1 Algebra

Chapter 1

ALGEBRA
Learning Outcome 1.1:

 understand the meaning of |x|, and use relations such a  b  a 2  b 2 and

x  a  b  a  b  x  a  b in the course of solving equations and inequalities.
 understand the meaning of |x|, sketch the graph of y  ax  b

1.1 Modulus Function and the Graphs

1. The graph of any curve C1 whose equation is y  f (x) can be found from the curve C 2 with
equation y  f (x) , by reflecting in the x -axis the parts of C 2 for which f (x) is negative. The
remaining sections of C1 are not changed.

2. For any curve of the form y  f (x) , it can be written as non-modulus form:
 f ( x), for values of x where f ( x)  0
y .
 f ( x), for values of x where f ( x)  0

 x, x  0
3. For example, the modulus of x, denoted by x , is defined by x  
 x , x  0

Example 1
Sketch the following curves and write the equations in non-modulus form.
1
(a) y  2x  3 (b) y  1 x
2

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Example 2

Figure above shows the graphs of y  x and y  ax  b , where a and b are constants. The
 1
intercepts of y  ax  b with the x - and y -axes are  1, 0  and  0,  respectively.
 2
(i) Find a and b .

(ii) Find the coordinates of the two points of intersection of the graphs.

1.1.1 Solving Equations Involving Modulus Signs

1. If x is any real number, x 2  x . Hence, x  a  x 2  a 2 .

2. To solve the equations involving modulus, several methods of solution can be used.
Method 1: Graphical
Method 2: Definition of modulus
Method 3: Square both Side

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Example 3
Solve the following equations:
(a) x2 3 (b) 7  2x  2
(c) 2 x  1  3x (d) x  2  2x  5
(e) x  2  2x  1 (f) 3 x  1  2x  1

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1.1.2 Inequalities Involving Modulus Signs
1. If a is a positive number, then x  a is equivalent to  a  x  a .
If a is a positive number, then x  a is equivalent to x  a, x  a .
If a is a negative number, then x  a is impossible for all the values of x .
If a is a negative number, then x  a is valid for all the values of x .

2. To solve the inequalities involving modulus, several methods of solution can be used.
Method 1: Graphical
Method 2: Definition of modulus
Method 3: Square both Side

Example 4
Solve the following inequalities:
(a) 3x  2  4 (b) x4 2
(c) x  2  2x  1 (d) x  2  3x
(e) x  2  2x  3 (f) 2 x  3  3x  1

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 1 Algebra

Learning Outcome 1.2:

 divide a polynomial, of degree not exceeding 4, by a linear or quadratic polynomial,

and identify the quotient and remainder (which may be zero)
 use the factor theorem and the remainder theorem, e.g. to find factors, solve
polynomial equations or evaluate unknown coefficients.

1.2 Polynomials
1. A polynomial, p( x) is an expression in x of P( x)  a n x n  a n1 x n1  ...  a1 x  a0 , a n  0
where a0 , a1 , a2 ,...., an are real numbers and n is a non-negative integer.

2. The number n is called the degree of the polynomial.

3. The number a0 , a1 , a2 ,...., an are called coefficients.

4. Polynomials with low degree have special names.

(a) degree 0 = constant polynomial, or a constant.
(b) degree 1 = linear polynomial.
(c) degree 2 = quadratic polynomial.
(d) degree 3 = cubic polynomial.
(e) degree 4 = quartic polynomial.

1
1
5. Examples of nonpolynomial expressions: x 2  3x,  2 x 3 and x 3  2 x  1 .
x

Example 5 (Addition, subtraction and multiplication of polynomials)

Given P( x)  3x 4  5x 3  4 and Q( x)  3x 2  3 . Determine:
(a) P( x)  Q( x) (b) P( x)  Q( x) (c) 3P ( x ) (d) P ( x)  Q( x)

NOTE :
If P(x) is a polynomial of degree m and Q(x) is a polynomial of degree n, then product P( x)  Q( x) is
a polynomial of degree (m + n)

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1.2.1 Division of the polynomial
1. The division of the polynomial can be expressed in the form P( x)  D( x)Q( x)  R( x) or
P( x) R( x)
 Q( x )  where D(x) = Divisor, Q(x) = Quotient, R(x) = Remainder.
D( x ) D( x)

2. Two different methods can be used in the division of the polynomials:

(i) Method 1: Comparison method
(ii) Method 2: Long Division
Q( x)
D( x) P( x)
R( x)
Example 6
(a) Divide 2 x 3  x  5 by x  3 .
(b) Divide x 4  4 x 2  7 by x 2  3 .

