COPIRATIVE TRAINING OF POULTRY

 Poultry: refers to all birds kept for the production of eggs and meat for human consumption
and for their feathers.
 Layers: chickens rose to be egg-layers
 Broilers: chickens kept for meat production
 Chicks: young chicken between 0-8 weeks
 Pullets: female chickens in their first year of lay, or prior to their first molt
 Hens: female chickens in their second year of lay, or after their first molt
 Cockerels: young male chicken before sexually matured
 Cock: sexually matured male chicken used for breeding purpose
 Rearing: is the care of chicks from about eight weeks of age to the point they begin to drop
eggs, i.e., point of lay.
 Egg: a hard-shelled oval thing from which a young bird is born.
 Candling: is a process of examining fertile eggs against a strong beam of light preferably
emerging through a small hole or a narrow slit
 Incubation: the management of fertilized egg to ensure the satisfactory development of the
embryo inside it in to a normal chick. It may be achieved by the natural method, with the
hen sitting on eggs, or by using special machines known as incubator
 Hatching: - the bringing forth of young chicks from the egg by natural or artificial
incubation
 Brooding: is the process of caring for young chicks from day-old to eight weeks of age.
 De-beaking/Beak trimming: a practice which involves partial removal of the points beak to
prevent vice habits such as pecking, feather-pulling, cannibalism and egg eating.
 Feed: is a mixture of feedstuff blended/processed in a form which is acceptable to animals.
It is merely the carrier of nutrient and potential energy in a ration.
 Candling; Shining a light through the egg to observe embryo development is called
candling. White or pale eggs are easier to candle than dark or speckled eggs. In a dark room,
hold the egg to the light of the Candler to observe the contents of the egg.
OHS Hazards in raising poultry
Personnel working in the poultry industry are permanently exposed to hazards. These have either a
physical, chemical or biological nature. Proper management is needed to avoid accidents and to
keep the staff motivated.
According to the International Labor Organization (ILO), health hazards in poultry working
environments are categorized as accidental, physical, chemical, and biological. Here are just a few
examples for each category mentioned by this organization.

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  Physical
 Exposure to high levels of noise.
 Long-time exposure to heat and cold.
 Skeletal problems resulting from lifting and moving of animals, feed bins (bags),
egg collection.
 Chemical
 Respiratory problems resulting from exposure to dust, which is composed of
feathers, dander, micro-organisms, etc.
 Respiratory, skin, and eye diseases due to exposure to gaseous chemicals.(e.g. NH3,
H2S, CO2, CO, and CH4.
 Exposure to disinfectants, detergents, formaldehyde and pesticides.
 Biological
 Zoonotic infections. These diseases are transmitted between birds and humans &
they also are transmitted from animals to humans and include bacterial, viral, fungal,
and parasitic diseases. Salmonellosis, campylobacteriosis, chlamydiosis,
tuberculosis, Newcastle Disease, and avian influenza are amongst the most common
zoonotic diseases transmitted from poultry to humans. Poultry workers are at a
greater risk of being affected by these diseases.
The Recommended types of disinfectants
A. Formaldehyde (formalin and potassium permanganate)
It is in gaseous state used for fumigation of hatchery.
B. Caustic soda (soda lime)
Use a 2% solution in water. Since it corrodes most materials, it is use should be limited to
serious virus disease situation.
C. Chlorine
Use 1% solution of chlorine quaternary ammonium compounds
it is effective when used as a 1% solution in water.
The following point should be considered during poultry house construction.
 Location against wind direction: The house should be placed at the back faces the
direction from which wind and storms usually come
 Orientation of poultry house: is an important consideration in order
 to protect poultry from wind and rain storms
 to prevent direct sunlight from entering the house and stressing the birds
 to have good drainage around the house to protect it from flooding
 to avail of the prevailing wind to cool the house in a warm climate

 Adequate space according to the number of poultry:

 The size of poultry house depends on the number of fowls
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  The measurement varies according to the production purpose, growth stage of the poultry.
 The main aim should be to provide a type of house that has plenty of space.

