Arab Conquest of Sindh,

UNIT 7 SOCIAL, CULTURAL AND Turkish Invasions,

Mahmud Ghazni and
TECHNOLOGICAL IMPACTS: Muhammad Ghouri
ARAB AND TURKISH INVASIONS1
Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Social, Cultural and Technological Impact of Arab invasions of Sindh
7.3 The Coming of the Turks
7.4 Social, Cultural and Technological Impact of Turkish Invasions
7.5 Summary
7.6 Key Words
7.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
7.8 Suggested Readings

7.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will know about:
 the background for understanding the Arab and Turkish Invasions;
 new perspectives on the arrival of Islam in India; and
 social, cultural and technological impact of both the Arab and the Turkish
invasions.

7.1 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, we had read about the invasions in India by the Muslim invaders
from the Arab and Central Asian regions in early Medieval and Medieval periods.
These attacks have been seen in a monochromatic light as only attacks without
any meaningful results. This unit will try to analyze the impacts of these attacks,
if any. These have been largely categorized into social, cultural and technological
impact or results.

7.2 SOCIAL, CULTURAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL

IMPACT OF ARAB INVASIONS OF SINDH
The Arab conquest of Sindh has been seen as “a triumph without results” by
scholars like Stanley Lane Poole, Elphinstone, etc. because there was no major
victory for either the Muslim Arabs or the Indian rulers. They opine that the victory

1
Dr. Jaya Priyadarshini, PhD from Center of Historical Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University,
New Delhi
Dr. Khushboo Kumari, Academic Counsellor, Non Collegiate Women’s Education Board
(Bharati College), University of Delhi 125
History of India-III of the Arabs was without any impact or result on the history of Indian subcontinent.
Such an understanding arose from the fact that their victory could not affect the
political or military conditions in the rest of India. The Arab rule got confined to
the Sindh region and the Indian rulers ruled their states without fearing or ousting
the Arabs from their frontiers. The influence of the Arabs was restricted to only a
small part of the subcontinent. They could not get a foothold inside the Indian
subcontinent, unlike the Turks who had established a full-fledged state a few
centuries later (i.e., the Delhi Sultanate from 12th century onwards).
However, some other scholars refute this viewpoint, and they hold that indeed
there were multifarious effects on the life and times of the region. They have
given varied arguments in support of this view. It is believed that even though
their conquest did not have any substantial effect on the political geography of
India it had considerable impact in other fields.
Cultural Impact of Arab Invasions
Chachnama, the Persian text written by Ali Kufi in 1226 CE is a major historical
text on the history of Sindh. It has good information on its government, politics,
etc. However, the details given on the advent of Islam in the Indian subcontinent
had been over-emphasized in the colonial and national understandings to an extent
that Chachnama has only been seen as a text on the conquest of Sindh and the
advent of Islam in the subcontinent. This has led to a skewed understanding of
this medieval source in general. Nevertheless, scholars like Yohanan Friedmann,
Manan Ahmed Asif, etc. who have read and analyzed it contend that apart from
the details on Sindh conquest, it is also a repository of other sorts of information
on the history of Sindh. A nuanced reading of this and other texts from the Arab
peninsula show that the Arab conquest of Sindh had led to overarching social and
cultural impacts on both the Indian and Arab worlds. In this regard, Iqtidar Husain
Siddiqui holds that —
“…the regions of Sindh and south Punjab (Multan territory) conquered by the Arabs
in the beginning of the eighth century AD (812-13), under the command of
Muhammad bin Qasim al-Saqafi underwent rapid socio-economic and demographic
changes, owing to the imposition of a different system of governance, the introduction
of a new legal system that ensured impartial justice irrespective of caste and creed
and the addition of foreign settlers’ colonies to the old caste towns. The settlers
included, besides officers and army men, merchants who were engaged in overland
and overseas trade between different countries as far as China in the east and regions
of Africa in the west. The foreign trade thus not only gave a boost to trade and
commerce in the region but also led to the modification of indigenous crafts and the
introduction of new ones.”

