter cells
independently of each other. This independent assortment produces a variety of different
gametes. The total number of combinations is given by 2n where ‘n’ is the haploid number of
chromosomes. In man n = 23 hence 2n = 223 which is equal to 8,388,608.
Crossing over during the prophase I of meiotic cell division. I.e. when
The Chromosome
Each chromosome is made up of two parallel strands called chromatids. Each pair of chromatids
is connected at a point by the centromere. Chromosomes contain the hereditary material called
the genes. All cells including the sperms and ova have chromosomes. Chromosomes are present
in the nucleus and are only visible under the microscope during cell division – mitosis and
meiosis. There is a definite number of chromosomes in each cell for every species of animal or
plant.
E.g. in man somatic cells (body cells) have 46 chromosomes while the sex cells/gametes have 23
chromosomes. During fertilization fusion of the sperm- 23 chromosomes and the ova -23
chromosomes restores the 46 chromosomes to form a diploid zygote.
Practical Activity 2
Chromosomal behaviour during mitosis
Chromosomal behaviour in meiosis
DNA structure contains several nucleotides fused together to form long chains called DNA
strands. Two parallel strands twist on one another forming a double helix structure. Adenine
always combines with Thymine and Cytosine with Guanine.
Diagram
Role of DNA
Stores genetic information in a coded form
Enables transfer of genetic information unchanged to daughter cells through
replication
Translates the genetic information into the characteristics of an organism through
protein synthesis
DNA REPLICATION
During cell division both daughter cells arising from mitotic division have the
same genetic constitution as the parent cell. DNA in the parent cell must therefore
duplicate accurately before the cell divides. The process through which a DNA
molecule forms an exact Replica is called DNA replication.
The two strands forming the double helix separates like a zipper. Each parallel
strand becomes a template that specifies the base sequence of a new
complimentary strand. Through the action of replicating enzymes, free
nucleotides take up positions along the template strands.
The specificity of the base pairing ensures that only complimentary bases link
together with those on the template strands. I.e. G-C and A-T.
Covalent bonds are formed between the nucleotides resulting in the formation of a
new DNA strand.
The template and the new DNA strand the undergo coiling to form a double helix.
In this way, two identical DNA molecules are formed from the original single
molecule.
Each of the new DNA molecules gets incorporated into one of the two nuclei
formed just prior to the separation of the daughter cells.
Diagram
Diagram
After its formation the mRNA leaves the nucleus with instructions from the DNA about the kind
of protein to be synthesised by the cell. This information is in the form of base triplets known as
Codons which code for a particular amino acid of a protein molecule e.g.
AAA-phenylalanine
TTT-lysine
CAA- valine
CTA- aspartic acid
Differences between DNA and RNA
DNA RNA
1. Has De-ox ribose sugar Has ribose sugar
2. Double stranded Single stranded
3. Confined in the nucleus Found in nucleus and cytoplasm
4. Have organic bases as cytosine, Has organic bases as cytosine, guanine,
guanine, adenine and thymine. adenine and uracil
Diagram
He further crossed two of these tall offsprings and planted the resulting seeds. Mendel observed
that this second generation consisted of a mixture of tall and dwarf plants. After counting these
plants he noted that the ratio of tall to dwarf plants was approximately 3:1 respectively. He
observed that this ratio was always obtained when crosses were made between the non-pure
breeds of tall plants.
Diagrams
Mendel concluded that the traits of an organism are determined by hereditary factors which
occur in pairs. Only one of pair of such factors can be represented in a single gamete. This later
became Mendel’s First Law, The Law of Segregation
At this time Mendel had no idea of genes and so he called them factors. He postulated that these
factors are found on the chromosomes and are passed from the parents to the offsprings via
gametes.
Mendel chose the garden pea plant because of the following reasons
Plant had many contrasting traits e.g. flower colours, seed coat texture, length of
the stems etc.
Plant is normally self pollinated but cross pollination can be employed t will.
Plant matures relatively fast
Plant produces many seeds that can be planted to produce many offsprings
Monohybrid Inheritance
This is the inheritance of one trait like height in the garden pea plant that is controlled by a single
pair of hereditary factors (genes) contributed by both parents. Genes occur in pairs on
chromosomes and such gene pairs are known as alleles.
The genetic constitution of an organism is called the Genotype while the physical appearance is
known as the Phenotype.
The genotype of an organism is represented using paired letter symbols. Capital letters represents
the dominant gene while small letters represent the recessive gene.
Genetic Cross
Components of a genetic cross
Parental phenotypes
The parental genotype –the crossing X should be shown here.
The gametes and should be circled.
The fusion process or fertilization.
The filial generation genotypes
NB. The conventional symbol for male is ♂ and that of female is ♀
Example 1
During gamete formation in the dwarf plat, each gene in the pair segregates into different
gametes. When the female and male fuse during fertilization, the offspring produced contain the
same number of genes as in each parent. The inheritance of dwarf ness in the pea plant can be
illustrated diagrammatically by the following genetic cross
Diagram
Example 2
Similarly the pair of genes in the pure breed tall plants will segregate into different gametes
during gametogenesis. When self fertilised the resulting seeds will have half the number of genes
from each parent i.e.
Diagram
Example 3
When the purebred tall plant is crossed with dwarf plants, the resulting seeds grow into tall
plants only. These offsprings represent the first generation (F1 gen)
Diagram.
In the genetic cross above, the male plant is tall and the female plant is dwarf. If the cross is
reversed so that the female is tall and the male a dwarf, this is referred to as a reciprocal cross.
The F1 results will be the same for either cross.
Diagram
Example 4
When the F1 offsprings are self pollinated, they produce offsprings which that grow into a
mixture of tall and dwarf plants. These offsprings are known as the F2 gen.
Diagram
A Punnet Square can also be used to work out genetic crosses e.g.
Parental phenotype tall tall
Parental genotype Tt X Tt
Gametes Tt T t
♀ T t
♂
T TT Tt
t Tt Tt
When the allelic genes are identical, as in TT and tt, the condition is known as homozygous.
An individual
with such a condition is known as a homozygote.
When the allelic genes are not identical as in Tt, the condition is referred to as heterozygous. An
individual with such a genotype is referred to as a heterozygote. An individual with genotype Tt,
will be physically tall because the gene T is dominant over t. The allele t is recessive.
A dominant gene expresses itself in both the homozygous (TT) and heterozygous (Tt) states
while a recessive gene only expresses itself I its homozygous state (tt). TT is therefore referred
to as homozygous dominant and tt is homozygous recessive.
The ratio 3 tall: 1 dwarf, in the F2 gen is characteristic of monohybrid inheritance where one
gene is completely dominant over the other. This is referred to as complete dominance.
The monohybrid crosses are based on Mendel’s first law, The law of Segregation which states
the characteristics of an organism are determined by internal factors which occurs in pairs. Only
one of a pair of such factors can be represented in a single gamete.
Diagram - the process of segregation
Diagram
NB. The inheritance of characteristics involves probability. The chance that a particular gamete
will fuse with another is a random occurrence, in genetics this done by showing all possible
fusions.
Assignment
Using appropriate letters work out the following crosses with respect to the fruit fly
Cross between a purebred long winged and a vestigial winged
Cross between two long winged heterozygotes
Cross between a red eyed heterozygote and a white eyed fruit fly.
The fruit fly is suitable for genetic study because of the following reasons.
1. The female lays very many eggs hence increasing the sample size for study.
2. Have many observable characteristics that are distinct and contrasting.
3. It is easily bred in the laboratory with minimum requirements.
4. It has a short generation time 10-14 days. Therefore many generations can be
studied in a short period of time.
5. Offsprings can be crossed with their parents at will (backcrossing)
6. Flies are safe to handle because they do not transmit any known human diseases.
Study Question 10
Practical Activity 5
Breeding fruit flies.
Diagrams
2. Incomplete dominance in short horn cattle. Mating red and white shorthorn cattle yields
Roan light Red) calves due to presence of both red and white hairs. A mating between
two roan coloured shorthorns yields a mixture of red, roan and white coloured calves at a
ratio of 1:2:1 respectively.
Diagrams
Study Question 12
Inheritance of the Blood groups (Multiple allelism)
In all the kinds of inheritance discussed so far, each phenotypic characteristic is determined by 2
variant forms of a single gene located at a specific locus on the homologous chromosome.
However some characteristics are determined by more than two variant forms of a single gene.
This phenomenon is referred to as multiple allelism and the genes involved are called multiple
alleles. E.g. in the ABO blood groups in humans, there are three genes involved and they are
responsible for the presence of antigen types on the red blood cells.
These are gene A responsible for the presence of antigen A, gene B for antigen B and gene O
responsible for absence of antigens on the red blood cells.
Genes A and B have equal degree of dominance i.e. are co-dominant. They both express
themselves when present together as in the blood group AB.
Genes A and B are dominant over gene O. Gene O is recessive and only expresses itself in the
homozygous condition. The genotypes for the four blood groups in the ABO system are
therefore,
Blood group Genotype Antigens
(Phenotype)
A AA, AO A
B BB,BO B
AB AB A and B
O OO O- Zero
i.e.
AA or AO-Blood group A
BB or BO – blood group B
AB – blood group AB
OO – blood group O
A marriage between a man of blood group A and a woman of blood group B will produce
children of all the four blood groups if both parents are heterozygous.
Diagram
Marriage between a man of genotype AA (blood group A) and Woman of genotype BB (blood
group B) results in all the offsprings having blood AB.
Diagram.
Assignment
Work out the following crosses
Both parents with blood group O
Heterozygous blood group A and blood group O
Study Question 13
Diagram
If the offsprings bear a mixture of red and white flowers in the ratio of 1:1, this indicates that the
red flowered plant was heterozygous.
Diagram
Selfing
Unknown genotypes can also be determined by carrying out selfing experiments. For example, a
phenotypically tall plant is either homozygous (TT) or heterozygous (Tt) for this trait.
If selfed and all its offsprings are tall, the parental genotype is TT that is homozygous dominant.
Diagram
But if after selfing both tall and dwarf offsprings are produced in the ratio 3:1 respectively, then
the parental genotype is heterozygous (Tt).
Diagram
Sex Determination
The sex of an organism is a genetically determined characteristic. Cells of most organisms
contain a pair of chromosomes called sex chromosomes in addition to the ordinary chromosomes.
In man there are 46 chromosomes (23 pairs of homologous chromosomes in everybody cell). The
genes determining whether a child becomes a female or a male are located on the specific pair of
sex chromosomes called the X and the Y named after their shapes.
The remaining 22 pairs of chromosomes are called Autosomes. Autosomes are responsible for
other inheritable traits.
A male human being carries the XY chromosome i.e. he is Heterogametic
The female carries the XX chromosomes i.e. Homogametic.
After meiosis in a male the spermatozoon can either carry the X or Y chromosome while the
female ova contain only the X chromosome. The sex of a child is a matter of chance and depends
only on whether a spermatozoon that fertilizes the ovum carries X or Y chromosome.