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 1 Algebra
1.2.2 The Remainder Theorem
1. When a function P(x) is divided by x  2 , we can write it as:
P( x)  (quotient )( x  2)  remainder .
Substitute x  2 will make it become P(2)  remainder .

2. This result is called the remainder theorem and can be summarized as:
When a polynomial P(x) is divided by a linear factor (x  a) , then the remainder is P(a).

1.2.3 The Factor Theorem

1. When  x  a  is a factor of the polynomial P(x) , there is no remainder  P(a)  0 .

2. This is called the factor theorem and can be summarized as:

For a polynomial P(x) , if P(a)  0 then  x  a  is a factor of P(x) .

Example 7 MJ11/33/Q5
The polynomial ax 3  bx 2  5 x  2 , where a and b are constants, is denoted by p (x) . It is given that
2 x  1 is a factor of p (x) and that when p (x) is divided by x  2 the remainder is 12.
(i) Find the values of a and b .
(ii) When a and b have these values, find the quadratic factor of p (x) .

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Example 8 MJ13/33/Q5
The polynomial 8 x 3  ax 2  bx  3 , where a and b are constants, is denoted by p (x) . It is given that
2 x  1 is a factor of p (x) and that when p (x) is divided by 2 x  1 the remainder is 1.
(i) Find the values of a and b .
(ii) When a and b have these values, find the remainder when p (x) is divided by 2 x 2  1 .

Example 9 ON09/32/Q5
The polynomial 2 x 3  ax 2  bx  4 , where a and b are constants, is denoted by p (x) . The result of
differentiating p (x) with respect to x is denoted by p ' ( x) . It is given that x  2 is a factor of p (x)
and of p ' ( x) .
(i) Find the values of a and b.
(ii) When a and b have these values, factorise p (x) completely.

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 1 Algebra

Learning Outcome 1.3:

 recall an appropriate form for expressing rational functions in partial fractions, and
carry out the decomposition.

1.3 Partial Fractions

1. Set induction
Two or more proper fractions can be combined to give a single fraction. For example
1 2 3x  1
 
x x  1 xx  1

Equally, a single proper algebraic fraction can be expressed as a sum or difference of two or
more proper fractions. For example
3x  1 1 2
 
xx  1 x x  1

1 2 3x  1
and are known as partial fractions of .
x x 1 xx  1

2. There are two types of fraction:

(a) A ‘ proper’ fraction is, if the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the
denominator.
3 x2 2x 2  7
Eg: , 3 or 3
5x x  4 x 1

(b) An ‘improper’ fraction is, if the degree of the numerator is greater than, or equal to,
the degree of the denominator.
2x 4  7 2x3  1
Eg: or
x2 1 x3  5

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 1 Algebra
3. To express partial fractions, two methods can be used:
Method 1: Comparison
Method 2: Eliminate unwanted unknown

4. Type 1: Denominator with linear factors. (Proper fractions)

Example 10
Express the following fractions in partial fraction.
2x  3 7x  4
(a) (b)
x  1x  2 x1  x 2 x  1

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5. Type 2: Denominator with repeated linear factors (Proper fractions)

1
**Note: is consider as a repeated root but not quadratic factor.
x2

Example 11
Express the following fractions in partial fraction:
x 3x  1 9
(a) (b) (c)
x  1 2
x 2 x  1 x  1x  22

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6. Type 3: Denominator with quadratic factors. (Proper fractions)

(a) Denominator with quadratic factors that can be factorized

Example 12
3
Express 2 in partial fraction
x 9

(b) Denominator with quadratic factors that cannot be factorized

Example 13
Express the following fractions as a partial fraction:
4x 3x  4
(a) (b)

x  1 3  x 2
  
x  2 x 2  x  1

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7. Type 4: Denominator with repeated quadratic factors (Proper fractions)

1
**Note: is consider as a repeated root but not quadratic factor.
x2

Example 14
1 x2
Express as a partial fraction.