As Chachnama shows, Muhammad bin Qasim had not interfered with the caste
system. Yohanan Friedmann, a scholar who has read and analysed the Chachnama
in depth holds that ‘Qasim gave his unqualified blessing to the characteristic feature
of the (traditional) society which he encountered and sanctioned both the privileges
of the high-caste and the degradation of the lower ones.’ He upheld the Indian
social tradition of privileging the brahmins. He used to call the brahmins as “good
and faithful people”, and after the siege of Brahmanabad, they were reappointed
126
to the same positions as they had held under the Hindu dynasty. Furthermore,
these positions were also made hereditary by him. The notables were given the Social, Cultural and
Technological Impacts:
title of Rana. The common people were also left free to worship as per their wish, Arab and Turkish Invasions
provided they paid the Arabs the same taxes as they had paid to raja Dahar. He
allowed them to build temples, celebrate their festivals and ceremonies, and to
treat the Brahmanas with kindness as before. Similarly, the treatment of the Jats
was as bad as under the Hindu rulers of Sindh. As Friedmann says —
“They were obliged to wear coarse clothing and to move around barefoot. If they
were apprehended wearing fine clothes, they were fined. They were supposed to
take their dogs with them when they went out. This was to be done so that they were
recognized. They were burnt alive with their family when they were caught stealing.
They were not allowed to ride horse; and if they did, they rode without saddle and
reins. They were infamous for committing highway robberies. Due to such reasons,
Muhammad Qasim considered them as wicked people, and continued with their low
status in society.”

In short, he did not meddle with the social systems of Sindh, and agreed to maintain
peace in many regions. Such a policy was followed by Qasim under the instructions
of Hajjaj, the governor of Iraq who believed in granting religious freedom to
people. Therefore, as one understands from the Chachnama, Qasim had left
Brahmanabad in an orderly and peaceful condition to proceed northward towards
Alor. Such a policy of flexibility and tolerance was a characteristic of Islam during
its initial period of conquest.
It is important to reiterate this policy of tolerance of Arab conquerors by examining
the phenomenon of Islamic proselytization. As known from the sources, religious
conversion had brought about social change among the people of Sindh. Iqtidar
Husain Siddiqui says in this regard
“The reference to Maula-i-Islam, a term used to refer to a person of high status who
had converted to Islam, tends to reveal that not only did the downtrodden people
take to the new faith for freedom from caste restrictions but some local chiefs also
entered the fold of Islam.”