There is therefore a 50% chance that fertilization can result in either XY (Boy) or XX (Girl) i.e.
Female X X
(XX)
Male (XY)
X XX XX
Y XY XY
Linkage
An organism has a large number of traits controlled by many different genes. Because the
number of chromosomes is limited, each gene cannot be located on its own chromosome.
Therefore chromosomes must accommodate many genes each controlling particular
characteristics. Those genes located on the same chromosome are called linked Genes. All the
linked genes constitute a linkage group. Linked gene are inherited together and do not
segregate/separate during meiosis. They are therefore transmitted into the same gamete.
Diagram
If genes Q, R and T are linked, then all the three pairs of genes are accommodated on a
homologous pair of chromosome.
In Drosophila sp, it has been found that the genes for wing length, abdomen size and body
colour are located on the same chromosome. Therefore these characteristics are usually inherited
together.
Sex-linked Genes
All the genes located on the sex chromosomes are said to be sex-linked. They are therefore
transmitted together with those that determine the sex. In Drosophila melanogaster, the gene,
which determine eye colour, is located on the X chromosome. However the corresponding allele
on the Y chromosome is absent. This is because most sex-lined genes are carried on the X
chromosome whereas the Y chromosome carries very few genes and is almost empty.
In humans there are few genes located on the Y chromosome, which control traits that are
exclusively found in males. These are, Premature baldness and tufts of hair in the in the inner
pinna and in the nose.
Diagrams.
The characteristics controlled by genes located on the X chromosome include Colour blindness
and Haemophilia. These characteristics can arise in either male or females.
Colour blindness
This is the inability to distinguish Red and Green colours by some people. This trait is linked
to the X chromosome. The gene that determines normal colour vision is dominant over that for
colour blindness. A marriage between a colour-blind man and a woman homozygous for normal
colour vision results in their daughters being carriers but with normal colour vision. The
daughters are said to be carriers because they are heterozygous and colour blindness is
suppressed/masked by the dominant gene for colour vision.
All the sons are of the two parents are however normal. This is illustrated below. Let N represent
the gene for normal colour vision and n represent gene for colour blindness. Since the gene is
linked to X chromosome, its alleles are represented as XN and Xn.
Colour blind
male
( XnY) Xn Y
Normal
Woman
(XNXN)
XN XNXn XNY
XN XNXn XNY
XN XNXN XNXn
Y XNY XnY
Offsprings are; XNXN -Daughter with normal colour vision
N n
X X -Carrier Daughter
XNY -Son with normal colour vision
XnY -Colour blind son.
The above examples show that the gene for colour blindness is passed from mother to sons.
This is because the only X chromosome a man inherits is from the mother. If the X
chromosome carries the gene for the trait, then this gene will be expressed since allele on the Y
is absent. Therefore there are more male sufferers in a population compared to females.
Females only suffer when in homozygous condition of the recessive gene. Inheritance of
colour blindness through several generations can be clearly illustrated using a pedigree. A
pedigree is a record in table form showing the distribution of one or more traits in different
generations of related individuals. Fig. 1.24
Haemophilia
This is another sex-linked trait where the blood of the sufferer takes abnormally long time to
clot. There is prolonged breeding in the event of a cut hence the term Bleeder’s Disease. A
recessive gene on the X chromosome causes haemophilia.
If a normal man is married to a carrier woman for haemophilia, there is a probability of ½
that if their child is a boy will be a haemophiliac and if a daughter, she will be a carrier. None of
the daughters of the couple will be haemophiliacs.
Let H represent the gene for normal blood clotting and h to represent gene for haemophilia i.e.
Carrier woman
(XHXh) XH Xh
Normal man
(XHY)
XH XHXH XHXh
Y XHY XhY
Mutations
Mutation is brought about by spontaneous changes in the individual’s genetic makeup.
Mutations are normally due to recessive genes most of which are transmitted in the usual
Mendelian fashion. Therefore they are quite rare. Individuals with mutations are referred to as
mutants. Mutation can be induced by certain factors. Such factors are called Mutagens. They
include,
Exposure to Gamma rays
Ultra violet light
Colchicine
Mustard gas
NB: Mutations occurring in gametes are more important than those in somatic cells. Mutational
changes are the basis of discontinuous variation in population.
Types of Mutations
1. Chromosomal mutation
2. Gene mutation
Chromosomal Mutations
This involves the change in the structure or the number of chromosomes. During crossing over in
meiosis homologous chromosomes intertwine at points called chiasmata. These points are later
broken creating various opportunities for changes on the chromatids. There are five types of
chromosome mutations (chromosome aberrations).
Deletion
Duplication
Inversion
Translocation
Non-disjunction
Deletion
This occurs when some sections of chromatids break off and fail to recombine. They are
therefore completely lost and the genetic material they contain is said to be deleted out. Most
deletions are lethal since the offspring may lose genes responsible for the synthesis of some vital
protein molecules.
Diagrams
Duplication
In this case a section of chromatids replicates and adds an extra length to itself. Duplication can
produce serious effects depending on the chromosome sections involved.
Diagrams
Inversion
In this case a chromatid breaks at two points. When rejoining, the middle piece rotates and joins
in an inverted position. This reverses the gene sequence along the chromatid. This might bring
together genes whose combined effects are advantageous or dis-advantageous.
Diagrams
Translocation
This occurs when a section of one chromatid breaks off and becomes attached to another
chromatid but of a non-homologous pair.
Translocation therefore involves the movement of genes from one non-homologous chromosome
to another.
Diagrams
Non-disjunction
This leads to addition or loss of one or more whole chromosomes. If it occurs at anaphase of the
first meiotic division, two homologous chromosomes fail to segregate and they move into the
same gamete cell. If it happens at anaphase of the second meiotic division, sister chromatids fail
to segregate. This results in half the gametes containing two of the same chromosome while the
others have none.
Diagrams
Non-Disjunction causes the following
1. Downs’s Syndrome: this is where there is an extra somatic chromosome number 21. such
individuals have;
Slit eye appearance
Reduced resistance to infections
Mentally deficient
Thick tongue
Cardiac malfunctions
Short body with thick fingers
NB/ these conditions are common among children born of mothers above 40 years old.
2. Klinefelter’s Syndrome: in this case individuals have an extra sex chromosome. Such
individuals have a total of 47 chromosomes in their cells i.e. XXY (male) and XXX
(female). This occurs as a result of non-disjunction during spermatogenesis or oogenesis.
The symptoms of Klinefelter’s syndrome are
Infertility in males due to lack of sperm production
Under developed testes
Reduced facial hair in males
Very tall with signs of obesity
Diagrams
3. Turner’s syndrome: This is where an individual lacks one sex chromosome hence there
are 45 chromosomes (XO or YO).
4. Polyploidy: sometimes during meiosis chromosomes might undergo non-disjunction.
This results in half the number of gametes having two of each type of chromosome i.e.
diploid the rest having none. If the resulting diploid gamete fuses with a normal haploid
gamete a triploid zygote is formed. If two diploid gametes fuse, a tetraploid individual is
obtained. This is what is called polyploidy.
Polyploidy is rare in animals but common in plants where it’s considered to be
advantageous. Polyploidy increases yields, early maturity and resistance to pests and diseases.
It can be artificially induced using a chemical called colchicine, which prevents spindle
formation during mitosis leading to a cell with double the number of chromosomes (4n).
Gene Mutation
This involves a change in the structure of a gene. Gene mutations are also referred to as
point mutations. A gene mutation arises as a result of a change in the chemical nature of the
gene. The change may involve some alterations in the DNA molecule. A change in the DNA
molecule is passed onto the m-RNA. This alters the sequence of amino acids during protein
synthesis. This may result in unintended protein molecules being synthesised, which may be
lethal. Types of gene mutations;
Insertion
Substitution
Inversion
Deletion
Insertion
This is the addition of an extra base onto the existing DNA strand.
Diagram
By this insertion no polypeptide chain is formed as it were intended.
Deletion
This is the removal of a gene portion. If the base Thymine is deleted from its position as
indicated below, the base sequence becomes altered at this point.
This results in the wrong proteins being synthesised.
Diagrams
Substitution
This is the replacement of a portion of the gene with a new portion. If Adenine is substituted by
Guanine on a DNA strand, the base sequence is altered at this particular portion.
Diagrams
Inversion
If a portion of the DNA strand is rotated through 1800 that portion is said to be inverted as shown
below. This alters the base sequence at this point.
Diagrams
Study Questions
Disorders Due to Gene Mutations
Such disorders include albinism, sickle cell anaemia, haemophilia, colour blindness and
chondrodystrophic dwarfism.
1. Albinism
This a condition where the synthesis of skin pigment called melanin fails. The victim has a
light skin, white hair and pink eyes. Such a person is referred to as an Albino. Melanin is
derived from two amino acids – Phenylalanine and Tyrosine. Melanin is synthesised through
a series of reactions controlled by a specific gene.
Gene ‘A’ is responsible for presence of melanin and ‘a’ is responsible for its absence. Gene
‘aa’ in homozygous state blocks in one or two places in the synthesis of melanin hence no
melanin is formed. This occurs as a result of one enzyme (Tyronase) failing to be formed in
the presence of the recessive gene.
A person with genotype AA has normal skin pigmentation.
One with genotype Aa is a carrier and has normal skin pigmentation. In a family an albino
can be born under three conditions only.
If both parents are albinos
If one of the parents is an albino and the other a carrier
If both parents are carriers
Assignment
Work out crosses in each case.
What is the probability of getting an albino child in each case?
2. Sickle Cell Anaemia
This is a gene mutation as a result of substitution. Normal haemoglobin Hb A consists of
two polypeptide chains. In the sickle cell condition, one amino acid called glutamic acid is
substituted by another amino acid called valine in each of the two-polypeptide chains of the
haemoglobin molecule. The resulting haemoglobin is known as Haemoglobin S – Hb S and is
different from the Hb A in several ways.
Study Question 16
2) Blood Transfusion
Before blood is given to a recipient, blood typing is first done. This is done to ensure
compatibility between the donor and the recipient.
Blood typing also can be used to solve disputed parentage. However the most recent technique in
establishing parentage is the DNA matching.
3) Genetic Counselling
This is the provision of information and advice on genetically inherited disorders to individuals.
The individual is given such advice to enable him or her make the best choice.
Examples of disorders for which genetic counselling may be done include
Sickle cell anaemia
Haemophilia
Albinism
Erythroblastosis foetalis
Colour blindness
Klinefelter’s syndrome
In order to confirm the disorder the doctors can do the following
Physical examination e.g. Lack of breasts in Turner’s syndrome.
Laboratory tests e.g. blood tests to confirm sickle cell anaemia
Amniocentesis for chromosomal abnormalities in foetus
Family history may be used to determine possible inheritance of the disorder e.g.
haemophilia.
Genetic screening of the defective gene in the population
4) Genetic Engineering
This deals with identification of a desirable gene, altering, isolating and transferring it from one
living organism to another.