1 x2
2


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8. Type 5: Partial fractions for an improper fraction (Improper fractions)
(i) Long division is needed to reduce the improper fraction to a mixed form consisting of
the sum of a polynomial and a proper fraction.

ax 2  bx  c B C
(ii)  A 
 px  q rx  s  px  q rx  s

Step 1: Use long division to find A.

Step 2: Use the remainder, find B and C.

Example 15
Express the following fractions in partial fractions.
x2 x3
(a) (b)
x  1x  3  
x  2 x 2  1

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 1 Algebra

Learning Outcome 1.4:

 use the expansion of (1 + x)n, where n is a rational number and |x|<1(finding a general term
is not included, but adapting the standard series to expand e.g. (2 – x)–1 is included).

1.4 Binomial Expansion

1. Binomial expansion of (1+x)n is also valid for n a negative integer or a rational number.

Example 16
Expand each of the following functions as a series of ascending powers of x up to and including the
terms in x 3 , stating the set of values of x for which expansion is valid.
2
(a) 1  x 3 (b)
1  3x

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Binomial expansion of a  bx
n
2. is valid for n, a negative integer or a rational number, where
a  1.
n
  b 
a  bx  n
  a 1  x  
  a 
n
 b 
 a 1  x 
n

 a 
 1
 b  n(n  1)  b 
2
n(n  1)(n  2)  b 
3

 a 1  n x  
n
 x   x   ...
 a  2!  a  3! a  

this expansion is an infinite series of ascending powers of x and it is only valid if

b a a
x 1    x 
a b b

Example 17
Expand each of the following functions as a series of ascending powers of x up to and including the
terms in x 2 , stating the set of values of x for which expansion is valid.
1 1 x
(a) (b)
3  x 2 1  2x

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Example 18 MJ04/Q9
x2  7x  6
Let f ( x)  .
x  1x  2x  1
(i) Express f (x) in partial fractions.
(ii) Show that, when x is sufficiently small for x 4 and higher powers to be neglected,
3 11
f ( x)  3  2 x  x 2  x 3 .
2 4

Example 19 ON13/31/Q7
2x 2  7x  1
Let f ( x)  .

x  2 x 2  3
(i) Express f (x) in partial fractions.
(ii) Hence obtain the expansion of f (x) in ascending powers of x , up to and including the term in
x2

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 2 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Chapter 2

LOGARITHMIC AND
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS
Learning Outcome 2.1:

 Understand the relationship between logarithms and indices, and use the laws of logarithms
(excluding change of base).

2.1 Common Logarithmic Functions

1. The inverse function of the exponential function b x is called logarithm to base b , and is
denoted by logb .
y  b x  x  log b y where x, y  R, y  0 .

logb

2. Take note that:

(a) logb 1  0 .
(b) logb b  1 .
(c) logb b n  n , for any n .
(d) b log b n  n

3. Properties of Logarithms
(a) Power rule: log x n  n log x

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 2 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
1
(b) n -th root rule: log n x  log x
n
(c) Multiplication rule: log  pq   log p  log q
 p
(d) Division rule: log    log p  log q
q

Example 1
Expand the following logarithms.
qr 7
(a) log 
ps
a 4b
(b) log 
3c 3

Example 2
Express the following as a single logarithm.
1
(a) 2 log a  log b  2 
2
(b) 3 log 2  3 log5  log106 

Learning Outcome 2.2:

 Understand the definition and properties of e x and ln x , including their relationship as

inverse functions and their graphs.

2.2. Natural Logarithms Function

1. The natural log function f ( x)  loge x  ln x, x  0

2. Take note that:

(a) ln1  0 .
(b) ln e  1 .
(c) ln e n  n , for any n .
(d) eln n  n

3. Properties of Logarithms
(a) Power rule: ln x n  n ln x

1
(b) n -th root rule: ln n x  ln x
n
(c) Multiplication rule: ln  pq   ln p  ln q

(d) Division rule:  p

ln    ln p  ln q
q
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 2 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Example 3
Change to logarithmic form for the expression e7  p .

Example 4
e3
Expand (a) ln 4x (b) ln ex (c) ln (d) ln x
7

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 2 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
Example 5
Write the following as single logarithms:
1 3
(a) 2 ln( x  7)  ln x (b) ln x  ln( x 2  1)  2
2 2

Example 6 MJ13/33/Q2
It is given that ln( y  1)  ln y  1  3 ln x . Express y in terms of x , in a form not involving logarithms.