Siddiqui mentions that due to religious tension between the brahmanas and
Buddhists, many of the Buddhists living in Sindh had converted to Islam when
they had come in contact with the Arabs. In fact, they had befriended the Arabs
even before or during the Sindh conquest. Here, Muhammad Illafi, the lieutenant
of Muhammad bin Qasim who had led to a liaison between the Buddhist chiefs
and the Arab governor is especially important. Due to his agility, many Buddhist
chiefs had acknowledged the suzerainty of the Caliph. This was mainly because
of the brahmana ruling elite who used to oppress the Buddhists in general. As
Siddiqui says, such an atmosphere of goodwill and friendship later helped in the
consolidation of Muslim rule in the conquered territories, and was not alone due
to Islamic proselytization alone. Such peaceful interface between the Arabs and
the Indians in Sindh region led to cultural exchange between India and the Islamic
world. He further says that the urban ethos represented by the Arab settlers in
their colonies, led to the old towns playing an important role in the process of
acculturation in the entire region of Sindh and Multan. The egalitarian atmosphere
of Islamic faith fascinated the low caste people in Hindu society. It led to their
conversion to a new faith that maintained equality among all its followers. The 127
History of India-III communities of these local converts and Arabs comingled with each other to boost
the urban culture of the region.
However, the influence of Islam could not penetrate into the countryside, and
rather remained confined to the urban areas. On the other hand, the population in
the countryside kept following their ancestral religion. It was only in the tenth
century that Muslim missionaries entered this region, and worked amongst the
urban and rural people to win their trust for converting them to a new faith. Even
though the conversion of the people was partial, the converts ruled their region
till its annexation by the Ghaznavid Sultanate in 1025 CE
Apart from the socio-religious impact of the Arab invasion, there were considerable
intellectual influences as well. At a larger level, the cultural intermingling between
the Indian and Arab cultures encouraged the intellectual cultures of both the regions.
This is to say that it showed it effects in various fields like literature, medicine,
mathematics, astronomy, etc. Such contacts at an intellectual level led to the mutual
growth and development of both the cultures. The earliest recorded Indo-Arab
intellectual contact happened in 771 CE when a Hindu astronomer and
mathematician reached Baghdad with a Sanskrit work called Brahma Siddhanta
of Brahmagupta. This text was translated into Arabic with the help of an Arab
mathematician, and was named as Sind hind. It had the greatest influence on the
development of Arab astronomy even though three other works on mathematics
were also translated to Arabic. In mathematics, the most important contribution
of the Indian culture to Arab learning was the Arabic numerals.
Similarly, even greater attention was given to Indian medicine by the Arabs. At
least fifteen Sanskrit works were translated, including those of Charaka and
Sushruta. The Indian doctors were given great prestige and honour at Baghdad,
and so they were found in good numbers there. Manka was one such doctor who
had earned prestige and money by curing the ailing Caliph Harun-al-Rashid.
Further, astrology and palmistry also gained Arab attention, and many books from
these fields were translated into Arabic. They too have been preserved in the Arab
historiographies. Other translations were from the fields of statecraft, art of war, logic,
ethics, magic, etc. Also, the famous Panchatantra was translated and known as the
story of Kalila and Dimna in many Arabic and Persian traditions. The Indian games of
chausar and chess were transmitted to the Arab and other regions of the world.
Sindh also contributed towards the popularization of Sufism. The great, early sufi
named Bayazid of Bistam had a Sindhi as his spiritual teacher. He used to say – “I
learned the lessons of science or ilm-i-fana or annihilation and tauhid or unity
from Abu Ali of Sindh and Abu Ali learned the lessons of Islamic unity from me.”
The link between Sufism and Sindh is well known.
Indian music had a considerable influence on Arabic music even if no translated
works have been found. The work of an Arab author named Jahiz reveals the
appreciation got by the Indian music at Baghdad. He called the music of the people
of Indian subcontinent as pleasing. Another such reference on Indian music was
from an Arab author who talks about an Indian book on tunes and melodies. It has
been suggested by some scholars that many of the technical terms for Arab music
were borrowed from Persia and India. Likewise, even Indian music incorporated
many Perso-Arab airs like Yeman Hijj and Jangla.
128
There is a paucity of sources connecting the history of Sindh and Multan after the Social, Cultural and
Technological Impacts:
recall of Muhammad bin Qasim. However, the works of Arab travelers and
Arab and Turkish Invasions
geographers provide some information. Travelers like Masudi and Ibn Haukul
who visited western Pakistan in the first quarter of tenth century agree to the
presence of Arab colonies at Mansura, Multan, Daybul, Nirun, etc. The non-
Muslims were said to be in good numbers in Daybul and Alor, and they were at
good terms with the Arabs. Unlike the historians of Delhi Sultanate, the Arab
travelers called the non-Muslims as zimmis and not kafirs or infidels. It is known
from the sources that after the conquest of Sindh and Multan, cow slaughter was
banned. The reasons behind it was the aim to preserve cattle wealth, or even to
show regard for Hindu sentiments. Some Hindu chiefs even showed interest in