Cell body
Seedlings
The set up was left for 4 days.
a) What was the aim of the experiment. ( 1mk)
b) i) State the expected results after 4 days. ( 1mk)
ii) Account for the results you have stated in ( b) (i) above. ( 4mks)
c) In another experiment, a student placed a seedling horizontally on moist cotton wool.
Later the shoot grew upwards while the Radicle grew downwards. Explain why the
radicle showed a downward curvature.
( 2mks )
4. Describe how different types of tropisms adapt plants for survival in their habitats.
(20mks)
5. Diagram below shows the structure of motor neuron.
D
A
J H
E
a) State the functions of the ear. (2mks)
b) Give the names of the structure labelled C,G and F. (3mks)
c) (i) What is the function of the structure labeled H? (1mk)
(ii) Name the structure in the ear that detects sound waves. (1mk)
d) In which structure of the ear is the velocity of the sound waves fastest? (1mk)
7. The diagram below represents a nerve cell. Study it and answer the questions that follow.
P
(a) Name the type of response being investigated in the set up. (1mk)
(b) State the survival value of the response named in (a) above. (1mk)
(c) Give the role of calcium chloride in the experiment above. (1mk)
16 .(a) A reflex mechanism/ability of the eye to adjust to bring an image from near or far object
into sharp focus on the retina;
(b) Circular muscles of the iris contract; while the radial muscles relax; Ciliary muscles relax;
increasing tension on suspensory ligaments; lens become thinner increasing the focal length;
image focused onto the retina;
(ii) Circular muscles of the iris contract; pupil constrict/become smaller; and allows enough
light for (sharp) image to be focused onto the retina;
Support is the ability of organisms to bear their weight and maintain their body forms. It
involves holding body parts in their position and allow for movement.
Movement is the displacement of parts of the body of an organism e.g. growth
movements in plants and limbs in animals.
Locomotion is movement of the whole organisms.
Support and Movement in Plants
This can be at cell level e.g. gametes in bryophytes and Pteridophytes or at organ level in
tropic and nastic responses.
Importance of Movement in Plants
i. Enable plants to obtain resources such as sunlight, water and nutrients due to tropic and
nastic responses.
ii. Enhances fertilization in bryophytes and Pteridophytes
iii. Enhance fertilization in flowering plants by growth of pollen tube towards the embryo
sac.
iv. Helps plants to escape harmful stimuli such as high temperature
Importance of Support in Plants
i. Hold flowers in position for pollination to occur.
ii. Help plants to withstand forces of the environment such as gravity and air currents.
iii. Fruits are held in appropriate position for dispersal to occur.
iv. Increase the efficiency of photosynthesis as the leaves are firm and arranged in mosaic
pattern for maximum absorption of light and carbon (iv) oxide.
Arrangement of Tissues in Plants
Diagrams
Parenchyma. The cells are spherical or elongated. They are unspecialized cells forming
the packing tissues. When turgid, they help in providing support in herbaceous plants.
Collenchyma. It’s underneath the epidermis. They are similar in appearance to
parenchyma and they contain living protoplasm. They have deposition of cellulose to
provide mechanical support. They are mainly found in young leaves and stems.
Sclerenchyma. They appear as long fibres in stems. Cells are dead and they have lignin.
Mainly found in stems and midrib of leaves. The walls are pitted to allow exchange of
substances between cells.
Xylem vessels and Tracheids. Xylem vessels are long tube like structures with lignified
walls used for transporting water and mineral salts and also give plant mechanical
support. Tracheids are long cells with tapering ends whose walls are lignified to give the
plant mechanical support. Both xylem vessels ant tracheids are made of dead cells manly
present in woody stems.
Tendrils and Climbing stems. Some herbaceous plants support themselves by use of
tendrils e.g. pumpkins, garden peas etc. Others obtain support by twinning round other
hard objects such as stem of passion fruit, morning glory etc.
Spines and Thorns. Some plants use spines and thorns to attach to solid objects for
support e.g. in rose.
Practical Activity 3
3 Endoskeleton.
It is found in all vertebrates.
Muscles are external to the hard framework.
It is made of living tissues either cartilage or bone which increase in size as the animal
grows and therefore need not to be shed as in exoskeleton.
Functions of the Endoskeleton
i. Supports the animal’s body
ii. Gives the body its shape
iii. Protects inner delicate organs such as the lungs, heart, liver etc from mechanical injury
e.g. ribs.
iv. Provide surface for muscle attachment facilitating movement.
v. Production of blood cells i.e. the long and short bones
vi. Acts as a reservoir of calcium and phosphate ions in the body
Locomotion in Finned Fish (Tilapia)
Diagrams
Practical Activity 5
Practical Activity 6
Functions
1. Protects alimentary canal on dorsal side.
2. Provides attachment to hip girdle
3. Protects the spinal cord
4. Provides attachment for the muscles
Diagram
5. Caudal vertebrae
Distinctive features
1. Very small in size
2. No neural canal
Functions
1. Provides attachment for tail muscles
2. Helps in the movement of the tail
Diagram
(b) If the experiment set up was left over-night, state observation in the set up A and B.
(2mks)
(c) Account for the observations in each set up.
(3mks)
(d) If another experiment C was set such that nothing is placed in the potato cup, state and
explain the results that would have been obtained.
(2mks)
2. An experiment was carried out to investigate, haemolysis of human cells. The red blood
cells were placed in different concentration of sodium chloride solution. The percentage
of haemolysed cells was determined. The results were shown in the table below.
Salt conc. (g/100cm3) 0.33 0.36 0.38 0.39 0.42 0.44 0.48
Red blood cells haemolysed % 100 91 82 69 30 15 0
(a) (i) On the grid provided plot a graph of haemolysed red blood cells against salt concentration.
(6mks
(ii) At what concentration of salt solution was the proportion of haemolysed cells equal to non-
haemolysed cells? (1mk)
(iii) State the percentage of red blood cells haemolysed at salt concentration of 0.45.
(1mk)
(b) Account for the results obtained at:
(i)0.33% salt concentration
(3mks)
(ii) 0.48% salt concentration
(3mks)
(c) What would happen to the red blood cells if they were placed in 0.50% salt solution.
(3mks)
(d) Explain what would happen to onion cells if they were placed in distilled water.
(3mks)
3. Explain how various environmental factors affect the rate of transpiration in plants.
(20mks)
4. (a) State the meaning of the following terms.
(i) Digestion
(2mks)
(ii) Ingestion
(2mks)
(b) Describe the process through which a piece of ugali undergoes in man from the time
of ingestion up to the time of absorption.
(16mks)
6. The diagram below represents a unit of gaseous exchange in man. Study it carefully and
answer the questions that follow.
B •
A •
•
• GHG D
•
•
E
• • •
a) Name the blood vessel that brings blood to the lungs and the vessel which takes blood
away from the lungs.
(2mks)
b) Name the structure above.
(1mk)
c) Label A and E.
(2mks)
d) In what form is carbon (IV) oxide transported in structure labeled E.
(1mk)
e) Name the gas G.
(1mk)
6. Gastrin is a hormone produced by mammals.
(a) (i) Where is the hormone produced?
(1mk)
(ii) What is the function of gastrin?
(1mk)
(b) What stimulateds the production of gastrin.
(1mk)
(c) The diagram below shows part of the human intestine.
a) Using the same grid, draw graphs of external temperature, and internal temperature of animals
X and Y
(Y-axes) against time (X-axes).
(7mks)
b) Account for the variation of internal and external temperatures for the animals X and Y.
(2mks)
c) Identify the classification of organisms whose internal temperature varies as X and Y
(2mks)
d) Explain two ways used by organism Y to make its internal temperature vary as shown
despite of changes in external temperature.
(4mks)
18 a) Give the functions of the skin in organisms.
(6mks)
b) How is the mammalian skin modified to enable it perform its functions?
(l4mks)
19. The diagram below shows how gaseous exchange occurs across the gills in fish.
(a) According to the diagram water and blood flow in opposite direction across the gills.
(i) Give the term used to describe this flow.
(1 Mark) Water
(ii) Explain the advantage of the above flow named in a(i) above.
(2 Marks)
(b) What difference would be observed if water and blood flows across the gills in the
same direction?
(2 Marks)
(c) In which structures in the gills does gaseous exchange take place?
(1 Mark)
(d) Name two organs in man which display the flow system named in a(i).
(2 Marks)
20. An experiment was carried out to investigate the effect of different concentrations of Sodium
Chloride on human red blood cells. Equal volumes of blood were added to equal volumes of salt
solutions of different concentrations. The results were as shown below:-
Set up Sodium Chloride Shape of red blood Number of red blood
concentration cells at the end of cells at the end of
experiment experiment
A 0.9% Normal No change in number
B 0.3% Swollen Fewer in number
a) If the experiment was repeated with 1.4% Sodium Chloride solution, state the results you
would expect with reference to:-
(i) Number of red blood cells.
(1 Mark)
(ii) Appearance of red blood cells when viewed under the microscope.
(1 Mark
Account for the fewer number of red blood cells in 0.3% Sodium Chloride salt solution.
(3 Marks)
c) Give the biological term which can be used to describe 0.9% Sodium chloride
solution.(1 Mark)
d) Define plasmolysis.
(1 Mark)
Marking Scheme
1. i) Osmosis.
ii) A – solution in potato cup increases. Level of water in the beaker decrease;
B- Remain the same;
iii) A – Surrounding the cube is a region with high concentration of water molecules
while in the sugar crystals, there are very few water molecules;
The sugar crystals exert on Osmosis pressure by Osmosis water molecules move across the
potato tissue, which acts as a semi-permeable membrane. The level rises;
B- No change since boiling denatures the membrane structure of potato cells;
iv) C- No water moves into the potato cup/remains the same; since there is no
concentration gradient;
2(a) i) Graph.
ii) 0.402 ± 0.01
iii) 11% ± 1%.
b) i) All cells have been haemolysed; cells contains one hypertonic to salt solution;
water enters cells by osmosis; cells swell and eventually burst.
ii) No cells were haemolysed; cell contents were isotonic to salt solutions (aments of
water entering the cell was equal to that leaving the cell); no net movement of water into cells;
c) The cells would become crenated; the cell contents would be hypotonic to salt
solutions; water would leave cells by osmosis; membranes would shrink.
d) Contents of Onion epidermal cells would be hypertonic to water; water would enter cells by
Osmosis; cells would become turgid;
3. - Temperature;- High temperature faster rate of transpiration; high temperature
increases the capacity of atmosphere to hold water and moisture; also heat increase internal
temperature of the leaf hence water evaporation; 4 accept converse
- Atmospheric pressure; Low atmospheric pressure, high rate of transpiration
2
- Humidity; Low humidity higher rate of transpiration; low humidity increases the
saturation defiant; hence water moves form leaves to drier atmosphere; 4
- Wind; When it is windy the rate of transpiration is higher; wind sweeps away vapour
that has accumulated at the surface of leaf; increasing saturation deficit; hence faster rate of
transpiration 5
- Light intensity;High light intensity faster rate of transpiration high light intensity
increase photosynthesis rate hence stomata opens; 4
- Amount of water in soil; More water in the soil increases the rate of transpiration; it
wets the xylem (ensure xylem is wet throughout); 3
Max 20
4. a) Define digestion and ingestion.
i) Digestion- It is break down of complex insoluble; √ food substance into simple soluble
food substance;√
ii) Ingestion- is introduction of food through the mouth into the digestive system;
b) Describe the digestion of Ugali.