 Need for specifying foundation, well- drained area and good drainage system:
 Adequate aeration:
Ventilation in the poultry house is necessary to provide the birds with fresh air and to carry off
moisture.
 Adequate light:
Day light in the house is desirable for the comfort of birds. Sunlight in the house is desirable
not only because of the destruction of disease and for supplying vitamin-D but also makes
poultry happy.
 Space requirement. Stocking densities (maximum)
 Chickens 0-6 weeks old: 10-12 birds/m2
 Pullets to 16 weeks old: 5-7 birds/m2
 Hens in layer cages,

2.2.5 Egg selection criteria

Eggs laid by hens without mating the cock will not hatch since they are sterile and lack a germ to
develop into a chick. By rapid development and transformation within an egg, a minute germ can be
converted into a chick in 21 days. All of a hen's eggs are unfit for hatching. Suitable eggs for
hatching should be carefully picked on the following criteria.
 Fertility
Fresh eggs collected from healthy and well-matured hens between 5- 7 days after mating and within
2 days of separating the cock will be fertile enough to hatch. Eggs taken quickly after letting in the
cock for mating or long after the cock has been separated may not be fertile.
 Egg size and shape
The size of the eggs used for hatching is important since the size of the hatched chick is strongly
dependent on the size of the egg. Depending on the breed, the eggs for setting should be neither too
large nor too small. It is always preferable to choose eggs weighing about 58 g each. Eggs that are
uniform in size and shape are preferable.
 Eggshell
The eggshell should be equal in thickness, texture, and color so that warmth can spread uniformly
throughout incubation. In the case of white-shelled eggs, all eggs for incubation should be tint-free.
Medium and dark brown eggs hatch faster than light brown eggs when it comes to brown eggs. Low
hatchability occurs when the shell texture is poor due to a calcium or vitamin D deficit. All eggs
should be checked for cracked shells before being utilized for incubation.
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  Egg quality
Eggs should be gathered as soon as possible after laying, preferably within a week of lying, to
ensure that they are fresh and not stale. Fresh eggs laid on the day of setting should not be set unless
they have reached room temperature before being set. Eggs that are 2 to 4 days old are ideal.
 Deformity
Eggs with ridges, encrustations, projections, depressions, cracks, or stains should not be chosen.
Very thin shells may break during rotating and fail to maintain a consistent temperature for the
embryo's development. If the shell is too thick, the chick will struggle to chip it with its fragile beak
and escape.
 Soiled egg
Soiled eggs should not be washed in water before setting since doing so opens up the pores and
interferes with the hatching process. If the dirt is not too thick, it should be removed with a knife.
Eggs that have been heavily stained should not be utilized.
 Storage
To achieve the best results, eggs collected for setting should be kept in a dry, cold, and airy
environment. Eggs should not be kept for more than three days in hot temperatures, although they
can be maintained for up to ten days in cold weather or on hillsides.

1. Table 1.1. Tools and Equipment’s used in poultry production

Name Use of material, tools and equipment Image
Bedding are materials used in poultry house
materials for covering the floor to overcome
moisture and heat stresses. These
are: old newspaper Saw dust, Rice
hulls coffee pulp and etc.

Disinfectants are chemical substance that is used

to kill harmful germs and bacteria: a
substance used to disinfect
something.

Generator a machine that produces electricity

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Heater a device that imparts heat or holds
something to be heated.

Electric lamps a device that produces light.

Incubator a device that is used to keep eggs

warm before they hatch.

Weighing scale an instrument or machine used for

weighing.

Pail a usually cylindrical container with

handle.

Wheel barrow a cart with two handles, large bowl

and usually one wheel that is used
for carrying heavy loads

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Feed bin a box that is used for storing or
keeping of feeds.

Feed cart a heavy usually horse drown 2

wheeled used for farming or
transporting things

Plastic drinking are plastic materials used for

jars watering chicks

Egg trays are thin, flat, and often rectangular

piece of plastic, wood, etc that are
used for holding or carrying of eggs.

water pump is material used to pump water from

its source
.

Infrared gas are materials used for producing

brooder rays of light during brooding

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Debeaker is a manual or electrical materials
used to cut the beak of bird to
prevent cannibalism.

Knapsacks is a material used to spray liquid

sprayer materials usually disinfectants

Egg grader is a material used to measure the

quality of eggs

Feed scoop are something that are shaped like

bowl or bucket used for pickup
poultry feed

Hover Material that floats in air without

moving in any direction during heat
supply.