2.2.1 Exponential Functions and Its Logarithm Functions

1. A exponential functions is defined as:

f ( x)  e x , x  R , where e is the base of natural log.

2. The natural log function, which is the inverse of exponential function is defined as:
f ( x)  ln x, x  0

Hence, y  e x  x  ln y , where x, y  R, y  0 .

3. The graph of logarithm and exponential functions.

(i) f ( x)  e x vs f 1 ( x)  ln x

f ( x)  e x
Domain:
Range:

f 1 ( x)  ln x
Domain:
Range:

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 2 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
x 1
(ii) f ( x)  e vs f ( x)   ln x
f ( x)  e  x
Domain:
Range:

f 1 ( x)   ln x
Domain:
Range:

Learning Outcome 2.3:

Use logarithms to solve equations of the form a  b , and similar inequalities.

x


2.3.1 Solving Equations or Inequalities with Indices and Logarithms

1. For equations or inequalities that contain logarithms, we will need to express logarithms in a
single logarithm before changing them into indices

Example 7
Solve the following question.
(a) 2 ln x  2  ln 2 x  5 (b) ln 2 x  3  ln 2 x  ln 3
(c)  
ln 2  e  x  2 (d) ln 1  x   1  ln x
(e) lnx 2
 6  lnx  1  2

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 2 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

2. For equations or inequalities that contain indices, we will need to take natural log (ln) on both
sides to solve the equation..

3. Properties of Indices

(a) Multiplication rule: a m  a n  a m n

(b) Division rule: a m  a n  a mn
(c) Power-on-Power rule:   n
a m  a mn
(d) Factor rule: a  bm  a m  bm

Example 7
Solve the following equations.
(a) 2 x 1  3 x (b) 7 x 1  2 3 x 2 (c) 2  42 x  5  32 x 1
(d) 2 x  3x  52 x 3 (e) 4 5   6
x 1 x2 x 3
(f) 32 x 1  32 x  3
(g) 2 x  2x  1 (h) 5 2 x  5 x 1  4  0 (i) e x  e 2 x  e3x
(j) 4  2 x  10 (k) 2 3x  1  3x (l) 0.6 n  0.2
1
(m) 3x  8 
2

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 2 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Example 8 MJ11/31/Q4
The polynomial f (x) is defined by
f ( x)  12x 3  25x 2  4 x  12 .
(i) Show that f (2)  0 and factorise f (x) completely.
(ii) Given that 12  27 y  25  9 y  4  3 y  12  0 , state the value of 3 y and hence find y correct
to 3 significant figures.

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 2 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Learning Outcome 2.4:

 Use logarithms to transform a given relationship to linear form, and hence determine
unknown constants by considering the gradient and/ or intercept.


2.4 Power Law

1. For an equation of the form y  ax n , it can be converted into a straight line by taking
logarithms of both sides:
 
log y  log ax n
log y  log a  log x n
log y  log a  n log x
Where the gradient of the straight line is n and intercept log a .

2. For an equation of the form y  ab x , it can be converted into a straight line by taking
logarithms of both sides:
 
log y  log ab x
log y  log a  log b x
log y  log a  x log b
Where the gradient of the straight line is log b and intercept log a .

Example 9 (3.8.1)
(a) If log y = 0.322 - 0.531t, where logy denotes log10y, express y in terms of t by equating the
right side to log a  t log b .

(b) If log y = 0.7 + 2log x, where logy denotes log10y, express y in terms of x by equating the right
side to log a  b log x .

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 2 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
Example 10
Use the following census data for USA, justify that the population grew exponentially from 1790 to
1860, where P and t are related by an equation of the form P  ab t , 0  t  70 .Estimate the parameter
a and b to estimate the mathematical model.

Year 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860

Population 3.9 5.3 7.2 9.6 12.9 17.0 23.2 31.4

(millions)

Answer:

Convert the equation into linear equation:

ln P

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 2 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
Example 11
These figures have been given for the typical daily metabolic activity of various species of mammal.

Weight (kg) Energy expended

(calories per kg)
Rabbit 2 58
Man 70 33
Horse 600 20
Elephant 4000 12

Investigate the relation between the energy expenditure (E calories per kg) and the weight ( W kg) of
the various animals by using E = aWn. Estimate the parameter a and n to estimate the mathematical
model.