- Digestion of ugali begins in the mouth; √ ugali is chewed by the teeth to increase
large surface area √ for action of salivary amylase/ptyalin; √ The food mixes with
saliva produced by salivary glands;√
- Saliva contains mucus and enzyme ptyalin. Mucus moistens, softens and
lubricates the food;√ ptyalin speeds up the conversion of starch to maltose; √ ugali
is made into bolus in the mouth;√
- The bolus moves along the oescophagus and prestalsis/by contraction and
relaxation of circular and longitudinal muscles into the stomach;√
- The digestion continues until ugali become acidic since the stomach does not
contain carbohydrase/carbohydrate digesting enzymes no digestion of ugali takes
place here.√
- Ugali now moves into duodenum by peristalsis in form of acidic chime; √ where
it mixes with the bile from the liver and pancreatic juice from the pancreases;√ bile
being alkaline neutralizes the stomach acid;√ and provides a suitable alkaline
medium for the enzymes to act on carbohydrates;√
- Pancreatic juice contains three enzymes out of the which enzyme amylase speeds
conversion of starch to maltose;√
- When food reaches the ileum; it mixes with intestinal juice which contains several
enzymes. Maltase – speeds up conversion of maltose to glucose;√
- Lactose which speeds up conversion of lactose to glucose√ and galactose; sucrase
which speeds up conversion of sucrose into fructose and glucose;
- Absorption – glucose, the end product of all carbohydrates diffuses through the
epithelium of villi and capillary walls and enters into blood stream and is carried
to the liver via hepatic portal veins;√
- Assimilation- in the liver excess glucose is converted into glycogen and stored;
- - The rest of the glucose is carried by the blood tissues where is oxidized during
tissue respiration to release energy;√ (21 max 18 mks
Total 20mks)
5. (a) - Pulmonary artery
- Pulmonary vein
(b) Alveolus
(c) A- cavity of alveolus
E – Red blood cell
(d) Hydrogen carbonate ions;
Carbamino haemoglobin;
6. (a) (i) Walls of stomach;
(ii) Stimulates the secretion / production of gastric juice; √
(b) Presence of food in the stomach;
(c) A – Blood capillaries; B – Lacteal;
(d) - Produces plenty of mucus to lubricate coarse/indigestible material during peristalsis;
- Wide human accommodates /store indigestible food
- Elongate to increase surface are for absorption of water.
- has muscles to facilitate peristalsis when they contract;
7. (a) (i) P – Tracheids Q – pits
(ii) P- water conducting elements of xylem
(b) Function of phloem – translocation/ transport of organic substances from the leaves to
the of the plant;
(c) (i) Translocation of food will not occur acc. Slow translocation
(ii) Reason – it contains a lot of mitochondria which provide energy for translocation;
(d)
Phloem Xylem
1) Made of living cells - made of dead cells
2) Have companion cells - lack companion cells
3) Have cytoplasmic - lack cytoplasmic strands
strands - have lignin deposits; (any
4) Lack lignin deposits 2x1=2mks)
(b) (i) 10-15 minutes ; period of rapid increase in lactic acid concentration (2mks)
(ii) 10-20 seconds : period when lactic acid level starts to increase; (2mks)
(iii) 75minutes i.e. from 25th minutes to the 100minutes, this is the time lactic cid took
to decrease from the highest level to normal; (2mks)
(c) It would have the same basic shape; but would peak slightly ahead of the lactic acid
curve in time;
(e) Because it is still diffusing out of the muscles, where it was made a few minutes
earlier;
(e) Allows for energy production even cases of oxygen deficiency; thus enables animals
to survive active exercise and to inhabit even in areas with limited oxygen supply;
(f) Oxygen debt is the amount of oxygen to get rid of the lactic acid; that has accumulated
due to anaerobic respiration; (2mks)
9. Regulation of blood sugar level; under the influence of insulin; and glucagons
(hormones). When there is excess sugar; the hormone insulin stimulate/causes liver cell to
convert it to glycogen; some converted to fats/lipids for storage;
• When the blood sugar level is below normal: the hormone glucagon causes liver cells to
convert glycogen to glucose;
• Regulation of amino acids; excess amino acids; are deaminated; by the liver (cells)
leading to formation of urea; which is transported by the blood to the kidney; for
elimination;
• Production of heat: the liver is involved in the thermoregulation due to many metabolic,
activities; taking place in the liver cells a lot of heat is generated which is distributed to
the entire/whole body;
• Detoxication of toxic substances; (such as drugs and hydroxide peroxide)
• Elimination of haemoglobin; and formation of bile; breakdown worn out red blood
cells; the bile salts (sodium tyrochocolate and sodium glycocholate; in the bile
eEMULSIFYfats (in the duodenum)
• Storage of blood in its veins; thus regulating the volume of blood circulating in the body
• Elimination of sex hormones after they have performed their function/work; storage of
vitamin AD and B12 some mineral salts; thus regulating their levels in the blood TOTAL
23 MAX 20
10. (a) X - glycolysis Y – Kreb’s cycle
(b)
Process X Process Y
- occurs in cytoplasm - occurs in mitochondria
- independent of oxygen - Is oxygen dependent
- produces less energy - produces more energy
- raw material is glucose - Raw material is pyruvate
- End products are energy, CO2, lactic acid - End products are energy, CO2 and water
or ethanol
BIOLOGY DIAGRAMS
Distilled water
Starch and glucose solution
Visking tubing
Boiling tube
TOPICAL QUESTIONS FOR BIOLOGY
FORM I TOPICS
1. a) Define biology
-the study of life/living things
b) List the branches of biology
- Zoology (study of animals)
- Botany (study of plants)
- Microbiology (study of microorganisms)
c) Explain the importance of biology
- helps to solve environmental problems
- Helps to learn scientific skills
- For entry into other professions/careers
- To apply knowledge to everyday life situations
- To classify organisms into their right groups
- understanding living organisms
d) State the characteristics of living organisms
- feeding/nutrition
- Growth and development
- respiration (to produce energy)
- sensitivity/irritation/response
- excretion (getting rid of metabolic waste material)
- movement/locomotion
- reproduction
e) State the main differences between plants and animals
Animals Plants
All body parts grow equally(intercalary) Grow at shoot tip and root tip only
Heterotrophic Autotrophic
Cells have no cell walls Cells have cell wall made of cellulose
iii) Give the reasons for each of the following steps when preparing a cross-section of a stem
or leaf for examination under the microscope
cutting very thin sections
thin sections allow light to pass through making it easy to observe the tissue
Using a sharp razor blade during the cutting
sharp blade does not damage, deform, destroy or distort the surface of cell or tissue
it makes thin sections
Placing sections in water
to maintain turgidity hence maintain shape of cell
it prevents drying of the section
Staining the sections with iodine before observing
To make chloroplasts, starch containing structures, granules or plastids distinct.
e) i) List the parts of a cell that can be seen under a light microscope
a cell membrane
b cytoplasm
c cell wall
e nucleus
d vacuole
ii) Draw the general structure of a plant and animal cell
iii) List the parts of a cell that can be seen under an electronic microscope and state the
functions of each part.
Cell wall
found in plant cells in addition to cell membrane
made of cellulose which makes the plant tough
allows gases, water and other substances to pass through
Cell membrane
permeable/selective to control movement of materials in and out of cells
bound/encloses the cell contents
also called plasma membrane or plasmallema
Cytoplasm
fluid medium where chemical reactions occur
also where cell organelles are suspended
Nucleus
controls cell activities
Nucleolus
synthesizes DNA
Vacuole
sacs filled with fluid called cell sap
large in plants but small in animals
act as reservoirs for food and harmful wastes which would otherwise interfere with the
metabolism in cytoplasm
Lysosomes
store hydrolytic enzymes
destroy worn out cell organelles, cells, pathogens
digestion of food in unicellular organisms
autolysis
Golgi apparatus
processing/packaging of synthesized materials
transporting/secretion of packaged materials/cell materials e.g. glycoproteins and mucus
production of lysosomes
Ribosomes
where protein synthesis takes place
Mitochondrion
synthesis of ATP/energy
Chloroplasts
where photosynthesis takes place
Endoplasmic reticulum
transport of cell secretions
can be rough or smooth
iv) State the functions of cell sap
stores chemical substances, sugar, salts
maintains shape of the cell/provides mechanical strength
plays a role in osmoregulation by creating an osmotic gradient that brings about
movement of water
e) Compare plant and animal cells
plant cells have chloroplasts lacking in animals
animal cells have many small vacuoles while plant cells have a large central vacuole
plant cell have cellulose cell walls lacking in animal cells
cytoplasm in plant cell is in the periphery but in animal cell it is centrally placed
plants store starch, oil and protein while animals store gats and glycogen
animal cells have centrioles which plant cells do not have
f) Explain the meaning of each of the following
i) Cell
- Basic unit of organization in an organism
- Specialized animal cells include sperm, ovum muscle
Specialized plant cells include epidermal, guard cell and palisade cell
ii) Tissue
these are cells of a particular type grouped together to perform a certain function
animal tissues include epithelium, blood, nerves, muscle, skeletal and connective tissues
plant tissues include epidermal, photosynthetic, vascular, strengthening tissues
iii) Organ
tissues combine together to form organs
an organ is a complex structure with a particular function
animal examples include heart, liver, kidney, lungs, brain, blood vessels, muscles,
skeleton
Plant organs include leaves, roots, flowers, and stem.
iv) Organ system
organs are grouped together to form systems also called organ systems
animal systems include excretory, digestive, respiratory, nervous, circulatory,
endocrine(hormones/glands), skeletal systems
plant systems include transport system
g) i) Name the structures which are present in plant cells but absent in animal cells
- Chloroplast
- Cell wall
ii) Name the structures which are present in animal cells but absent in plant cells
Lysosomes
Centrioles
Pinocytic vesicles
h) Explain how to estimate cell size
i) Materials
cell sizes are measured in units known as micrometers (my)
required is a transparent ruler marked in millimeters
1mµ = 1 mm
1000
ii) Procedure
- Click to low power
place transparent ruler with its millimeter marks on the stage
focus so that the millimeter marks can be seen as thick dark lines
estimate the diameter of field of view by counting the one millimeter spaces between the
first mark and the last one across the field of view as shown below
Plasmolysis
if a plant is placed in a
hypotonic solution if
loses water
the protoplasm shrinks to an extent that it pulls away from the cellulose cell wall
Wilting
when a plant is turgid it
can stand upright
however, if the cells lose a
lot of water, turgidity is
reduced
the plant then droops because the cells are flaccid
the plant is said to wilt
Haemolysis
if red blood cells are placed in distilled water, the cells take up water by osmosis, swell
and burst
this is because it does not have any mechanism like the cellulose cell wall to prevent
overstretching nor any means of removing excess water
this is called haemolysis
e) A form one student placed red blood cells in different salt concentrations and obtained
the following results:-
There was a gain (+) no change (0 zero) and a loss (-) in the volume of the cells as show below:-
5.) explain what happens when plant and animal cells are put in hypotonic and hypertonic
solutions.
a. i)plant cells in hypotonic solution.
