List of Experiments

Experiment No. Description

To draw the load-extension curve of a metallic wire and hence to

1
determine the modulus of elasticity of the material of the wire.

2 To investigate the relationship between shear stress and shear strain

for rubber and to determine the modulus of rigidity of the material.

To determine the modulus of rigidity of the given material of circular

3
shaft.

To determine the central deflection of a simply supported beam

4 loaded by a concentrated load at mid point and hence determine the
modulus of elasticity of the material of the beam.

To determine the central deflection of a fixed ended beam loaded at

5 mid-span by concentrated loads and to compare with theoretical
value.

6 To determine the deflection at mid span of a propped cantilever beam

and compare with the theoretical values

To determine the deflection at three different points of a propped

cantilever beam using a brass beam and compare with the theoretical
7 values also find its comparison with aluminum beam used in lab
session
6.

8 To measure the stiffness of a compression spring and compare it with

theoretical values.

9 To measure the stiffness of an Extension spring and compare it with

theoretical values.
10
To verify the relationship among load on spiral spring, number of
 turns and degree of rotation of a coil spring
Experiment No 1

Objective:
To draw the load-extension curve of a metallic wire and hence determine the modulus of elasticity of
the material of the wire.

Apparatus:
• Young’s Modulus of Elasticity apparatus
• Hangers
• Weights
• Meter Rod
• Micrometer

Figure 1. 1Young's Modulus of Elasticity

Apparatus

Summery of Theory:

The Young’s Modulus of Elasticity apparatus consists of a wire attached to a fixed support. The
lower end of the wire is attached to the hanger with the help of a metallic plate. The extension of
the wire on loading can be measured from the scale present on metallic plate.

Normal stress in a solid body is defined as:

“The internal resistance force per unit area against the applied load or external force.” It is denoted by
σ. It can be tensile or compressive.
Mathematically,
 Stress = Force/Area ---------- (i)
Units of stress: Newton per square meter (N/m2) = Pascal (Pa) or pounds per square inch (psi)
Normal strain in a solid body is defined as: “Change of length per Original Length.” It is denoted
by the symbol ε.
Mathematically,
Normal Strain = Change in length/Original length ---------- (ii)
Strain is measured as inch/inch.

By Hooke’s law, we know that stress is directly proportional to the strain, whenever a material is
loaded within its proportionality limit. It is denoted by E.
Mathematically,
Stress α Strain (within proportionality limit) ---------- (iii)
Units of E: Newton per square meter (N/m2) = Pascal (Pa) or pounds per square inch (psi) Consider
a body (wire) subjected to a tensile stress as shown in figure 1.1.

Let,
P = Load or force acting on the body
L = Length of the body
A = Cross-sectional area of the body σ
= Stress induced in the body
E = Modulus of elasticity for the material of the body
ε = Strain produced in the body
δl = Deformation of the body

From (i), (ii), and (iii)

σαε
σ=Exε
or
E = σ/ε

E = (p/ δl) (L/A)

Load-Extension Curve

δ
l
Figure 1.2 Load Extension Curve
 Observations and Calculations:

Least Count of the scale of apparatus = ___0.5_______ mm

Least Count of micrometer = ____0.05______ mm
Least Count of meter rod =____1______ mm
Length of wire (L) =_______88.7___ mm
Dia of wire (d) =_____1.4_____ mm
Initial Load =____8.895______ N
X-area of wire (A= πd2/4) =_____0.785_____ mm2

No. of Load Extension ) Stress Strain Young's

obs . ( lbs . ) ( mm ( MPa ) (m)
Loading Unloadin Avg . modulu
g s
)
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.126
2 0.5 2 2.5 2.25 2.82 2.54 1.114
3 1 4 5 4.5 5.05 5.07 1.25
4 1.5 5.5 6.5 6 8.49 6.76 1.215
5 2 8 8.5 8.25 11.3 9.3 1.215
6 2.5 10.5 10.5 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.19

Graph:

Chart Title
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.11 0.12

Applications:

1. *Material Characterization*: This experiment is essential for characterizing the mechanical

properties of a specific metallic material. It helps engineers and material scientists understand how a
particular metal behaves under tensile loading conditions.
2. *Material Selection*: Engineers can use the modulus of elasticity to choose the right material for a
given application. It ensures that the material has the necessary stiffness and can withstand tensile forces
without excessive deformation.

