Organization of the human 3.

Responsiveness- To sense
changes in the environment and
body make adjustment that help
maintain life.
Human anatomy and physiology – study
4. Growth- Increase in size of all
of the structure and function of the
part of the organism.
human body.
5. Development- The changes an
Anatomy- the scientific discipline that oranism undergoes through time.
investigates the structure of the human Fertilization to death.
body. 6. Reproduction – Formation of
new cells or new organism.
Physiology – The scientific discipline that
investigates the process of functions of Homeostasis – Maintenance of a relatively
living things. stable condition within the internal
environment.
6 Structural levels
*Nervous system and *endocrine system

1. Chemical level – atoms combine

Components of Homeostasis
to form molecules
> Receptor- Monitors the value of
2. Cell level – Molecule form organelles a variable
3. Tissue level – similar and
> Control Center- (*brain) establishes
surrounding material make up
the set point around w/c the variable
tissues
is maintained.
4. Organ level –diff tissue combine
> Effector-(*heart) change the value
to form organs
of the variable
5. Organ system level –Organs
*stimulus- changed variable. Initiates
make up an organ system
a homeostatic mechanism
6. Organism – organs sytem make
up an organism
Feedback Mechanism
Characteristics of Life 1. Negative Feed – works to restore
homeostasis by correcting a deficit
1. Organization – Specific within the system.
interrelationships among the parts 2. Positive Feedback- Deviation from a
of an organism and how those normal value occurs, the response of
parts interact to perform specific the system is to make the deviation
functions. even greater.
2. Metabolism- To use energy
to perform vital functions *Visceral Membrane – inside

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 *Parietal Membrane- outside

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 PLANES
TERMINOLOGY OF THE BODY PLAN

*anatomical Position
*Supine – face upward
*Prone – face downward

Directional Terms
 Inferior – Below
 Superior- Above
 Anterior – Toward front of body
 (ventral) – Toward the belly
 Posterior- Toward back of body
 (Dorsal) – Toward tthe back
 Proximal – Closer to point
of attachement
 Distal – Farther from point
of attachement
 Lateral – Away from midline of body
 Medial- Toward o within the middle of
body
 Superficial – Toward or on the surface
 Deep – away from the

surface Body Parts and Regions

Head , neck, trunk, upper limbs and lower

limbs

a. 4 regions – Right upper quadrant, left

upper quadrant, Right lower quadrant,
left lower quadrant
b. 9 regions – Right Hypochondriac
region, Epigastric region. Left
hypochondriac region, Left lumbar
region, Umbilical region, Left lumbar
region, Right iliac region,
Hypogastric region, Left iliac region.

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  Sagittal Plane – l body movements,store minerals and fat.
 Transverse - ---
 Frontal –

Body Cavities
1. Thoracic Cavity – ribs
and diaphragm
2. Abdominal Cavity- Diaphragm
and abdomine
3. Pelvic Cavity- Pelvic

bones Serous Membranes

1. Trunk Cavities – lines the walls

of the cavity
2. Serous membranes – secrete
fluid that fills the space
between the parietal and viceral
membranes. Protect organs
from friction
3. Pericardial cavity – surrounds
(heart), Pleural cavities surrounds
(lungs) & Peritoneal Cavity
surrounds (abdominal and pelvic).
4. Mesenteries – hold abdominal
organs in place , provide
passageway for blood vessels
and nerve to organs.
5. Retroperitoneal Organs – behind
the parietal peritoneum. *kidney,
adrenal glands, pancreas,
intestines, urinary bladder.