The concentration of the plant cell sap is hypertonic to the solution/water medium. the cell draws
in water by osmosis through the cell wall, cell membrane into the cell cytoplasm. Water enters
the cell vacuole by osmosis; it enlarges and exerts an outward pressure on the cell wall called
turgor pressure. Increased turgor pressure pushes the cell cytoplasm against the cell wall until the
cell wall cannot stretch any further. The cell becomes firm or rigid and is said to be turgid. As
the cell wall is being stretched outwards, it develops a resistant inwards pressure that is equal and
opposite to the turgor pressure and this is called wall pressure.
The leaf has a broad and flattened lamina to provide a large surface area for trapping optimum
light for photosynthesis and allow maximum gaseous exchange.
The leaf epidermis is thin ( one cell thick) to reduce the distance across which diffusion of
carbon (iv) oxide gas to palisade cells and oxygen gas from palisade cells takes place.
The leaf has numerous stomata that allows easy diffusion of gases into and out of the palisade
tissue.
The leaf cuticle and epidermis are transparent to allow easy penetration of light to the
photosynthetic tissue.
The palisade cells are numerous,elongated and contain numerous chloroplasts to trapping
optimum light for photosynthesis.
The palisade tissue is just beneath the upper epidermis exposing them to trap optimum light for
photosynthesis.
The leaf has numerous leaf veins consisting of a.) xylem vessels and tracheids for transporting
water and dissolved mineral salts from the soil to the photosynthetic tissue
b.) phloem tissue for translocation of of manufactured food from the leaf to storage organs and
other parts of the plant .
Numerous and large air spaces in the spongy mesopyl layer for optimum gaseous exchange with
the photosynthetic tissue.
Phylotaxy which is regular arrangement of leaves on the stem minimizes overshadowing and
overlapping exposing all leaves to light for photosynthesis.
The prominent midrib and leaf veins reduces chances of rolling of leaves maintaining a large
surface area for trapping optimum light for photosynthesis.
C) Describe the structure and function of chloroplast
i) Structure
ii) Function
structure in which
photosynthesis takes place
iii) Adaptations
has numerous/many
grana to provide large
surface area for packing
many chlorophyll pigments
have numerous
chlorophyll pigments which
trap sunlight/light for
photosynthesis
has stroma/third matrix which contain certain enzymes that catalyze photosynthetic
reactions
d) i) Give a word equation for photosynthesis
Carbon (iv)Oxide + water sunlight sugar + oxygen
Chlorophyll
NB 6CO2 +6H2O C6H1206 + 6O2
.) Describe briefly the process of photosynthesis in plants.
The process of photosynthesis takes place in green plants allowing them to make their own food.
The process is controlled by enzymes and involves a series of reactions that take place in
chloroplasts. The raw materials required are water and carbon (iv) oxide.the process takes place
in two consecutive stages i.e
Light reaction stage
It’s also called the light dependent stage as it requires light energy . the reactions take place in
the granna of the chloroplast. light energy from the sun is trapped by chlorophyll in the
chloroplast and converted into chemical energy. This energy splits water molecules into
hydrogen ions and oxygen atoms a process is called photolysis. The oxygen atoms are released
as aby product or used up in the process of respiration. The hydrogen ions formed are used in the
dark stage of photosynthesis.
Water hydrogen ions + oxygen atoms
2H2O 4H+ + o2 g
Some of the light enrgy is used to combine a molecule called adenosine diphosphate(ADP) with
a phosphate group to form the rich energy molecules called adenosine Tri-Phosphate(ATP)
ADP + P ATP
Dark reaction stage
It’s also called the light independent stage of photosynthesis since light is not required because it
can take place both in presence and absence of light. the reactions are controlled by enzymes. the
hydrogen atoms released in the light stage are combined with carbon(iv)oxide to form simple
sugars mainly glucose. The process uses energy from ATP. This is reffered to as carbon (iv)
oxide fixation. The reactions take place in the stroma of chloroplast. The excess glucose is
converted into starch or lipids for storage.
The general process of photosynthesis can be summarized by the following word and chemical
equitions.
light & chlorophyll
Water + carbon (iv) oxide glucose + oxygen
6H2o + 6co2 C6H12O6 + 6O2
9.) Factors that cause high rate of photosynthesis.
High water availability in the soil. Water a raw material for photosynthesis is split in presence
of light to provide the hydrogen ions required in carbon (iv) fixation. When water is readily
available more hydrogen ions are produced hence high rate of photosynthesis.
High light intensity. Light splits water molecules to hydrogen ions and oxygen atoms. Increasing
light intensity increases the rate of photosynthesis up to a certain level beyond which other
factors become limiting and rate of photosynthesis becomes constant.
rate
of
photosynthesis
Day length. Long day length especially at high latitudes (temperate regions) provides more light
for photosynthesis causing an increase in the rate of photosynthesis.
Light quality. The preferred wavelengths for photosynthesis range between 400nm-700nm. the
rate of photosynthesis is higher in red and blue light and lower in all other types of light.
Concentration of carbon (iv) oxide. It’s a raw material required to combine with hydrogen ions to
form simple carbohydrate molecules. Increasing the concentration of carbon (iv) oxide increases
the rate of photosynthesis up to an optimum level beyond which other factors limit the rate of
photosynthesis.
rate
of
photosynthesis
concentration of co2
f) Give the differences between the light and dark reactions during photosynthesis
Light reactions Dark reactions
Carnivore
presence of canines
presence of carnassial teeth
presence of incisors in upper jaw/absence of diastema/gap between incisor and premolar
1. a) i) Define transport
movement of substances from one part of the body to another
ii) Explain the necessity of transport in plants and animals
make nutrients move from one point to another
movement of respiratory gases i.e. oxygen and carbon IV oxide
elimination of metabolic wastes
movement of hormones
movement of water
movement of salts
movement of enzymes
b) i) Describe the structure and function of root hair
root hairs are found near the root tip
they are cells with elongated finger-like projections which are in contact with soil
particles
they are permeable to water and mineral salts hence are used to absorb water and mineral
salts
There large number offers a large surface area for absorption of water and mineral salts.
ii) State ways in which the root hairs are adapted to their functions
the root hair is long/narrow/numerous to increase surface area for absorption of water and
mineral salts
many mitochondria in cytoplasm to supply energy for active transport of mineral salts
are thin walled to speed up rate of absorption of water and mineral salts
Monocot root
v) Give the
similarities and
differences between a monocotyledonous and
dicotyledonous stem
Similarities
both are used for protection
both conduct water, salts and food
both have epidermis, cortex, pericycle and vascular bundles
Differences
Monocotyledonous Dicotyledonous
vascular bundles are many and vascular bundles are few and
scattered arranged in a concentric ring near
some have hollow pith or pith is the epidermis
absent pith large and well developed
no cambium layer therefore cannot presence of cambium therefore
undergo secondary growth undergoes secondary growth
very little cortex cortex has several layers of cells
v) State the differences between the internal structure of a root and a stem.
Root Stem
v) State the functional differences between a red blood cell and a white blood cell
Red blood cell White blood cell
- Transports oxygen and carbon IV oxide - protects body against harmful pathogens
vi) How does the heart increase blood flow to some parts of the body during exercise
stronger contractions
faster contractions/heartbeat
Explain how oxygen and carbon Iv oxide are transported in the blood
Oxygen
oxygen concentration is higher in lungs(alveoli) that in blood
oxygen in the alveoli dissolves in the film of moisture and diffuses through thin epithelial
and capillary walls into plasma and red blood cells
the oxygen combines with haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin
blood then becomes oxygenated
blood from lungs then travels to all body tissues where the oxyhaemoglobin breaks down
to form oxygen and haemoglobin
haemoglobin is transported back to the lungs to collect more oxygen while the oxygen in
capillaries diffuses into body cells for respiration
respiration produces carbon IV oxide
Carbon IV oxide
carbon IV oxide produced during respiration diffuses out of cells into blood plasma and
red blood cells due to concentration gradient
carbon IV oxide and water form carbonic acid carbamino compounds with haemoglobin
in the presence of carboxyl anhydrase enzyme, hydrogen carbonate is carried in blood to
the lungs
in the lungs the hydrogen carbonate dissociates to liberate carbon IV oxide which
diffuses into alveolar cavity due to concentration gradient
from alveolar space carbon IV oxide is expelled during expiration
Most carbon IV oxide is transported from tissues to lungs within the red blood cells and
not in the blood plasma. Give the advantages of this mode of transport.
- PH of blood is not altered/homeostasis is maintained
- Within the red blood cell is an enzyme, carbonic anhyrase which helps in fast
loading(combining) and offloading of carbon Iv oxide
i) i) what is blood clotting?
process in which blood components clump together to prevent loss of blood from an
injured/cut vessel
ii) Name a protein, vitamin, an enzyme and a mineral element involved in blood clotting
Protein – fibrinogen/prothrombin
Vitamin - k/quinine
Enzyme – thrombokinase/thromboplatin/thrombin
Mineral element – calcium
iii) Describe the blood clotting process
enzyme thromboplastin produced in the platelets of damaged tissues converts plasma
protein prothrombin into thrombin in the presence of calcium ions
thrombin converts another plasma protein fibrogen into fibrin in the presence of vitamin
K
fibrin is insoluble
fibrin forms fibres which form a meshwork that forms a clot
prothrombin thromboplastin thrombin
calcium ion
Fibrinogen thrombin fibrin clot
vitamin K
iv) State the role of blood clotting on wounds
prevents blood/body fluids from being lost
conserves water and salts
prevents entry of microorganisms/pathogens
regulates body temperature
enables wound to heal faster
v) Explain why blood flowing in blood vessels does not normally clot
- Presence of anticoagulant in blood
j) i. list the major types of human blood groups
O, with neither B nor A antigen
AB, with both A and B antigens
A, with type A antigen
B, with type B antigen
iii. explain the meaning of :
Universal donor
a person who can donate blood to any other blood group without agglutination/clumping
this is usually blood group O
however this person cannot receive blood from other blood groups except group O
Universal recipient
can receive blood from all blood groups without agglutination
this is usually blood group AB
however, can only donate blood to group AB
iii) What is the difference between rhesus positive and Rhesus negative blood samples?
rhesus positive blood has the Rhesus (Rh) antigen
rhesus negative lacks the Rhesus antigen
vi) What is blood transfusion?