Chick guard plastic, metal sheet or wood used to

keep chickens in one area cohesively
and protect them

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 Curtains hanging materials used to cover
window to protect the entry of air,
light and etc

Rake equipment used to for gathering of

waste materials from poultry house

Shovel equipment used to for gathering of

waste materials from poultry house

Spade equipment used for digging and

gathering of waste materials from
poultry house

Portable coolers movable materials that is used for

cooling in poultry farm.

Hay box Used to brood chickens artificially

Extensive chicken production system

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 This system is most suitable if you have a lot of space, preferably covered with grass. At night, the
chickens can be kept in any kind of shelter which should be as roomy, airy and clean as possible.
Disease concerns increase when birds have access to the outdoors and interact with wild birds. The
poultry can encounter more predators (including theft by neighbors). In this system local breed
works best.

Semi- intensive chicken production system

This type of chicken production system is better is partially supplemented with inputs like
supplemental feed, vaccine, etc. In this production systems Local, modern breeds or a mixture of the
two work best. The house must be accommodating laying nest and feeders which serves as chicken
house for night time. The house should have one or two side open door for easy movement of the
chicken to the fenced area during the day time. The fence can be made from mesh wire or other
materials and will not allow the chicken to escape above on it. The fenced area should be always
clean and dry. The feed the chickens obtain from the scavenging is very low, they should be
supplemented with energy and protein feeds.

Intensive chicken production system

This system requires high management systems (feeding, housing and health care services) with
more inputs (feeds and feeding, breed, health, housing and other inputs) than the above two chicken
production systems. It is market oriented and should provide the expected product within that time.
In this production systems improved breeds (layer or broiler) works best. They should provide the
expected product within that time.

4.1 Co-ordinate poultry production systems

1. Biosecurity:
 Well-defined biosecurity practices throughout broiler production (pre-, during and post placement)
are crucial to successful poultry production.
 Effective biosecurity can aid hygiene, vermin and insect control on-farm and help to limit disease
transmission within and between barns.
2. Pre-placement preparation
 Pre-placement preparation is needed before the new flock arrives to help prevent losses during
brooding and the rest of grow out. Checkpoints to keep in mind:
 Heaters  floor temperature
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 temperature
 relative humidity probes
 ventilation
 Drinkers and feeders, etc.

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3. Brooding management
 With today’s improved genetic capabilities and the fast growth of birds, more time is being spent
during the critical brooding phase. As a result, ensuring a good start in poultry production can
have a significant impact on the future health and performance of the birds.
4. Litter management
 The litter in a poultry house acts as bedding for the birds.
 In addition to standing and resting on the bedding, birds will naturally peck at the litter.
 Litter condition and quality have an impact on broiler intestinal health and profitability, starting
from when the chicks are placed all the way through production.
5. Water management
 Drinking water accounts for 70–80 percent of the bird’s daily drinking needs.
 Poultry will generally consume more water than feed. As a result, water is the most critical
nutrient for poultry.
 An abundance of clean water will reduce challenges and maximize performance.
6. Feed management
 Birds must have easy access to feed.
 Proper feeder line height corresponding to the height of the birds helps to reduce feed wastage
and mixing feed with litter, and it ensures that all birds have access to feed.
 Adequate feed access is also achieved by following the feed line manufacturer’s
recommendations for the number of birds per feed pan or line of trough feeder.
 Birds will naturally peck at litter but avoiding “out-of-feed” events helps to reduce the potential
for birds to peck excessively at the litter.
7. Stocking density
 A higher stocking density of poultry in addition to crowded housing conditions has been shown
to have a negative impact on performance, causing stress to the birds
 Lowering stocking density throughout the overall production of the birds may help to reduce
challenges.
8. Environmental management :General environmental management of the barn includes many
components, such as

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 Temperature
 relative humidity
 Ventilation and lighting.
9. Keeping an eye on equipment .Walking the barns routinely will also help to ensure equipment
remains in working order
10. Mortality checks: Cull diseased birds as early as possible.
2.1 king poultry raising activities

2.1.1 Cleaning and disinfecting poultry shed

Majority of the disease in poultry farm are raised from improper cleaning and disinfecting
I. Cleaning
The first requirement for good hygiene is effective cleaning.
II. Disinfection
During disinfecting the poultry farm the following important points should be considered.
These are:

 They should kill all pathogens.