Islam. For example, in 886 CE, a Hindu king commissioned an Arab linguist
from Mansura to translate the Quran in local language.
As far as the adoption of local cultures is concerned, it can be said that the Arab
rulers adopted local practices to a greater extent than the Ghaznavids did at Lahore
or the Turks and Afghans at Delhi later. Similar to the Hindu rulers of Sindh, the
Arab ruler of Mansura used to maintain war elephants, and ride in elephant driven
chariots. The dresses of the Arabs of Mansura were like that of the people of Iraq;
but those were quite similar to that of Hindu rajas as well. They also wore similar
earrings and long hair.
Further, after Muhammad Qasim, there were no large-scale Arab immigrations,
and any Arab or mutual influences gradually faded away. However, Sindh and
Multan remained in touch with the Arab world, especially by way of long-distance
trade and Islam. There was vibrant trade between Sindh and other parts of the
Muslim world, with caravans going to Khurasan, especially via the Kabul and
Bamiyan route. Sindhi Hindus were excellent traders and had good share in this
trade. Alor in Sindh is mentioned as a great commercial center. As a part of the
Muslim region, Sindh and Multan contributed almost five times to the Abbasid
exchequer than Kabul. Further, the active trade relations of the Arabs were much
more extensive and far reaching. After the rise of Islam, there were many colonies
of the Muslim Arab traders in the major ports of Cambay, Chaul and Honawar on
the west coast of India. Hajjaj, the governor of Baghdad who had led the Sindh
expedition was indirectly responsible for maintaining a large colony of Muslim
traders in south India. After assuming the governorship of Baghdad, many of his
political enemies had settled down on the southern coast of the Indian subcontinent,
in order to seek refuge from him. The Nawayat community settled on the Konkan
coast of Mumbai, and Tirunelveli in Tamil Nadu is one such community. Other
Muslim groups which settled on the Bay of Bengal can trace their roots to the
eighth century.
The largest Arab settlement on Indian coast was in Malabar region; its presence in
the same region is seen even till today. The conspicuous presence of the Muslim
Arab population was the result of the conversion of a local ruler. All such Muslim
colonies on various coasts were important for providing the base from which
traders, sailors and missionaries went to the Far East thereby spreading Islam in
the Southeast Asian regions like Malay Peninsula and Indonesia. The eastward
movement from the Middle Eastern or South Asian regions was popular since
ancient times, and was linked to both spice trade and religion. This is how Indian 129
History of India-III religions like Brahmanism or Buddhism gained ground here. Similarly, the rise of
Islam through Arab trade can be easily linked to this trend that saw the displacement
of both Brahmanism and Buddhism since eighth century. Bali remains Hindu till
today, and Malaysia and Indonesia are mostly Muslim, and owe their present
religious and literary tradition mainly to the influences emanating from the Muslim
colonies on the coastline of the subcontinent. The Muslim emigrants such as traders,
sailors and religious leaders/men from Arabia, Persia, coastal regions of Gujarat,
Malabar, Coromandel and Bengal are specifically important in this development.
Technological impact
Another impact of the arrival of the Arabs was in the field of technology. Since
they came as invaders, their technological know-how can be seen mainly in the
field of weaponry and warfare. As has been seen in the earlier Units, the technology
of the Indian forces was not as good as those of the invaders, and this became a
major reason behind the former’s defeat.
Two different weapons came with the Arabs in their invasion in 712 CE The first
one was Naphtha or Greek fire which was obtained by distillation from crude
petroleum. They had seen its use in their unsuccessful attacks on Constantinople
in 671-78 CE Subsequently, they had learnt to use it. As the Chachnama says
about Sindh attack, there were nine hundred naphtha throwers or naft-andazan in
the Arab army. They used to set alight the naphtha-tipped arrows to attack the
Sindh troops.
Manjaniq or mangonel/trebuchet was another such weapon. Chachnama mentions
its usage in the description of the attack on the port of Daybul in Sindh. Manjaniq
was used to throw stones at the temple pinnacle. It consisted of a wooden beam
pivoted on a wooden stand, and the short arm of the beam had a counterweight
put on it. The long arm had a sling suspended at its far end which carried the
missile, usually a round and large piece of stone. The long arm, pulled down
manually, would raise the weighed short arm. If the rope was released after this,
the short arm would have fallen, making the long arm ascend fast, shooting the
missile out of the swinging sling. This weapon known by the Arabs from the
Constantinople war was simpler in version. It was modified for a better and more
efficient use. It was also used by the Chinese and Mongols. A modified version of
the same weapon using lesser manpower was also used by the Delhi Sultanate in
the fourteenth century. The different types of mangonels used by them were called
manjaniq, maghribi and arrada.
Such weapons were one of the main reasons behind the Sindh victory by the
Arabs. The inferior tactics and technology of weapons and warfare used by Indians
helped the Arab army all the more.
As against the availability of such information from the Arab works on the vibrant
relations between the Indian and Arabic cultures, it will be unreasonable to call
the Arab conquest of Sindh as a triumph without results. In other words, it would
be incorrect to give leverage to the political consequences alone and negate the
socio-cultural or other impacts or results.