ORGAN SYSTEMS OF THE BODY

Integumentary – protection, regulate

temp, prevent water loss

Skeletal- protection & support, allows

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Muscular-Provides body movements, Functions:
posture and body heats.
 Protection - from
Lymphatic- removes foreign substances microorganism and uv light
from blood, combats disease, maintain  Sensation- sensory receptors
tissue fluid bal, absorb fats.  Vitamin D production –regulator
of homeostasis
Respiratory – blood pH, exchange O2, CO2
 Temperative regulation – blood
Digestive- digestion, absorb nutrient, flow & activity of sweat glands
eliminate waste  Excretion – via sweat pores

Nervous – detect sensation, control Subcutaneous Tissue

movement, physiological processes & (Hypodermis)
intellectual functions.
- contains about half of body’s stored fat
Endocrine-
- padding and insulation and responsible
metablosim,growth,reproduction
for different appearances
Cardiovascular- transport nutrients,
wastes,gases and hormones. Immnune
LAYERS OF THE SKIN
response and regulate body temp. 1. Epidermis- Most superficial layer of
skin.
Urinary-remove waste from blood and
- Stratified squamous
regulate blood pH, ion balance and water
epithelium
balance.
- Keratinazation
Reproductive (female)- site of * Stratum basale – Deepest
fertilization, fetal development, produce stratum
milk, hormones that influence sexual *Stratum Corneum – most
function and behavior. superficial stratum of epidermis.
Surrounded by lipids which prevent
Reproductive (male) – Produces and
fluid loss.
transfer sperm cells to female reproductive
*callus
and produce hormones that influence
sexual function and behavior. 2. Dermis – composed of dense
collagenous connective tissue
containing fibroblast, adipocytes, &
microphages.
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
*Collagen and elastic fibers –
- Consist of hair, glands and nails
responsible for structural strength of
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 the dermis.

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 *cleavage lines or tension lines –
most resistent to stretch along these
Nails - dead stratum corneum contain
lines.
hard keratin
*Dermal Papillae – upper part of
dermis >Nail Body – visible nail
*palm, soles and digits of fingers >Nail Root – nail coverd by skin
>Cuticl –(ephonychium)stratum corneum
*Melanin – Responsible for skin,eyes and extend to nail
hair color. >Nail Matrix – extends distantly to nail
*Albinism – Deficiency or absence root
of melanin. >Nail Bed – Where the nail is attached.
>Lanula –seen through the nail body
ACCESSORY SKIN STRUCTURES *whitish –cresent shaped area

BURNS
Hair
1st Degree - Damage only the epidermis
>Hair Follicles – Where the hair arises
2nd Degree – Damage the epidermis and
from
dermis
>Hair Shaft – Protrudes above the
3rd Degree – full thickness burns
surface of the skin
>Hair Bulb – Where hair is produced
SKIN CANCER
>Cortex – hard covering of hair
Basal cell carnicoma – Readily treatable
>Medulla – soft center of hair
Squamous cell carnicoma - Can
>Cuticle – covers the cortex that holds the
metastasize
hair in the follicle
Malignant Melanoma – Often Fatal
*Arrector Pili - goose bumps

AGING EFFECT ON THE

GLANDS
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
*Sebaceous Glands - Simple , branched
> Blood flow is reduced , skin thinner and
- Produces sebum
*Sweat Glands -
Appocrine Eccrine no elasticity
>Opens thru hair folicles >Opens thru >Sweat and Sebaceous gland are less
sweat pores active, decrease in melanocytes.
>Genetalia & armpits >palms &
soles
>changes upon exposure >Mainly to bacteria
water and salt

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NERVOUS SYSTEM

FUNCTIONS:

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 1. Sensory input – Monitor external  Axon: long cell process
and internal factors extending from neuron cell body.
2. Integrating – processing
sensory input and initiating Type of Neurons:
responses Multipolar - Many dendrites, 1 axon
3. Homeostasis – maintains - Most motor and CNS neurons
homeostatsis
4. Mental activity – include Bipolar - 1 Dendrite, 1 Axon
consciousness, memory and - found in special organs, eyes &
thinking nose
5. Information -
Psuedo-unipolar - 1 axon, no dendrites
- Most sensory Neurons

DIVISIONS:

>Central Nervous System - Consist of the Neuroglia (or glial cells) –

Brain and the Spinal Cord nonneuronal cells of CNS and PNS. Has
an ability to divide. More numerous.
> Peripheral Nervous System - consists
of nerves and ganglia. 5 Types:

 Sensory Division – Afferent (Toward  Astrocytes – Highly branched

) division. From sensory receptors to - help neural tissue repair
CNS.
 Ependymal Cells –Epithelial-Like
 Motor Division – Efferent
- circulate cerebrospinal fluid
(Away) Division. From CNS to
 Microglia – Small, Mobile Cells
effector organs.
- Protect CNS from infection
 Oligodendrocytes – surround
CELLS OF NS several axon
Neurons – Recieve Stimuli, Conduct action
potentials and transmit signals.
- enclose unmyelinated axons
3 Parts of
Neuron: in CNS
 Cell body: Source of information for transmit info from or toward the
gene expression. neuron cell body.
 Dendrites: Short, highly branching
cytoplasmic extension. Recieve or

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  Schwann Cells - Single cells
surrounding axons
- enclose unmyelinated
axons
in PNS

Myelin

Sheaths

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 Unmyelinated Axons – Rest in effector organ. Simplest reflex arc do not
indentions of oligodendrocytes in CNS, involve interneurons.
schwann cell in PNS.
SPINAL CORD
 Myelinated Axons – Have sheaths
Foramen magnum  2nd Lumbar vertebra
myelin sheaths wrapped around.
 Cauda Equina
*Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in the myelin
sheath Knee jerk – Quadriceps femoris muscle is
stretched.
Organization of Nervous Tissue

Spinal Nervers
> White Matter – Form nevre track
in CNS & PNS * Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral - they
> Gray Matter – Forms the cortex are grouped into Plexus
and nuclei in the brain
BRAIN
Electrical Signals and Neural Pathways
Brainstem – Consist of several Nuclei
Resting Membrane Potential – uneven Medulla Oblangata - control activities
charge distribution. The cell is polarized. such as heart rate,breathing,swallowing
Leak channels are always open. and balance. Pons – contain relay
Gated channels are closed until opened by nuclei betweem cerebellum and cerebrum.
specific signals. Midbrain –

1. Resting Membrane Potential – Hearing and Visual reflexes.

some Na+ Cerebellum - Attached to the brainstem.

2. Depolarization – Na+ channels open
Diencephalon
3. Repolarization – K+ channels open
>Thalamus – main sensory relay center
The Synapse – Point of Contact between 2 >Epithalamus – the pineal gland
neurons. may pay a role in sexual maturation
>Hypothalamus –
Reflex - Functional unit of the nervous
maintaining homeostasis.
system. A Complex Reflex Arc
consist of a sensory receptor, a Cerebrum - consist of Frontal, parital,
sensory neuron, interneuron, motor occipital, temporal lobes.
neuron and

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 SENSORY FUNCTIONS

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 Ascending tracts – from periphery to
CRANIAL NERVES
brain I – Olfactory S Smell
II – Optics S Vision
MOTOR FUNCTIONS *III – Oculamotor M,P
M: 4 OF 6 EXTRINSIC EYE MUSCLE
P: Constricts pupils ,thicken lens
*IV – Trochlear M One extrinsic eye muscle
- Include Voluntary & V – Trigeminal S,M S: face and teeth M: muscle of chewing
Involuntary movements *VI – Abducens M One extrinsic eye muscle
S: Taste M: Facial expressions P: Salivary
VII – Facial S,M,P
and tear glands
Motor Areas of the Cerebral VIII -
S Hearing and balance
Vastibolochlear
Cortex Upper motor neuron IX –
S,M,P
S: Taste and touch back of tongue
Glossopharyngeal M: Pharyngeal muscles P: Salivary Glands
S: Pharynx, Larynx, Viscera M: Palate,
located in the X – Vagus S,M,P
Pharynx, Larynx P: Thorax and abdomen
primary motor cortex. Premotor & XI – Accessory M Neck and back muscle

XII – Hypoglossal M Tongue muscle

prefrontal areas regulate movements.