 Should not be poisonous to birds and persons operating.
 With minimum of corrosive action on poultry equipment.
 Should be long lasting.
 Easy to use and must be cheap.
 No irritating or objectionable small or bleaching effect.
Factors affecting the action of disinfectants

 Concentration: follow manufacturer’s directions.

 Time of application.
 Temperature: important in the tropics since disinfectants work best with warmth.
 Presence of organic matter, faeces and other protein materials counteract the activity of
disinfectants.
 Distance
The Recommended types of disinfectants
D. Formaldehyde (formalin and potassium permanganate)
It is in gaseous state used for fumigation of hatchery.
E. Caustic soda (soda lime)
Use a 2% solution in water. Since it corrodes most materials, it is use should be limited to
serious virus disease situation.

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 F. Chlorine
Use 1% solution of chlorine quaternary ammonium compounds
it is effective when used as a 1% solution in water.
 Kinds of feed
 Chicks: A ration that is fed up to the age 8 weeks.
 Growers: A ration to be fed to growing chicks 8 to 20 weeks or until
laying commences.
 Layers: A ration to be fed to laying birds 20 weeks on ward or after
lying commences.
 Broiler starter: is fed from day-old until 4 weeks of age.
 Broiler finisher: is fed from 5 weeks until market
There are two methods of brooding chicks namely

1 Natural brooding
2 Artificial brooding
Natural brooding:-is chick raising with the help of broody hen (mother), which:

 Provide the heat required

 Communicate feed and water source
 Alert danger conditions
 Provide protection against predation
Disadvantages of Natural Brooding

 Broody hen ceases laying during the incubation period of 21 days

 Few number of chicks are raised at a time and it does not fit to market oriented
production system
 Success depends on the maternal instinct of broody hen and prevalence of predators in
the area.
Artificial Brooding:- involves the use of special appliances which provide conditions similar to
those of the broody hen such as adequate warmth, protection from harsh external factors of
weather (wind, rain, temperature) and predators. It also allows good feeding, watering and
disease control. Artificial brooding is the best method for the commercial producer. Artificial
brooding has some advantages over the natural method namely:

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  Chicks may be reared at any time of the year.
 Thousands of chicks may be brooded at once depending on the capacity of the farmer.
 Sanitary conditions may be controlled.
 Temperature may be regulated and
 Feeding may be controlled to meet the production objective

THE END
HIDE AND SKIN

Methods of preservation
Preservation is the name given to a variety of procedures which can be applied to hides and skins
in order to reduce or stop spoilage. Preservation can only maintain quality. It cannot improve
quality. If a badly spoiled hide is preserved, the quality will remain bad, irrespective of how well
it has been preserved. Similarly, if a very good hide is well preserved, it should remain equally
good during the course of the preservation. It follows that a bad preservation will allow
deterioration of all a skin, irrespective of its original quality.

There are two major methods of preservation

1. Air – drying
2. Salting
In all the techniques natural Water is removes so that the low percentage & moisture- Makes the
bacteria ineffective. The two methods of presentation / air drying and starting/ can be used
depending on the following factor

o Weather condition
o Availability of material

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 o Location of the tanneries
o Economic factors
So, one can select preservation method that is suitable for his condition.
Preservation procedures applied to hides and skins for the tanning industry must be:
1. Effective
2. Safe and non-toxic
3. Reversible
4. Cheap
5. Widely applicable
The preservation procedure should not have any adverse affects on the leather-making
characteristics of the hide or skin.

1. Air- drying methods

Drying of hide and skins can be done in different ways. The techniques include drying on the
ground, using suspension/frame drying, drying by suspension over cords or wires, and tent and
parasol drying. Drying depends on the temperature, relative humidity and movement of air. For
example, a skin can be dried in three hours in a dry

Air drying can be done in the following ways:

a. Suspension frame drying

b. Suspension drying over cords or wire
c. Ground drying
Air drying techniques include:

 Drying on the ground

 Drying by suspension (frame drying)
 Drying by suspension over cords or worse
A).Suspension of frame (frame drying)
- Is best as compared to others.
- Frame can be erected in an open air or under sheds.
- The best way is to frame. Drying in shed

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 - It shed are used. It is important that the sheds shows have ventilation to ovoid
spoilage.
Advantage of frame draying