3. *Quality Control*: Manufacturers can employ this experiment to assess the quality and consistency
of the metallic wire they produce. It allows them to ensure that the material meets the required
specifications for various applications.

4. *Structural Analysis*: In structural engineering, the modulus of elasticity is vital for analyzing and
designing components like beams, columns, and cables. Understanding this property helps engineers
predict how materials will deform under load.

5. *Product Development*: Researchers and product developers use the modulus of elasticity to
innovate and create new materials or improve existing ones. It's particularly important in industries like
aerospace and automotive manufacturing.

Comments:

1. *Accuracy is Crucial*: The precision of measurements and data recording is paramount in this
experiment. Small errors in load or extension measurements can significantly affect the accuracy of the
modulus of elasticity determination.

2. *Calibration and Equipment Maintenance*: Proper calibration and maintenance of testing

equipment, such as tensile testing machines and extensometers, are essential to obtain reliable results.
Regular checks and calibrations should be conducted.

3. *Sample Preparation*: Careful sample preparation is necessary to ensure uniformity and eliminate
any surface defects or irregularities in the metallic wire. Sample dimensions must be accurately
measured before testing.

4. *Safety Precautions*: Safety measures should be followed rigorously, especially when dealing with
high loads or when the wire may snap under tension. Proper safety gear and precautions are essential to
protect experimenters.

5. *Data Collection*: Systematic data collection is vital. Load-extension data points should be recorded
at regular intervals during the test to create a complete and accurate load-extension curve.
 Experiment No 2
Objective:
To investigate the relationship between shear stress and shear strain for rubber and to determine the
modulus of rigidity of the material.

Apparatus:
• Modulus of rigidity of rubber apparatus
• Hangers
• Weights
• Steel rule
• Dial Indicator

Rubber Block Dial

Loading Plate

Base
Hang
er
Back

Figure 2. 1 Modulus of rigidity apparatus

A rubber block 12 x 4 x 1 inch is bonded to two aluminum alloy plates. One plate is screwed to a
wall, whilst the other has a shear load applied by a loaded weight hanger. A dial gauge measures
the deflection of the block.
This equipment is part of a range designed to both demonstrate and experimentally confirm basic
engineering principles. Great care has been given to each item so as to provide wide
experimental scope without unduly complicating or compromising the design.
Each piece of apparatus is self-contained and compact. Setting up time is minimal, and all
measurements are made with the simplest possible instrumentation, so that the student
involvement is purely with the engineering principles being taught.
Summary of Theory:
The force which tends to cut off or parts off one portion of the component from the other is called
shear force. Stresses produced on the area under shear, due to shearing forces, are called shearing
stresses. Shear stress is denoted by τ.
Mathematically,
Shearing stress = Shearing force/ Area under shear ------ (i)
Units of shear stress: Newton per square meter (N/m2) = Pascal (Pa) or pounds per square inch (psi)

Shearing strain is the angle of distortion. It can be represented by γ. ------ (ii)

The constant of proportionality relating shear stress and shear strain is modulus of rigidity. It is
represented by G.
Mathematically,
G = Shear stress/ shear strain ------ (iii)
Units of G: Newton per square meter (N/m2) = Pascal (Pa) or pounds per square inch (psi)

Let us consider the deformation of a rectangular block where the forces acting on the block are known
to be shearing stress as shown in the figure 2.2.
The change of angle at the corner of an originally rectangular element is
defined as the shear strain.
w
Let, A C
Ps = Shearing load or force acting on the body l
c
= Length of the body A = Area under shear = l x
t τ = Shear stress induced in the body l
G = Modulus of rigidity for the material of the body
t
γ = Shear strain produced δs = Deformation of
the body B D
d δ

From the figure P

Figure 2. 2 Distortion of a
Cc = Dd = δs = Shear Deformation tanγ = Dd/BD = δs/w
Rectangular Block

For smaller angles tanγ = γ

=Shear strain = δs/w

From the information in (i), (ii), and (iii)

G = τ / γ or
G = (Ps / δs) (w/ l.t)
Shear Stress-Shear Strain Curve:

γ
Figure 2. 3Shear Stress-Shear Strain Curve

Procedure:
1. Set the dial indicator so that its anvil rests on the top of the loading plate.
2. Set the dial indicator at zero.
3. With the hanger in position apply a load to the hanger and read the vertical displacement of the
loading plate relative to the fixing plate from the dial indicator (δs).
4. Repeat the experiment for increasing load and record the vertical displacement of the loading
plate in each case.
5. Unload and note the corresponding readings with the load decreasing.
6. Calculate the “Modulus of Rigidity (G)” of the rubber material.

