Cell Structure and its Functions

Plasma Membrane: Also known as the cell membrane, it is a selectively

permeable membrane composed of a lipid bilayer and proteins. It permits
Cell Theory the entry of selective materials in and out of the cell according to the
requirement.
The cell theory is one of the most essential principles in Biology
Cytoplasm: Provides structure to the cell and is the site of many metabolic
It gives us the fundamental understanding that cells are the building blocks of reactions.
life
Nucleus: It houses the DNA and directs synthesis of ribosomes and proteins.
The cell theory has three main points
Ribosomes: These are involved in protein synthesis. They produce proteins
All living things are composed of one or more cells. by assembling amino acid sequences according to the instructions contained
in the genetic code.
The cell is the basic unit of life.
Mitochondria: Known as the power house of the cell, it produces ATP
All cells arise from pre-existing cells. (adenosine triphosphate), which is used to fuel all other activities of the cell.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): A network of membranes inside a cell, its

Origins of the Cell Theory
main functions are to process and transport new materials. There are two
types: rough ER (folds and tags newly-synthesized proteins) and smooth ER
Robert Hooke (1665): The first scientist to use the word ‘cells’ in 1665 (involved in hormone and lipid synthesis).
Matthias Schleiden (1838): Concluded that all plant parts are made of cells Golgi Apparatus: This organelle packages and distributes substances to the
outer cell membrane, where they either become part of the lipid bilayer or
 Theodore Schwann (1839): Concluded that all animal tissues are leave the cell.
composed of cells.
 Rudolf Virchow (1853): Concluded that all cells come from pre- Vacuoles: These are single membrane-bound organelles present only in a
existing cells. eukaryotic cell.
Lysosomes: These are also single membrane-bound organelles present only Cell Cycle Overview
in a eukaryotic cell.
The cell cycle is a series of growth and development steps a cell undergoes
Cell Wall, Cytoskeleton: These are non-membrane-bound cell between its formation and reproduction. It consists of two major
organelles. They provide shape and support. phases: Interphase and the Mitotic (M) phase.
Interphase
Centrosome and Centrioles: These are involved in the locomotion and
reproduction of a cell. Interphase is composed of three steps:

Cilia and Flagella: These are involved in cellular locomotion. G1 Phase: The cell grows physically larger, copies organelles, and makes the
molecular building blocks it will need in later steps.

S Phase: The cell synthesizes a complete copy of the DNA in its nucleus. It also
duplicates a microtubule-organizing structure called the centrosome.

G2 Phase: The cell grows more, makes proteins and organelles, and begins to
reorganize its contents in preparation for mitosis.
Mitotic (M) Phase
During the mitotic phase, the cell separates its DNA into two sets and
divides its cytoplasm, forming two new cells. This phase includes Prophase,
Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, and Cytokinesis.
Prophase
During prophase, the chromosomes begin to condense. The membrane
around the nucleus disappears.
Metaphase
In metaphase, chromosomes and their copies line up in the middle of the cell.
Anaphase
During anaphase, chromosomes and their copies are pulled to different ends
of the cell.
Telophase
In telophase, new membranes form around the chromosomes at each end of
the cell.
Cancer and Cell Division
Cytokinesis
Cancer is essentially a disease of uncontrolled cell division. Its development
Cytokinesis is the process of dividing the cell contents to make two new and progression are usually linked to a series of changes in the activity of
cells. It starts in anaphase or telophase. The cell membrane pinches in and cell cycle regulators.
eventually divides into two daughter cells.
How Errors in Cell Division Cause Cancer
Errors in DNA replication can cause breaks in DNA. These errors can lead
to cancer primarily by making it more likely that fragments of chromosomes
rearrange themselves, activating genes that lead to uncontrollable cell
division.
Mutations in genes can cause cancer by accelerating cell division rates or 1.2 Osmosis
inhibiting normal controls on the system, such as cell cycle arrest or
programmed cell death. As a result, cancer cells divide more rapidly than Osmosis is a special type of diffusion where water molecules move from an
their progenitors and become less dependent on signals from other cells. area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration through a
semi-permeable membrane.
1.3 Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion uses specialized proteins to help molecules move across
the cell membrane.
2. Active Transport
Active transport is the process by which cells use energy to transport
molecules against a concentration gradient, from an area of low
concentration to an area of high concentration.
2.1 Pump
A pump in cellular biology refers to a mechanism that moves ions or
molecules across a cell membrane, often against their concentration gradient.
2.1.1 Primary Pump
Transport Mechanisms in Cells Primary pumps use ATP as an energy source for transporting molecules
1. Passive Transport against their concentration gradient.

Passive transport is a type of membrane transport that does not require 2.1.2 Secondary Pump
energy. Molecules move down their concentration gradient, from an area of Secondary pumps use the energy from the movement of one molecule down
high concentration to an area of low concentration. its concentration gradient to drive the movement of another molecule
1.1 Simple Diffusion against its gradient.

Simple diffusion is a type of passive transport where molecules or atoms 2.2 Vesicle
move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
 A vesicle is a small, fluid-filled sac that transports materials within or  Isotonic Solution: A solution with the same concentration of
outside the cell. solutes as inside the cell, causing no net movement of water.
2.2.1 Exocytosis
Exocytosis is the process of moving materials from within a cell to the
exterior of the cell.
2.2.2 Endocytosis
Endocytosis is the process by which a cell takes in material by engulfing it
with a portion of the cell membrane to form a vesicle that pinches off into
the cell’s interior.
2.2.2.1 Pinocytosis

Pinocytosis involves the ingestion of liquid into a cell by the budding of

small vesicles from the cell membrane.
Primary Types of Body Cells
2.2.2.2 Phagocytosis
Stem Cells: These cells originate as unspecialized cells and have the ability
Phagocytosis involves the ingestion of solid particles. to develop into specialized cells that can be used to build specific organs or
tissues.
2.2.2.3 Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
Bone Cells: There are three primary types of bone cells in the body:
Receptor-mediated endocytosis is a process by which cells absorb osteoclasts, osteoblasts, and osteocytes.
metabolites, hormones, proteins – and in some cases viruses – by the inward
budding of the plasma membrane. Blood Cells: The three major types of cells in the blood are red blood cells,
white blood cells, and platelets.
 Hypertonic Solution: A solution with a higher concentration of
solutes than inside the cell, causing water to flow out of the cell. Muscle Cells: The three types of muscle cells are skeletal, cardiac, and
 Hypotonic Solution: A solution with a lower concentration of smooth.
solutes than inside the cell, causing water to flow into the cell.
Nerve Cells (Neurons): These are specialized cells designed to transmit
information to other nerve cells, muscle, or gland cells.

Skin Cells: There are several types of skin cells including keratinocytes,
melanocytes, Merkel cells, and Langerhans cells.

Fat Cells (Adipocytes): These are specialized for the storage of energy in
the form of fat.

Sex Cells: These include spermatozoa in males and ova (or egg cells) in
females.

Cartilage Cells (Chondrocytes): These are found in cartilage and produce

and maintain the cartilaginous matrix.

Endothelial Cells: These form the lining of blood vessels.

Epithelial Cells: These line body cavities.