 It allows free circulation of air on both side of hide or skin

 The rain drains of the surface and does not collect in puddles on the hide
 The sun's rays strike obliquely not directly
 No hairclip or putrefaction as there are no folds nor points of contacts b/n the hide
and any solid subject (compare ground dried hides which touches the earth, folded
hides which touches themselves, or pole-dried hides which touch the solid pole
 It permits the hide to cool off rapidly, since heat is lost through both surfaces
 Cheaper transportation, as dry hides are lighter than salted hides
b). Drying by suspension over cords or wires
This technique is employed where wood is scarce. According to the Ethiopian policy all
goatskins, which are not salted, should be prepared by these techniques. Suspending them over
one, better three, wires or cords stretched horizontally, may also dry sheep and goatskins. This
method can yield good results, provided the greatest care is taken that the sides of the suspended
skins do not touch each other (which happens when one wire only is used), and that all folds,
especially those on the shanks, are stretched out by means of small sticks or straws.

Figure1. Suspension drying over cords.

C) Tent and parasol drying.

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It is used in the area where there is a shortage of wood for frame construction. Hides and skins
are placed on a wire stretched between two poles and edge of the skin or hide is stretched by
cords pegged on ground along each side.

The parasol technique is a modification of ground draying method and involves a single central
vertical pole to support the middle of the hide with edges stretched out to pegs on ground

Fig2. Parasol drying

c) Ground drying
Hides and skin are placed directly on ground to dry. It is the worst drying technique for skin and
hides. Dried skin and hides produced on this way are of poor quality and consequently producer
get low return. There is no free air movement underneath and hence sun heat coupled with
moisture trapped under the hides and skin encourages bacterial attack causing damage to the
product. Thos method is not recommends.

Fig3. Ground drying results in serious, irreparable damage to skins.

2. Salting
a) Wet salting

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This was introduced in to Ethiopia around 1977 and at present about 89% of the sheepskins, 20%
of goatskins and 5% of cattle hides are preserved using this method. The hide or skin is spread
on floor or wooden pallet and salt is uniformly applied on the flesh side with common salt to the
extent of 30 to 40% on green weight. The second hide is now spread on the first one with flesh
side up and salt applied in the same manner, curing takes approximately 3 weeks and the piles
need to be turned and restocked every 10 days.

This salting technique is preferred by the tanners to air drying as tanners find it easier to process
wet salted stock and they obtain better results. And also salting is highly beneficial during the
long rainy season as hides and skins cannot be properly air dried at that time.

 Cost of salt
 Transportation of wet salted stock is more expensive than the dry ones
 Can be stocked for much lesser time compared to dry ones
 Require trained staff
Advantage:

 Better quality and hence higher price

 The tanneries spend much less in soaking expenses compared with dry ones
 Good during rainy season
 Increase in area compared with dry ones
b) Dry salting
Dry salting is a method of preservation of hides and skins widely used in tropical countries.

The difference between dry-and wet salting is that in dry salting, salt is used for the initial period
only (when the hides are highly susceptible to damage), the remaining moisture being removed
by the exposure to air.

 Especially suited for preparing stock for export purposes, at the same time overcoming the
problems of wet salting.
 The quantity of salt used is 10% less than in wet

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 With the advent rains, air-drying of salted hides may cause considerable difficulties. In this
period, a mixture of one part of common salt to four parts of anhydrous sodium sulphate is
very often used to speed up drying.
 With rains, air-drying of salted hides may [resent considerable difficulties.
 Dry- salted goods do not require protection form beetles but are very susceptible to damage
by wetting.
 Butchers or farmers who handle only small number of hides can easily practice-quick dry
salting.
This method consists of rubbing salt into the clean, properly fleshed hide approximately at a
salting rate of a quarter of the weight of the weight of the hide or skin. The salt is applied and
hide is folded with flesh side in. Hide remains in folded condition for two days and taken out
and dried.

 Type of salt used for preservation

In our countries sea salt /Asab salt/ are the type of salt used for preservation of hides & skins.
Sea salt contain halophillic /salt loving/ bacteria which causes red heat defects if used directly

-Halphillic bacteria are only be infective if the salt is treated with chemicals, therefore it is
recommended to use salt which is chemically treated

-The type of chemicals used for salt treatment is naphthalene, sodium silk florid.

-sodium silk florid is the most effective chemicals and for 100kg of salt 2kg of this chemical are
used.

 Re use of sale
It must be recognized that there is a high risk of contamination and hence reuse of salt is not
recommended.

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