130
Check Your Progress Exercise 1 Social, Cultural and
Technological Impacts:
1) Was there any social impact of the Arab invasion of Sindh? Arab and Turkish Invasions
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2) Discuss the cultural effects of Arab presence in Sindh after the invasion.
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7.3 THE COMING OF THE TURKS

The Arab inroads into India in the eight century was followed by Turkish
penetration by 1192 CE. The early medieval period from 10th to 12th centuries is
an important period in Indian history as it served as a preparatory phase for the
final establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206.
The encounter between the Turkish and Indian cultures happened in two phases.
The first was in the form of invading raids by Mahmud Ghazni in early eleventh
century. These invasions in a short period of time were in the form of plunder and
loot of the Somnatha temple on the Gujarat coast. This loot was mainly aimed at
enriching Ghazni, the home of Mahmud Ghazni in Afghanistan. The invasions
led to immense damage to the temple, however, these raids were devoid of any
intentions of spreading Islam or establishing a full-fledged Muslim state in India.
The historical sources of this period do not specify any such intentions.
These Ghaznavid invasions were of a brief span, but their impacts were tremendous.
As argued by Satish Chandra, the constant Ghaznavid invasions in the north-
western region of India acted as a torchbearer for the later Turkish invaders like
Muhammad Ghouri in invading India. Secondly, it helped in opening overland
commerce between India and Central as well as West Asia. This accelerated the
growth of towns in India, especially after the establishment of the Muslim state in
India by Ghouri.
The impacts of the Turkish invasions in India were manifold, but these were not
highlighted. The primary reason behind it was the divisive narrative and intent of
colonial interpreters of Indian History. The British scholars or administrators like
James Mill interpreted Indian History with the purpose of prolonging British rule
over India. This was easily done by creating a rift between the Hindu and Muslims.
Alongside, they even tried to depict that the British had come to India with the
only intention of civilizing its people. Hence, to validate both the arguments, Indian
history was categorized into three phases, namely Ancient, Medieval and Modern.
They named the Ancient as Hindu, Medieval as Muslim and Modern was termed
as British. The Medieval period was shown as a Dark Age, when the Muslim
invaders penetrated India only to spread Islam; They led to the destruction of 131
History of India-III Hindu temples, conversion of Hindu population, rape and murder of its women
and children and so on and so forth. This was done to create a dichotomy between
the two religions and their followers. Keeping in line with this communal
interpretation, they showed the Arabs or Turks as only invaders with the crusading
zeal of conversion and destruction.
However, scholars like Satish Chandra understood the scheme of polarization of
Indian population by way of historical narratives. The new research carried out
by contemporary historians like B. D. Chattopadhyaya, Richard Eaton, Finbarr
Barry Flood, etc. tried to study the varied impacts of the Turkish invasion in India.
The next section of the unit focuses on such impacts.