Convert the equation into linear equation:

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 2 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
Example 12 ON05/Q2

Two variable quantities x and y are related by the equation y  Ax n , where A and n are constants. The
diagram shows the result of plotting ln y against ln x for four pairs of values of x and y. Use the
diagram to estimate the values of A and n.

Example 13 MJ10/33/Q2
The variable x and y satisfy the equation y 3  Ae2 x , where A is a constant. Thee graph of ln y
against x is a straight line.
(i) Find the gradient of this line.
(ii) Given that the line intersects the axis of ln y at the point where ln y  0.5 , find the value of A
correct to 2 decimal places.

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PYQ: Chapter 2 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
2.1 Logarithmic Functions

1. 02N/Q3
(i) Show that the equation
log10 ( x  5)  2  log10 x
may be written as a quadratic equation in x. [2]
(ii) Hence find the value of x satisfying the equation log10 ( x  5)  2  log10 x . [2]
Ans: (i) x  5 x  100  0 (ii) 7.81
2

2. 04N/Q2
Solve the equation
ln( x  1)  1  ln x ,
giving your answer correct to 2 significant figures. [4]
Ans: x  0.58

3. 06J/Q1
Given that x  4(3 y ) , express y in terms of x. [3]
ln 4  ln x
Ans: y 
ln 3

4. 05N/Q2

Two variable quantities x and y are related by the equation y  Ax n , where A and n are
constants. The diagram shows the result of plotting ln y against ln x for four pairs of values of
x and y. Use the diagram to estimate the values of A and n. [5]
Ans: 1.97  A  2.03 , n  0.25
5. 08N/Q1
Solve the equation ln( x  2)  2  ln x , giving your answer correct to 3 decimal places. [3]
Ans: x  0.313

6. 09J/Q1
Solve the equation ln(2  e  x )  2 , giving your answer correct to 2 decimal places. [4]
Ans:  1.68

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7. 09N P32/Q1
Solve the equation ln( 5  x)  ln 5  ln x , giving your answers correct to 3 significant figures. [4]
Ans: 1.38 , 3.62

8. 10J P31/Q3
The variables x and y satisfy the equation x n y  C , where n and C are constants. When
x  1.10 , y  5.20 , and when x  3.20 , y  1.05 .
(i) Find the values of n and C . [5]
(ii) Explain why the graph of ln y against ln x is a straight line. [1]
Ans: n  1.50 , C  6.00 (ii) -

9. 10J P33/Q2
The variables x and y satisfy the equation y 3  Ae2 x , where A is a constant. The graph of
ln y against x is a straight line.
(i) Find the gradient of this line. [2]
(ii) Given that the line intersects the axis of ln y at the point where ln y  0.5 , find the value
of A correct to 2 decimal places. [2]
2
Ans: (i) (ii) 4.48
3

10. 10N P31/Q2

Solve the equation ln(1  x 2 )  1  2 ln x , giving your answer correct to 3 significant figures. [4]
Ans: 0.763

2.2 Exponential Functions

1. 03N/Q1
Solve the inequality 2 x  8  5 . [4]
Ans: 1.58  x  3.70

2. 04J/Q4
(i) Show that if y  2 x , 2 x  2  x  1 can be written as a quadratic equation in y. [2]
(ii) Hence solve the equation 2 x  2  x  1 . [4]
Ans: (i) y  y  1  0 (ii) x  0.694
2

3. 06N/Q1
Find the set of values of x satisfying the inequality 3 x  8  0.5 , giving 3 significant figures in
your answer. [4]
Ans: 1.83  x  1.95

4. 07J/Q4
Using the substitution u  3 x , or otherwise, solve, correct to 3 significant figures, the equation
3 x  2  3 x . [6]
Ans: x  0.802

By NCX & TCY 33

5. 08J/Q2
Solve, correct to 3 significant figures, the equation e x  e 2 x  e 3 x . [5]
Ans: x  0.481

6. 09N P31/Q2
Solve the equation 3 x  2  3 x  3 2 , giving your answer correct to 3 significant figures. [4]
Ans: 0.107

7. 10J P32/Q1
2x 1
Solve the equation  5 , giving your answer correct to 3 significant figures. [4]
2x 1
Ans: 0.585

By NCX & TCY 34