- Introduction of blood from one person to another
v) Under what conditions would blood transfusion be necessary in people?
during accidents
during surgery in hospitals
bleeding mothers when giving birth
vi) How can low blood volume be brought back to normal?
transfusion
taking fluids
eating iron rich food/taking iron tablets
How may excessive bleeding result in death?
Anaemia/low blood volume/loss of iron/low red blood cells count/low haemoglobin
leading to low oxygen, loss of nutrients and dehydration.
State the precautions that must be taken before blood transfusion
blood must be disease free
sterilized equipment must be used
blood of the recipient and that of the donor must b compatible to both ABO and rhesus
factor
Fresh blood must be used.
j) i) What is immunity?
- Resistance to disease by organisms
ii) Distinguish between natural and acquired immunity
natural immunity is inherited/transmitted from parent to offspring/inborn/innate
Acquired immunity is developed after suffering from a disease or through vaccination.
iii) What are allergic reactions?
Excessive sensitivity and reaction of an individual to certain substances in environment
e.g. dust, pollen, perfumes, smoke etc.
vi) How does an allergic reaction occur?
the substances act as antigens
an antigen-antibody reaction occurs on surface of cells
the cells release a substance called histamine
the histamine causes irritation, itching and may stimulate nasal discharge
vii) State the role of vaccination against certain diseases
protect body against infectious diseases
prevent spread/transmission of certain diseases
diseases for which vaccination is given include tuberculosis, poliomylitis,measles,
whooping cough, diphtheria
3. a) i) What is gaseous exchange?
The continous exchange of oxygen and carbon Iv oxide between the organism and
environment.
ii) Why is gaseous exchange important to organisms?
to supply oxygen necessary for energy production
to remove carbon IV oxide produced during respiration
To remove water vapour.
b) i) name the structure used for gaseous exchange by plants
stomatal pores/stomata
lenticels
cuticle
pneumatophores
c) i) State the ways in which leaves of plants are adapted to gaseous exchange
presence of stomata for faster gaseous exchange
intercellular spaces/air spaces in the leaf for movement/circulation of air
film of moisture around the surface of cells for easy diffusion
broad/flattened shape to increase surface area
thin lamina to reduce distance of diffusion
exposed to air for easy diffusion
ii) Describe how gaseous exchange takes place in terrestrial plants
Gaseous exchange takes place in spongy mesophyll
During the day air diffuses into large air spaces of spongy mesophyll through stomata
The carbon iv oxide in the air diffuses into the photosynthesis oxygen is produced
Some of the oxygen diffuses out of the leaf through stomata
During the night air diffuses out of air spaces of spongy mesophyll
The air dissolves into film of moisture
The oxygen in the air diffuses into cells and is used in respiration during which carbon iv
oxide is produced
The carbon iv oxide diffuses out of the leaf through stomata due to
diffusion/concentration gradient
At night carbon iv oxide accumulates in the leaf since photosynthesis does not take place
Some gaseous exchange also takes place through cuticle
Gaseous exchange occurs through epidermis of young leaves and stems
The cork cells at lenticels are loosely packed
Gaseous exchange takes place between cork and atmosphere within the loosely packed
cells
iii) State the ways in which floating leaves of aquatic plants are adapted to gaseous
exchange
stomata found only on upper dermis to allow efficient gaseous exchange
presence to aerenchyma tissues/large air spaces to enable it float/buoyancy/storage of air
absence of cuticle to enhance gaseous exchange
iv) How is aerenchyma tissue adapted to its function?
has large airspaces which store gases/for gaseous exchange/buoyancy
v) Explain stomatal distribution in plants of different habitats
land plants have their stomata mainly on the lower side to reduce water loss but if on both
sides then upper side has very few
water plants, floaters, have stomata on upper side to enhance water loss
in dry areas, plants have leaves with sunken stomata to reduce water loss by transpiration
Plants in wet areas have stomata equally distributed on both sides.
d) i) List the types of respiratory surfaces of animals
cell membrane in unicellular organisms e.g. amoeba
gills in fish
tracheal system
skin, buccal cavity and lungs in amphibians
lings in mammals
ii) State the characteristics of respiratory surfaces in animals
moist
thin walled/thin membrane/thin surface
Highly/richly vascularised/numerous blood vessels/well supplied with blood vessels.
Large surface area
iii) Describe gaseous exchange in protozoa
example is amoeba
small and have large surface area
oxygen diffuses into the organism and carbon IV oxide diffuses out into water
simple diffusion of gases is enough to meet its respiratory requirements
e) i) Make a labeled drawing of a fish gill
ii) Discuss the role of the following hormones in blood sugar control
Insulin
insulin is produced when there is increase in blood sugar concentration
it converts glucose to glycogen which is in the liver or muscle thus lowering sugar level
Glucagon
when glucose level decreases glucagon is produced, which causes the breakdown of
glycogen to glucose thus raising blood sugar level
e) Explain the part played by antidiuretic hormone in homeostasis
Produced when there is less water (high osmotic pressure above normal level of salt
concentration) in the blood.
It acts on kidney tubules (nephron) thus increasing water reabsorption from tubules to the
blood stream, thus restoring osmotic pressure
When there is more water(lower osmotic pressure) or decreased salt concentration in
blood, little or no ADH is produced, less water reabsorbed hence water loss in urine
(more dilute urine) hence raising the osmotic pressure in body fluids/blood
f) What is the role of blood clotting in homeostasis?
when a blood vessel is cut, there is exposure of blood platelets to the air
this triggers fibrinogen to be converted to fibrin
the fibrin forms a clot that prevents body fluids e.g. blood from being lost
therefore the clot conserves water and salts in the body
g) Describe the role of the following hormones in homeostasis
i. Aldosterone
concerned with regulation of ionic balance
secreted by the cortex of adrenal glands
it increases sodium ion uptake by the gut and promotes the reabsorption of sodium ions
(and therefore water) in the kidneys)
this is accompanied by elimination of potassium ions
this raises the overall level of sodium and lowers the overall level of potassium in the
blood
as sodium ions are absorbed in the blood, chlorine ions follow so as to neutralize the
effect of sodium ions
the production of aldosterone is regulated by the concentration of sodium ions which has
an inhibiting effect, and a fall in sodium ions has a stimulating effect on the adrenal
cortex
the flow of aldosterone is stimulated by the adreno-cortic-tropic hormone (ACTH)
produced in the anterior of the pituitary gland
however, the main method of control is dependent on the fact that adrenal cortex itself is
somehow sensitive to the relative concentration of potassium and sodium in the blood
ii. Adrenaline
produced by adrenal glands
in high concentrations, it increases hydrolysis of glycogen and increases blood sugar
it is usually released in emergency cases to increase glucose level for respiration
this releases energy for the emergency
h) i) Distinuish between diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus
diabetes mellitus is a condition resulting from insufficient production of insulin causing
hyperglucaemia and presence of glucose in urine
diabetes insipidus is a condition whereby less or no antidiuretic hormone is secreted
hence a high volume of water is passed out in urine in a condition called diuresis
ii) How can high blood sugar level in a person be controlled?
administer insulin
iii) Why does glucose not normally appear in urine even though it is filtered in the
mammalian Bowman’s capsule?
glucose molecules are actively reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubules
iv) When is glycogen which is stored in the liver converted into glucose and released into
the blood?
after activity/when blood sugar (glucose) falls below normal
when glucagon
stimulates the liver/when glucagon is produced
after strenuous/vigorous activity
during starvation
v) How would one find out from a sample of urine whether a person is suffering from
diabetes mellitus?
test or react urine in Benedict’s solution
positive result i.e. orange or red precipitate
Positive result is an indication of diabetes mellitus.
Food web
complex feeding relationship where a consumer feeds on more than one type of food
while several herbivores feed on one type of plant
it is an interrelationship of many food chains
consumers are usually fewer than producers to ensure survival of both
Pyramid of numbers
this is a diagrammatic
representation of numbers of
organisms at each trophic level in a food chain
usually there are more producers than consumers
hence producers herbivores carnivore
the reason for the pyramid is because herbivores feed on many plants (producers) as
carnivores feed on many herbivores
sometimes this may not be true e.g. when many caterpillars feed on one tree or parasites
on a herbivore
this gives an inverted pyramid of numbers
Pyramid of biomass
replication of organelles
duplication of DNA
production of energy (ATP) for cell division
Prophase
stage of dehydration
chromosomes shorten and thicken
chromosome replicates into two chromatids
chromatids joined at centromere
formation of spindle fibers
Metaphase
chromosomes move to equator (early metaphase)
chromosomes line up at the equator
homologous chromosomes do not associate
Anaphase
chromatids separate
move to opposite ends (poles) of the cell
Telophase
chromatids reach the poles
formation of two daughter cells occurs i.e.
cytoplasmic division
ii) State the significance of mitosis
ensures each daughter cell has same number and kinds of chromosomes as daughter cells
gives rise to new cells (responsible for growth)
d) i) What is meiosis?
division of diploid cells to form gametes which are haploid
ii) State the significance of meiosis
gives rise to gametes
source of variation
iii) Give a summary of the stages of meiosis
First meiotic division
Interphase
cell is in non-dividing condition
chromosomes appear threadlike
Prophase I
chromatic material shorten and thicken
double stranded chromosomes appear (bivalent)
double stranded chromosomes pair and twist round each other (synapsis)
point of contact of chromosomes is called chiasma
Metaphase I
paired homologous chromosomes line up at the equator
Anaphase I
paired homologous chromosomes move to the poles
Telophase I
paired homologous chromosomes reach the poles
two new nuclei are formed
Anaphase II
-chromatids of each chromosome separate to the poles
Telophase II
reach the poles
four haploid daughter cells are formed
Monoecius plants
have pistilate and staminate on one plant
however, pistilate and staminate occur at different plants e.g. maize
Complete flower
Has all four parts i.e. Calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium
Incomplete flower
does not have all four parts
at least one is missing
vi) Explain the meaning of the following types of ovary
Superior
ovary occurs above other floral parts on the receptacle
Inferior (epigynous)
other floral parts arise above ovary on the receptacle
g) i) What is pollination?
transfer of pollen grains from anther of a stamen to stigma of a flower
ii) Explain the types of pollination
self pollination takes place when mature pollen grains of a flower fall on the stigma of the
same flower
cross pollination takes place when pollen grains of a flower fall on the stigma of another
flower of the same species
iii) State the advantages of pollination
healthy offspring
leads to variation
greater chances of dispersal
iv) List the agents of pollination
wind
water
insects
v) How are flowers adapted to wind and insect pollination?