7.4 SOCIAL, CULTURAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL

IMPACT OF THE TURKISH INVASIONS
In the words of Richard Eaton, one sees the evidence of a “creative conflict”
when Muslim Turks encountered the non-Muslim peoples of Punjab and the
Gangetic plains. It is to be understood that above expeditions not always led to
the plunder and loot of wealth, massacre of masses, conversion of people,
desecration of worshipping places etc., it also provided enough background and
opportunities that led to different kind of impacts. Rather than seeing it as
confrontation, it would be more fruitful to see the level of exchanges happening
in different spheres. According to Satish Chandra, the processes of interaction
between “Islam” and “Hinduism” can be posited at three different levels:
1) At the political level, including state formation.
2) At the level of the masses, involving religious movements and economic
developments.
3) At the intellectual and cultural level, involving the middle sections and
professionals.
Here an attempt will be made to study different kinds of impact at different levels.
Cultural Impact
Invasions can also be seen as a process of encounter between two different cultures.
This process is always in two ways; One of confrontation and the other of healthy
contact. In the context of Ghaznavid invasion of Punjab, Satish Chandra states
that this conquest led to a setting of two distinct patterns of relations between the
Muslims and the Hindus. One was the lure for plunder and other in the form of
trade. The caravan routes between Khurasan and India were reopened as soon as
military operations were over. Muslim traders augmented India’s trade with the
Central and West Asian countries which led to the development of towns in north
India. The resultant outcome of this process was the coming of religious preachers
called Sufis to the region of Punjab. The preaching was mainly directed towards
the Muslim settlers, but in the process, they also influenced some Hindus, paving
the way for the opening of a channel of interaction between Islam and Hindu
religion and society.
Due to such interactions, Lahore too emerged as an influential centre for the
132 development of Arabic and Persian languages and literature. The Persian language
was later adopted as the court language during the Ghaznavid period, and it Social, Cultural and
Technological Impacts:
continued to hold the same position throughout Muslim rule.
Arab and Turkish Invasions
Further, religious sentiments posed no bar for the Ghaznavids in many areas. This
was seen in the recruiting of non-Muslim soldiers in the Ghaznavid armies. In
fact, in its military recruitment many Hindu soldiers were recruited, and it was
commanded by several Hindu generals such as Tilak who was a barber by caste.
He became a confidante of khwaja Ahmed Hasan Maimandi, the influential wazir
of Sultan Mahmud.
During the 11th and 12th centuries the Muslim rulers of Lahore continued to issue
the coins of their predecessors from the Hindu Shahi dynasty. These coins included
Siva’s bull called Nandi on one side, and Muhammad Ghouri’s name in Devanagari
script prefaced with the Sanskrit phrase sri samanta deva on the reverse side.
According to Richard Eaton, such measures showed that the Ghourid rulers wanted
to establish cultural and monetary continuity with north Indian kingdoms. Thus,
the circulation of coins through many hands bearing the words and images, some
kind of political ideology was communicated to their subjects. Secondly, another
reason behind continuing the old coins was that the new rulers did not want any
disruptions in commerce. Since coins were linked to trade and commerce, these
new rulers from a different faith continued with the existing trade patterns.
Yet further, the cultural assimilation between the Hindu and Turkish cultures led
to significant contribution in literary field. Mahmud Ghazni with his great military
capabilities and political achievements had turned the small state of Ghazna into
a vast and wealthy empire comprising of most parts of modern-day Afghanistan,
eastern Iran and north-western parts of the Indian subcontinent. As an able ruler,
he had transformed Ghazni into a center of Persian learning. He was inspired by
the cultural centers of Samanid Bukhara and Khurasan. He invited poets and writers
like Firdausi, Alberuni, Uzari, Unsuri, etc to Ghazni. Such display of pomp and
show by Mahmud Ghazni was made possible with India’s help. In other words,
the grandeur maintained in his state of Ghazni was mostly due to the wealth
amassed from Mahmud’s plundering raids in India. India became one of the
benefactors because the period between the Samanids and the Ghaznavids is seen
as one of Persianization of kingship and administration, i.e. one of divine and
monarchical kingship, centralization of power, bureaucratization and
professionalization of army, etc. The successors of Mahmud initiated the diffusion
of Persian culture into north India. In the words of Richard Eaton, “The entire
gamut of Persianate institutions and practices which the Ghaznavids inherited
from the Samanid rulers of Bukhara were brought to the area of Punjab which
included the elaboration of a ranked and salaried bureaucracy tied to the state’s
land revenue and military systems; the institution of elite, or military, slavery; an
elaboration of the office of ‘sultan’; the courtly patronage of Persian arts, crafts