Basal nuclei – help, plan, organize & bones. Arachnoid matter – very thin,
coordinate movements and posture. spiderlike, cobwebs Pia matter – very

Cerebellum – balance, muscle tone,

muscle coordination.

OTHER BRAIN FUNCTIONS

>Communication between right and left

hemispheres
>Speech
>Brain waves and Consciousness
>Memory
>Limbic System
MENINGES,VENTRICLES,
CEREBROSPINAL
FLUID
Meninges – surround and protect the
brain and spinal cord.

3 connective tissue membranes:

Dura matter- adheres tightly in dural
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tightly bound to the surface of brain and
spinal cord.

Ventricles – fluid cavities in the CNS

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) - bathes the

brain and spinal cord, provides cushion
around the CNS. – produced by
choroids and plexuses made by
ependymal cells.

*Hydrocephalus – to much accumulation of

CSF.

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 Classes of Chemical Messenger
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Chemical Msgr. Description
secreted by cells, influence the activity from
- Has sympathetic and Parasympathetic Autocrine
which it was secreted
Produced by wide variety of tissues and
Divisions Paracrine
secreted into extracellular fluid
Produced by neurons; secreted into synaptic
Neurotransmitter
clef, influence post synaptic cells
Sympathethic Division – “fight or flight”
secreted into the blood by specialized cells;
endocrine regulation of cell function
> Preganglionic – Lie in the thoracic and
upper lumbar region of spinal cord. FUNCTIONS of ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
1. Metabolism
>Postganglionic – in the sympathethic 2. Control Food intake and digestion
chain ganglia or in collateral ganglia. 3. Tissue Development
4. Ion regulation
Parasympathetic Division 5. Bater balance
6. Heart rate and blood pressure regulation
> Preganglionic – associated with 7. Control of blood glucose and other nutrient
8. Control reproductive function
some cranial and sacral nerves.
9. Uterine contraction and milk release
>Postganglionic – Located in terminal 10. Immune system regulation

ganglia, near or target organs.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ENDO SYSTEM

AUTONOMIC NEUROTRANSMITTERS - Include glands and specialized endocrine cells

that secrete hormones into blood stream.
- all secrete acetylcholine
HORMONE – Travels to a distant target tissue,
-Most sympathetic postganglionic region binds to specific receptors set of events.
secrete Norepinephrine. EFFECTS OF ANS ON VARIOUS TISSUE
TARGET SYMPATHETIC EFFECT PARASYMPATHETIC EFFECT
Functions of neurotransmitters: Heart Increase rate decrease rate
Blood Vessel contricts and dilates none
1. Sympathethic division – Prepare
Lungs dilate bronchioles constrict bronchioles
a person by increase heart rate,
Eyes dilate pupils constrict pupil, contracts muscle lens
blood pressure, respiration, Intestine And decrease motility, contracts
increase motility, relaxes spintchers
release glucose energy. Stomach Walls spintchers
Liver breaks glycogen, produce glucose synnthesizes glycogen
2. Parasympathetic division –
Adipose Tissue breaks down fat none
involuntary acitivity at rest secrete epinephrine,
Adrenal Gland none
*digestion,defacation,urination norepinephrine
Sweat Glands secrete sweat none
Salivary Gland secrete thick saliva secrete thick saliva
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Urinary Bladder
relaxes muscles, constrict
contracts muscles, relaxes pincters
spincters
Decrease secretion of digestive Increase secretion of digestive enzymes
Pancreas
enzymes and insulin and insulin

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Chemical nature of Hormones: Action of Nuclear Receptors
1. Lipid –soluble – Include steroids, >Nuclear Receptors have portions that allow them
thyroid hormones and some fatyy acid
derivatives.
2. water-soluble – Include proteins, peptides
and amino acids. Circulate freely in the blood.

CONTROL OF HORMONE SECRETION

Stimulation of Hormone release:

1. Humoral Stimulation– Sensitive to
circulating blood level of certain molecules.
*glucose or calcium
2. Neural Stimuli– Cause hormome secretion
in direct response to action potentials in
neurons, occurs during stress or exercise.
3. Hormonal Stimulation– Hormones fron
anterior pituitary that stimulate tropic hormones.