Observations & Calculations:

Length of rubber block (l) = ___304.8_______ mm

Width of rubber block (w) = ____101.6______ mm
Thickness of rubber block (t) =_____25.4_____ mm
Least count of dial indicator =_____0.01_____ mm
 No. Load Shear Deformation-δs Shear
of Shear Strain
Obs. Ps (mm) Stress
Modulus of Rigidity
γ = δs / w
(lbs) τ =Ps/l .t

(N/m2) G =τ/γ G
(N/m2)
Loadin
Unloading Average From
g Graph
(N/m2)
1 0 0 0.005 0.0025 0 0 0
2 0.5 0.03 0.035 0.0325 2.85 2.461 1.158
3 1 0.05 0.055 0.0525 5.7 4.43 1.316
4 1.5 0.07 0.08 0.075 8.553 7.382 1.1586
5 2 0.09 0.1 0.095 11.4 9.35 1.219
6 2.5 0.11 0.11 0.11 14.256 11.8 1.2

Graph:
In the graph, there is shear stress on Y-axis and shear strain is on x-axis.

Chart Title
7

0
0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.11 0.12
Applications:

1. *Rubber Material Characterization*: This experiment helps in characterizing the mechanical

properties of rubber, which is essential for designing products like tires, gaskets, and shock absorbers.

2. *Material Selection*: Engineers can use the modulus of rigidity to select the appropriate type of
rubber for specific applications, ensuring it has the necessary flexibility and resilience.

3. *Product Development*: Researchers and product developers can use the modulus of rigidity data
to innovate and create new rubber materials with improved properties for various industries, including
automotive and construction.

4. *Quality Control*: Manufacturers can employ this experiment to ensure the quality and
consistency of the rubber they produce, verifying that it meets the required specifications.

5. *Structural Analysis*: In cases where rubber components are used in structural applications, such
as seismic isolation devices, understanding the modulus of rigidity is crucial for analyzing and
designing these components.

6. *Education and Training*: This experiment is commonly used in educational settings to teach
students about material properties, especially the behavior of elastomers like rubber under shear loads.

Comments:

1. *Precise Instrumentation*: The experiment demands the use of precise instruments and
equipment, such as a rheometer or a torsion testing machine, to accurately measure shear stress and
shear strain. Calibration and regular maintenance of these instruments are essential.

2. *Sample Preparation*: Careful sample preparation is crucial to ensure uniformity and consistency
of the rubber samples. Any irregularities or impurities in the samples can introduce errors into the
results.

3. *Safety Precautions*: Since the experiment involves the application of shear forces, safety
precautions are essential. Proper safety gear, training, and supervision should be in place to protect
experimenters from potential hazards.
4. *Data Collection*: Accurate and systematic data collection is vital. Shear stress and shear strain
measurements should be taken at multiple points and under various conditions to create a
comprehensive dataset.

Experiment No.3
Objective:
To determine the modulus of rigidity of the given material of circular shaft.

Apparatus:

• Torsion of shaft apparatus

• Hangers
• Weights
• Vernier Calipers
• Micrometer
• Steel rule

Figure 3. 1Torsion of shaft Apparatus

Torsion of shaft apparatus includes a shaft of circular section, two measuring scales and a pulley with
a frame.

The main purpose of the pulley with hanger is to apply some load on the circular shaft. Similarly, the
scales attached to the frame are used to measure the torsion in the circular shaft. Actually, two scales
are used, one at the front and one at the back.
The measuring arms (scales) are used to measure the magnitude of the torsion at the front and the back
of the circular shaft respectively. The front is the portion of the shaft that is near to the pulley and the
back is the portion of the shaft near the back support of the frame.
The main purpose of the frame is to support the shaft and balance the apparatus on the surface.