Insect pollinated flowers (entomophilus)
are scented to attract insects
have stick stigma for pollen grains to stick on
are brightly coloured to attract insects
presence of nectar to attract insects
have nectar guides to guide insects to the nectarines
have nectarines to secrete nectar
stigma/ anthers located inside the flower/tubal/funnel shaped corolla to increase chances
of contact by insects
sticky/spiny/spiky pollen grains which stick on the body of insects and on stigma
large/conspicuous flowers easily seen by/attract insects
anthers firmly attached to the filament for insects to brush against them
landing platform to ensure contact with anthers and stigma
mimicry to attract (male) insects
iii) What is
double
fertilization?
there are two male nuclei entering embryo sac
one fuses with the ovum to form a zygote, while the other fuses with the polar nuclei to
form a triploid primary endosperm nucleus
therefore there are two fusions at fertilization
iv) Name the changes that Occur in a flower after fertilization
petals, stamen, calyx and style wither
ovary wall changes into pericarp
intergument changes into seed coat/testa
zygote changes into embryo (by mitosis)
primary endosperm nucleus changes into endosperm
whole ovule changes into seed
ovary develops and grows into fruit(under the influence of gibberrellic hormone)
j) i) Distinguish between a fruit and a seed
a fruit is a fertilized ovary and has two scars
a seed is a fertilized ovule and has one scar
ii) How is a seed formed?
after fertilization, zygote grows into an embryo, primary endosperm nucleus developed
into endosperm, interguments harden to form testa, hence the whole ovule becomes the
seed
the seed loses water to become drier
the seed has plumule, radicle, seed leaves called cotyledons, a microphyle and a scar
iii) Draw a labeled diagram of a seed
iv)
Pome
juicy part is swollen receptacle
is usually a false fruit
example is a pear
iv) What are dry fruits?
have a pericarp that is dry, hard and woody
either dehiscent or indehiscent
called dry because they are not succulent
v) What are dehiscent fruits?
split open when ripe to release seeds
contain many seeds
vi) Give types of dehiscent fruits
Legumes
split along two edges
are usually pods e.g. beans, peas, crotolaria
Follicle
split on one side only e.g. Sodom apple
Capsule
has several lines of weakness/sutures
open in many places e.g. castor oil, cotton
vii) What are indehiscent fruits?
non-splitting fruits
usually one seeded only
ix) Give main types of indehiscent fruits
Nut
pericarp woody, hard and thick e.g. cashew
Achene
has thin, tough pericarp e.g. sunflower
l) i) What is seed and fruit dispersal?
spreading of seeds and fruits away from parents so as to settle where conditions are
suitable for their germination
ii) Why is dispersal of seeds and fruits necessary?
prevent overcrowding
reduces competition for space, nutrients and light
colonization of new areas is made possible
to increase chances of survival
to prevent inbreeding
to avoid extinction due to over competition for the necessities
iii) Explain how seeds and fruits are adapted to various methods of dispersal
Adaptations for wind dispersal
they have wings, feathers or hair-like structures to increase surface area for wind to carry
them easily/buoyancy
seeds/fruits are loosely attached on the stalks so that they can easily be released and
carried away by wing
seeds/fruits are generally light and small sized to be easily carried by wind
some seeds/fruits have parachute-like structures to be easily carried b wind
some have censor mechanism where seeds and fruits are borne on long stalks that are
loosely attached which allows swaying so that movements of capsule by wind releases
the seeds
Water dispersal seeds
seed/ mesocarp has air spaces thus light/buoyant to float hence carried by water
they have waterproof cover and tough pericarp protects seeds from getting soaked
fibrous and spongy mesocarp to easily float
Animal dispersal seeds
presence of hooks for attachment to animals thus carried to other parts
fruits are brightly coloured, succulent and scented to attract animals
seed coats are hard and resistant to digestive enzymes hence seeds are dropped away
from mother plant
large in size or borne on clusters to be easily seen
Self dispersal/explosive
self opening seeds
they have lines of weakness called sutures for violent opening thus scattering seeds away
from parent plant
5. a) i) Distinguish between external and internal fertilization in animals
in external fertilization fusion of the male and female gametes takes place outside the
body of the female e.g. amphibians and fish
in internal fertilization union of gametes occurs inside the body of the female
ii) State the advantages and disadvantages of external fertilization
Advantages
large numbers produced therefore many offspring per breeding season
female does not suffer gestation stress
mother does not need to care for the young except in a few species
the surviving individuals are highly selected for better survival
Disadvantages
many predators surround the eggs before and after fertilization
fewer chances of fertilization/a lot of gametes wasted
embryo development at mercy of environment
large numbers of female gametes are required therefore female gets much exhausted
iii) State the advantages and disadvantages of internal fertilization
Disadvantages
number of gametes fewer hence less number of offspring
less adapted for sudden change of environment after birth
in mammals females suffer gestation stress
Advantages
more chances of fertilization
fewer predators of oval/fertilized egg protected in females body
stable internal environment
fewer gametes required
iii) Give a reason why it is necessary for frogs to lay many eggs
to increase chances of survival/fertilization
iv) Compare external and internal fertilization
External Internal
occurs in water outside the bodies occurs inside the body of the female
of animals animal
many eggs are laid fewer eggs released from ovary
usually less contact between male very close contact in form of
and female copulation between male and
both fertilized eggs exposed to female
danger Fertilized eggs are enclosed hence
highly protected inside females’
body.
b) i) Draw and label the human male reproductive system
ii) Describe how the mammalian male reproductive system is adapted to perform its
functions
Penis
is highly vascularised/spongy
has a sensitive glands
becomes erect to allow entry into the vagina
Scrotum
contains the testes outside the body on whose walls the process of spermatogenesis takes
place
the process is favored by lower temperature
it contains sertoli cells which nourish sperms until they are mature
Epididymis
long and coiled for the purpose of sperm storage
Vas deferens
muscular
upon contraction pushes sperms out and allows ejaculation
Gametes
produced in large numbers to increase chances of fertilization
the sperms have a tail for swimming/large number of mitochondria to provide
energy/allow swimming to reach the egg
Accessory glands
are seminal vesicle, Cowper’s gland and prostate gland
they produce seminal fluid to provide a medium/ nutrients for sperms to swim
A-lag phase
- Slow growth rate at first
Organism adapting to the environment
B-exponential phase
- organisms already adapted
- first growth due to birth rate that is higher than death rate
C- Stationery phase (plateau)
- Birth rate equals death rate (equilibrium)
Lack of nutrients, accumulation of toxic waste products
D-phase of decline
- due to depletion of nutrients, accumulation of toxic wastes, lack of space
- some individuals old hence not reproducing
- death rate higher than birth rate
iii) Draw an intermittent curve and explain the various stages
A- growth
B-no growth
C- moulting/ecdysis
- seen in arthropods
- growth in in arthropods is intermittent(takes place during some time only because their
hard cuticles (exoskeleton) does not expand to cause growth
- the cuticle must be shed off first to allow further growth
- the shedding is called ecdysis or moulting
- when moulting has taken place animal grows but growth stops when the exoskeleton
hardens again
d) i) What is seed dormancy?
- A state where a viable seed is incapable of germinating when all conditions are
favourable.
ii) State the biological importance of seed dormancy
- gives embryo time to reach maturity
- gives time for dispersal
- allows plant to survive adverse conditions
iii) State the factors which cause seed dormancy
Internal factors
- presence of abscisic acid/ABA/ presence of germination inhibitors
- embryo not fully developed
- absence of hormones/enzymes/inactivity of hormones/enzymes/gibberellins/cytokinins
- impermeability of seed coat
External factors
- unsuitable temperature
- absence of light
- lack of oxygen
- lack of oxygen
- lack of water
iv) Give the conditions necessary to break seed dormancy
- scarification/scratching to make seed coat impermeable
- vernalisation/cold treatment in some seeds like wheat
- burning/nicking/expose to heat e.g. wattle seeds
- destruction of germination inhibitors
e) i) What is seed germination?
- process by which a seed develops in a seedling
ii) What is viability
- ability of a seed to germinate
iii) Discuss the various conditions necessary for the germination of seeds
Water
- medium for enzymatic activity
- hydrolysis of food into simpler substances
- medium of transport
- softens the seed
- acts as a solvent
Air
- in form of oxygen
- oxygen is used for respiration/oxidation of food to release energy
Suitable (optimum) temperature
- activates enzymes involved in mobilization of food reserves
Enzymes
- breakdown and subsequent oxidation of food
- conservation of hydrolyzed food products into new plant tissues
Viability
- only viable seed are able to germinate and grow
iv) Name and describe the types of germination
Epigeal
cotyledons are brought above the ground level during
germination due to elongation of hypocotyls
Hypogeal
- the cotyledons remain below the surface during germination due to elongation of epicotyl
e.g. maize
v) Name the part of the bean seed that elongates to bring about epigeal germination
hypocotyl
vi) Account for the loss in dry weight of cotyledons in a germinating bean seed
- food stored is mobilized/used up for respiration and growth
vii) Describe the physiological changes that occur in a seed during germination
- in presence of oxygen, optimum temperature and water, food reserves in the seed are
hydrolysed or broken down into soluble diffusible form by enzymes
- soluble food diffuses to the growing embryo
- oils and carbohydrates provide energy
- simple sugars converted to cellulose to form cell wall
- amino acids make protoplasm
- seed develops plumule and radicle hence germinates
viii) Explain the biological significance of cotyledons being brought above the ground in
epigeal germination
- cotyledons have inadequate food
- they are brought above the ground to acquire chloroplasts to carry out photosynthesis
before the formation of foliage leaves to supplement food supply required for growth
during germination
f) i) Distinguish between primary and secondary growth
Primary growth
- occurs at the apical (shoot and tip) apices regions where meristematic cells occur
- causes plant elongation since cells divide by mitosis
Secondary growth
-occurs at the cambium meristems
Increases width (girth) of the stem
ii) What are meristems
- dividing cells
- meristem means they are dividing
iii) State the characteristics of meristematic cells
- dense cytoplasm
- thin cell walls
- absence of vacuoles/cell sap
iv) State the location and function of the following meristematic tissues
Apical meristem
- located at tips of roots and shoots
- increase length of stem and roots/primary growth
Intercalary meristem
- found at bases of internodes
- responsible for elongation of internodes and increase in leaf sheath in grasses
Lateral meristems
- found near the periphery of stem and root
- responsible for secondary growth/growth in girth of stem and root/lateral growth
- called cambium and constitute vascular and cork cambium
v) Describe primary growth
- occurs at tips of shoots and roots in the meristematic tissues of apical meristem
- at the apex there is a zone of cell division/mitosis
- cells elongate at elongation zone
- the elongated cells differentiate at the region of differentiation resulting in increase in
size
- in the stems meristems give rise to leaf premodia which envelop the apex to form a bud
- the bud protects the delicate inner cells
- in roots the meristem is protected by root cap
- after cells differentiate the form permanent tissues
vi) Describe secondary growth in plants
- also called secondary thickening
- only occurs in dicotyledonous plants that have cambium
- monocotyledonous plants do not undergo secondary growth because they lack
intervascular cambium
- cambium cells divide to produce more cells on either side of the cambium
- cells produced to the inside become secondary cambium
- cells produced to the outside become secondary phloem
- division of cambium cells occurs yearly producing new rings of secondary phloem and
secondary xylem each year
- intervascular cambium(cambium between vascular bundles) divide to form secondary
parenchyma, thereby increasing growth of medullary rays
- much more xylem is formed than phloem, thus pushing phloem and cambium ring
outward
- the rate of secondary growth is depended on seasons(rains) resulting in annual rings
- cork cambium is located beneath epidermis ad is responsible for secondary thickening of
the bark of perennial plants
- cork cambium divides to form new cork(bark) tissues to accommodate increased growth
on outside and secondary cortex on the inside
- Cork cells (cells of the bark) are loosely parked at some points to form lenticels for
gaseous exchange.