Inhibition of Hormone:
1. Humoral Stimulation- inhibit secretion
of hormones
2. Neural Stimuli- prevent hormone secretion
3. Inhibiting hormone prevent hormone release

Regulation of Hormone Level

1. Negative feedback- prevents hormone
secretion once a set of point is achieved.
2. Positive feedback- Self
promoting system whereby stimulation of hormone
secretion increases over time.

Classes of Receptors:
1. Lipid-soluble hormones – bind nuclear
receptors located inside the nucleus of the target
cell.
2. Water-soluble hormones – bind
to membrane-bound receptors, which are integral
membrane proteins.

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to bind to the DNA in the nucleus once the
hormone is bound. >cannot respond
immediately it takes time to make DNA to
mRNA and protein.

Membrane Bound Receptors and Signal

Amplification >Activate a cascade of
events once the hormone binds. >are
associated G
Proteins.

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 Endocrine Glands, Hormones, and Their Target Tissues
Gland Hormone Target Tissue Response
Pituitary gland Growth hormone Most Tissue Increase genne expression, release fatty acids from cells
Anterior
Thyroid-Stimulating
Adrenal Cortex Increase Thyroid Hormone secretion
Hormone (TSH)
Adrenocorticotropic
Adrenal Gland Increase secretion of glucocorticoid hormone
Hormone(ACTH
Melanocyte-Stimulating Increase melanin production in melanocytes to make skin
Melanocytes in Skin
Hormone (MSH) darker
Luteinizing Hormone (LH) /
Ovary in Females, Testis in Promotes Ovulation and progesterone production ;
Interstial cell-stimulating
males testoterone synthesis and prod. Of sperm cells
hormone (ICSH)
Follicles in ovary in females,
Follicle-Stimulating Promote follicle maturation and estrogen secretion;
Seminiferous tobules in
Hormone (FSH) promote sperm cell production
males
Ovary and mammary gland in
Prolactin Stimulate milk production and prolongs progesterone
females , and testis in males
Anti diuretic Hormone
Kidney conserves water; Constrict blood vessels
Posterior (ADH)

Oxytocin Uterus Increase uterine contractions

Mammary Gland Increase milk letdown from mammary glands

Increase metabolic rates, normal process of maturation

Thyroid Hormones Most cells of the body
Thyroid Gland and growth
Decrease rate of bone breakdown; prevents large
Calcitonin Primarily Bone
increase in blood Ca+
Parathyroid
Parathyroid Hormone Bone,Kidney Increase rate of bone breakdownby osteoclasts
Gland
Adrenal Epinephrine mostly, some Heart, Blood Vessels, Liver, Increase cardiac output; Increase blood flow to skeletal
Medulla norepinephrine Fat cells muscles and heart
Mineralocorticoids Kidneys; To lesser degree, Increase rate of sodium transport into body; increase rate
Adrenal Cotex (aldosterone) Intestine and sweat glands of K+ excretion

Glucocorticoids (Cortisol) Most Tissue Increase in fat and protein breakdown; increase

Adrenal Androgens Most Tissue Insignificant in males; Increase female sexual drive

Especially Liver, skeletal

Insulin Increase uptake and use of glucose and amino acids
Pancreas muscle, Adipose tissue
Increase breakdown of glycogen and release of glucose
Glucagon Primarily Liver
into circulatory system
Reproductive
Aid sperm cell production, Maintenance of functional
Organs Testosterone Most Tissue
reproductive organs
Testes
aid uterine and mammary gland development and
Estrogen, Progesterone Most Tissue
Ovaries function
Uterus,ovaries,
Prostaglandins Most Tissue Increase uterine contractions and ovulation
inflamed tissues

Thymosin Thymosin Immune system development

Thymus
Secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone, Thereby
Melatonin Among others, Hypothalamus
Pineal gland inhibiting reproduction

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