Summary of Theory:
Torsion is the engineering word used to describe the process of twisting a member about its
longitudinal axis.
Consider a solid circular shaft of radius “r” and length “L” fixed at its back face as shown in figure(b).
A line AC is marked on the shaft. If a torque “T’ is applied at its free end, line AC will acquire the
shape of a helix and point A will move to A/.

L
Figure 3. 2Torsion of Shaft

Then from figure,

Angle of twist, θ = <AO A/

Now consider a longitudinal fiber at distance “ρ” from the axis of the shaft. Deformation
in longitudinal fiber, δs = AA/ = ρθ

Strain in longitudinal fiber, γ = δs /L = ρθ/L

Stress in longitudinal fiber, τ = Gθ

The shearing strain is maximum on the surface of the shaft where ρ = r.

If J is the Polar moment of inertia of the shaft, then using above information the torsional formula for a
circular shaft can be written as:

T/J = τ/r = Gθ/L

` or
G = TL/ Jθ

The torsional formula describes the relation of applied torque with the angle of twist and stresses
produced in the shafts.

Procedure:
1. Place the apparatus on a smooth horizontal surface.
2. Measure the effective length of the shaft using steel rule.
3. Measure the diameter of the shaft using micrometer.
4. Adjust the Zeros at 1st and 2nd measuring arms.
5. Put a load of ten N in the hanger.
6. Measure the 1st and 2nd angle of twist of the shaft.
7. Take a set of six readings of increasing value of load and then take readings on unloading.
8. Calculate the “Modulus of Rigidity (G)” of the material of the shaft.

Observations & Calculations:

Effective length of shaft (L) = _____9.843_____ in

Diameter of shaft (d) = _______0.1575___ in
Diameter of torque pulley (D) =___4.843_______ in
Radius of torque pulley (R=D/2) =____2.4215______ in
Polar Moment of Inertia of the shaft (J=πd4/32) =___6.04118 x 10-5_______ in 4

No. Load(lbs Torque(lb Angle of twist at 1st Angle of Angle

of ) -in) twist at of twist
Obs W WR 2nd for
. measurin effectiv
g e
8₁ length
( rad )
. ( lbs ) ( lb - in )Loadin Unload Averag Loading Unloading Average ?=?1-?2
g e
1 0.5 1.2107 0.035 0.0384 0.03665 0 0 0 0.0366

2 1 2.421 0.0611 10.064 0.063 0.00698 0.0105 0.00873 0.05427

5
 3 1.5 3.632 0.0942 0.0771 0.096 0.0157 0.0199 0.01745 0.0785
7
4 2 4.843 0.1204 1.24 0.1221 0.0244 0·028 0.02618 0.0955
5 2.5 6.0538 0.1466 0,1501 0.14835 0.0332 0.0366 0.1133 0.1133

Graph:

Chart Title
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.11 0.12

Applications:

Engineering Design: The modulus of rigidity is crucial in engineering design, especially for materials
used in shafts, beams, and other structural components. Knowing this property helps ensure that the
material can withstand the required shear stresses without deformation.

Material Selection: Engineers use the modulus of rigidity to select the most appropriate material for a
specific application. It allows them to choose materials that provide the necessary strength and
stiffness while considering cost and weight constraints.

Quality Control: Manufacturers can use this experiment to ensure the quality and consistency of the
material they are producing. By measuring the modulus of rigidity, they can verify that it meets the
required specifications.

Safety Assessment: In applications like construction or aerospace, knowing the modulus of rigidity is
crucial for assessing the safety and reliability of structures or components. It helps in predicting how
materials will behave under different loads and conditions.

Comments:
1. *Precision is Key*: This experiment requires a high degree of precision in both measurement and
data analysis. Any errors in measurement or calculation can significantly affect the accuracy of the
modulus of rigidity determination.

2. *Equipment Calibration*: Proper calibration of testing equipment, such as torsion testing

machines and strain gauges, is essential to obtain reliable results. Regular maintenance and calibration
checks are crucial.

3. *Sample Preparation*: The circular shaft samples used in the experiment should be carefully
prepared to ensure uniformity and eliminate any surface defects that could introduce errors. Sample
dimensions must also be accurately measured.

4. *Safety Precautions*: Safety measures should be followed diligently, especially when dealing with
high torque or stress levels. Proper safety gear and precautions are essential to protect the
experimenters.