vii) State the significance of secondary growth
- increase girth or circumference of trees
- annual rings which show seasonal growth can be used to tell the age of trees
g) i) Describe one method which can be used to measure the average growth rate of a single
leaf of a plant
EITHER
- chose/identify a young leaf(just unfolded)
- use the same leaf throughout
- measure (total) length of (whole) leaf
- record
- repeat at regular intervals until no more change occurs/constant length
- average rate of growth is equal to total increase in length divided by the period taken to
achieve full length
Average rate of growth = total increase in length
period taken to achieve full length
OR
- choose/identify a young leaf(just unfolded)
- use the same leaf throughout
- trace the outline on a graph paper and work out the area
- record
- repeat at regular intervals until regular area
- average rate of growth equals to total increase in area divided by the period of time taken
to achieve full area
Average rate of growth = total increase in area
period of time taken to achieve final area
i) Describe how the growth of a root can be determined
Materials
- fine thread, marking ink, germinating bean seedlings, blotting paper, ruler marked in
millimeters, pins, cork, a boiling tube and moist cotton wool
Procedure
- dry seedlings using blotting paper
- place inside against the ruler marked in mm
- dip the fine thread in waterproof ink
- mark the radicle at equal intervals
- pin the seedling to the cork
- suspend the seedling into the boiling tube containing moist cotton wool
- allow the seedling to grow for two days/some
time observe the intervals with the marks
- record your observations the widest intervals are found in the region just behind the tip
indicating/showing region of greatest growth
iii) A boy hammered a nail in the bark of a tree at a height of 1.5metres above the ground.
Four years later, the nail was found at the same height although the tree had grown 3
meters taller. Explain the above observation
The nail was hammered at a point where vertical growth had stopped/further growth was
confined to increase in width/diameter.
Vertical growth is confined to tips/apex/vertical apical meristem
h) i) Describe the role of hormones in growth and development of plants
indole acetic acid/IAA/ auxins
Cell division/increase in cell division
Tropic responses
Cell elongation/increases in ell elongation
Development of abscision layer
Growth of ovaries into fruits/parthenocarpy/initiates flowers
Inhibits growth of lateral buds/produces apical dominance
Stimulates adventitious/lateral roots
Gibberellins (Gibberellic acid/GA3
Promote cell elongation/rapid cell division/increase in length of the internodes
Promote fruit formation without fertilization/parthenocarpy
Reduces root growth
Breaks seed dormancy/promotes germination
Cytokinnins (Kinnins/Kinnetin/Zeatin)
- breaks dormancy
- promotes flowering
- promotes cell division
- stabilizes protein and chlorophyll
- promotes root formation on a shoot
- low concentration encourages leaf senses
- normal concentration increases cell enlargement in leaves
- stimulates lateral bud development
Ethylene (ethynelC2H4)
- accelerates ripening in fruits
- encourages fruit fall/leaf fall
- induces thickening in stern/inhibits stem elongation
- promotes flowering (in pineapples)
- promotes germination in certain seeds
Abscisic acid (ABA) abscisin hormone/dormin)
- causes bud dormancy
- encourages fruit/leaf fall
- high concentration causes closing of stomata
- causes seed dormancy
- inhibits cell elongation
Traumatin
- heals wounds by callous formation
Florigen
- promotes flowering
ii) State the applications of plant hormones in agriculture
- induce root growth in stem cuttings
- selective weed killers
- encourage sprouting of lateral buds
- breaking seed dormancy
- induce parthenocarpy
- accelerate ripening of fruits
- promote flowering
- cause dormancy
iii) Explain apical dominance
- a phenomenon whereby production of auxins by a growing apical bud of a shoot inhibits
growth of lateral buds
- this inhibition is due to high concentration of auxins (indoleacetic acid/IAA) in apical
bud
- removal of terminal/apical bud causes development and sprouting of several buds which
later develop into branches
- applied in pruning coffee, tea and hedges
- this leads to more yield
iv) Describe the role of hormones in the growth and development of animal
somatotrophin (growth hormones)
- from anterior pituitary
- promotes cell division
- overproduction causes gigantism
- underproduction causes dwarfism
Thyroxine
- promotes growth and metamorphosis
- underproduction leads to a child becoming a cretin (mentally retarted)
Androgens
- in males
- growth of male reproductive organs
Oestrogen
- in females
- growth of female reproductive organs
Ecdysone
- in arthropods
- moulting (ecdysis)
t) i) What is metamorphosis?
- change in form during which there are changes in structure and function in body of
organism
- prepares organism for life in a different habitat
FORM IV TOPICS
R
i) State the results of P, Q and R after 5 days
- P will bend/grow towards light
- Q will remain straight/have little or no growth
- R will remain/grow straight/grow upwards
ii) Account for your results in (i) above
P- Growth substance/growth hormone/IAA/auxin are produced by the stem tip
- they move (downwards and get distributed) to the side away from light where they cause
rapid/more growth/cell division/elongation that results in bending
Q- Source of auxin has been removed
R- The auxins cannot be affected by light because the tip has been covered
iii) If the tin foil were removed from the tip of seedling R, what results would be
observed after two days
- it will bend/grow towards light
iv) State the expected results after 3 day is if the box were removed
- all seedlings will grow straight/upwards
e) In an experiment to investigate a certain aspect of plant response, a seedling was placed
horizontally as shown in diagram I below. After seven days the appearance of the seedling
was as shown in diagram 2
Account for the curvature of the shoot and root after the seven days
i) Shoot
- auxins accumulate on the lower side of the seedling due to gravity
- high concentration of auxins in shoot stimulates faster growth causing more elongation
on the lower side than the upper side hence curvature occurs upwards
ii) Root
- the high concentration of auxins inhibits growth hence the upper side with less auxins
grows faster than the lower side therefore the curvature occurs downwards
f) What is etiolation?
- phenomenon exhibited by plants when grown in darkness
- such plants are pale yellow due to absence of chlorophyll, have small leaves, long
stems/hypocotyle and slender stems
- plants exhibit etiolation to reach light/obtain light
- this is a survival response
3. a) i) What is coordination in animals
4. - The linking together of all physiological activities that occur in the body so that they
take place at the right time and in the correct place
ii) Name the main systems for coordination in animals
- Nervous system/sensory system
- Endocrine (hormonal system)
iii) List the components of the mammalian sensory system
- Central nervous system (CNS), brain & spinal cord
- Peripheral nervous system (PNS) cranial and spinal nerves
- Sense organs
- Autonomic nervous system (ANS) nerve fibers and ganglia
iv).Explain the terms receptors, conductors and effectors
- Receptors are structures that detect stimuli i.e. sense organs
- Conductors transmit impulses from receptors to effectors e.g. neurons
- Effectors are the responding parts e.g. muscles, glands
v) What are the functions of the central nervous system?
- provides a fast means of communication between receptors and effectors
- coordinates the activities of the body
vi) State the differences between somatic and autonomic systems of peripheral nervous
system
- Somatic is concerned with controlling the conscious or voluntary actions of the body i.e. skin,
bones, joints and skeletal muscles
- the autonomic (automatic) nervous system controls involuntary actions of internal organs,
digestive system, blood vessels, cardiac muscles and glandular products.
b) i) What is a neurone?
the basic unit of the nervous system
also called nerve cell
conducts impulses
include monitor sensory and relay neurons
ii) Name the parts of a typical neurone and state the functions of each part
cell body/centron contains nucleus and cytoplasm
axon transmits impulses away from cell body
dendrites relays impulses across adjacent neurons
myelin sheath insulates axon and speeds up transmission of impulses
schwan cells forms myelin sheath and aid in nutrition and regeneration of axon
node of ranvier occur between schwan cells, where axon is not covered, speeds up
impulse transmission
nissils granules contain mitochondria that provide cell body with energy for metabolic
process
i) Describe the structure and function of a motor neurone
motor neurone relays impulses from CNS (brain/spinal cord) to effectors (
muscles/glands)
v) State the effects of over secretion and under secretion of adrenaline and thyroxine in
humans
Hormone Over secretion Under secretion
Adrenaline thin toneless low blood pressure
muscles inability to
high blood pressure withstand stress
weak bones fatigue
obesity muscular weakness
early onset of sexual muscle wasting
development increased dark
pigmentation of skin
Thyroxine increased cretinism(retarded
metabolism growth and low
increased heartbeat mental development
physical restlessness lowered metabolism
mental restlessness low ventilation rate
protruding eyeballs of lungs
enlarged thyroid low body
gland temperature
lowered mental
activity
coarse hair
puffy eyes
enlarged thyroid
gland
Presbyopia
occurs in old age hence called old sight
caused due to loss of elasticity of lenses, weakness of ciliary muscles hence lack of focus
of light rays
this causes long sight
corrected by wearing biconvex/convex/converging lenses
Squinting
eyeballs are uncoordinated/do not turn at the same time
eye muscles move in different directions
this makes accommodation and focusing difficult
corrected through surgery
Astigmatism
surface of cornea is uneven
leads to weak focus of light raise on retina
corrected by using cylindrical lenses/lenses with combined curvature
xi) State the advantages of having two eyes in human beings
stereoscopic vision
gives a wider angle of binocular vision
if one is damaged human is not blinded
I i) What are the functions of the human ear?
hearing
balancing
iv) How are the structures of the human ear suited to perform the function of
hearing?
vi) Describe how the various vertebrae are adapted to their functions
Bone Structure Function
Skull cranium and jaw attachmen
bones t of jaws
made of several protect
bones joined brain and
together other
large box called delicate
cranium and parts
smaller paired
boxes for eyes,
ears, nose, jaws
has large hole
called foramen
magnum for the
passage of
spinal cord
Cervical region ring shaped protect
Atlas (first cervical) no Centrum spinal
broad, flat cord
transverse attachmen
processes t of
vertebraterial muscles
canal for allow
passage of nodding
vertebral artery of head
facet for
articulation of
condyles of
skull
Axis (second cervical) adontoid peg allows
projects from head to
Centrum rotate
large flattened protects
neural spine spinal
vertebrasterial cord
canal provides
small transverse surface for
process muscle
attachmen
t
v) Hinge joint
convex surface of one bone fits into the concave
surface of another bone
this allows movement in only one plane/direction 180o
e.g. elbow joint and knee joint
END