and literature; and a tradition of spiritually powerful holy men, or Sufis, whose
relations with royal power were ambivalent.”
The occupation of the Punjab by the Ghaznavids allowed the Indo-Islamic culture
of Lahore to receive the Persian influence which it has retained. The successors of
the Ghaznavids made concerted efforts to connect their dynastic history not just
with Islamic religious tradition but also with the Persian pre-Islamic past as argued
133
History of India-III by Andre Wink. Even the Ghourid leaders shed their provincial identity and adopted
a more cosmopolitan posture, embracing both the substance and the trappings of
the Persianate bureaucratic and centralized state. This included proclaiming their
sovereignty at the Friday prayer and using the imperial umbrella (chahtr) and
kettledrums (naubat), both of them Persianate symbols of political authority. They
also discarded the modest title of malik al- jabal, ‘king of the mountains.’
Muhammad Ghouri styled himself as ‘the great sultan’ (sultan al- mu’azzam).
Thus, the theme of Perso-Islamic tradition of Kingship and Persianate traditions
which attained a mature phase during the Sultanate period permeated due to the
invasions carried out first by Mahmud Ghazni and later by Muhammad Ghouri.
Intellectual Impact
Due to Mahmud Ghazni’s invasions, we have information of India’s social,
political, economic and religious conditions during the tenth and eleventh centuries.
Writers like Firdausi, Alberuni etc. have written extensively about India’s prevailing
conditions during this era. Abu Raihan Mohammad bin Ahmad popularly known
as Alberuni was a famous personality, a renowned philosopher, mathematician
and a historian who accompanied Mahmud Ghazni during his invasions in India.
His association with the ruler was less, but his accounts on Indian customs and
traditions, as well as his remarks on the Islamic conquest are remarkable. Out of
his many works like Qanum-i-Masudi, Chronology of Ancient Nations, the most
important is Kitab-ul-Hind which throws light on the religion, sciences, social
customs, culture, art, astrology etc. of the Hindus. Simultaneously, his account
also mentions the attitude and behavior of the Hindus, especially the brahmanas.
It also provides ample information about the destructive effects of Mahmud’s
Indian invasion.
Another effect of the Turkish invasion can be seen in the compilation of oldest
surviving Veda manuscript in Nepal in 1040 CE. It shows that Nepal emerged as
an important destination for the migration of brahmanas after the dislocation of
Indian ruling groups due to Turkish invasions.
Social Impact
The available evidence on the Turkish invasion in the last decade of thirteenth
century provides minimal or negligible information on the social impact of the
invasion. Nonetheless, the picture that emerges provides a fragmentary view that
hints at important developments.
The effect of the Muslim invasion on various Indian religions is highly debatable.
The colonial interpretation focuses more on temple destruction, idol desecration
and conversion of the native population. However, such a viewpoint has been
negated by scholars like Mohammad Habib and others. He argues that Mahmudi
agenda never involved conversion because there is no evidence to show that people
were forced to follow a new faith altogether. He believes that reason for conversion
was more economic than religious. Similarly, Richard Eaton states that no single
reason can be attributed to explain conversion. It was rather a gradual, socializing
process stretched over a long period of time. As it had happened in the sixth
century BCE, the low castes were soothed by the equality followed by the new
religion. Therefore, they took to conversion to get some respect from their brethren
134 of the new faith.
Another important impact of Turkish invasion can be seen in the virtual Social, Cultural and
Technological Impacts:
disappearance of Buddhism by the twelfth century from the land of its origin. As
Arab and Turkish Invasions
R.S. Sharma says, during the 11th and 12th centuries, some Buddhist centres and
monasteries known for their riches came to be attacked by the Turks. Also, a large
number of Buddhist monks in Bihar were killed by the Turks especially by
Bhaktiyar Khalji during his invasion of Bengal.
Further, as far as the caste system is concerned, it stayed intact in society. However,
Alberuni’s account shows that the power and position of the brahmanas associated
with the ruling houses declined. This was because with the coming of the Turks
many powerful ruling houses were dismantled. Their sovereign power was
subjugated, and their position was made subordinate. So, the power and position
of the brahmanas associated with these courts also declined. Nonetheless, as
Alberuni mentions, the position of the priest employed in the religious institutions
remained the same, and it was not affected.
As mentioned earlier, Mahmud Ghazni and Muhammad Ghouri brought with them
the Persianate traditions to India. Iqta system was one of the integral political
institutions of this tradition. Under this system, the empire was divided into several
large and small tracts of land that were assigned to soldiers, officers, nobles, etc.
This system was also seen during the times of the Delhi Sultanate. It was given in
lieu of salary, but over a period of time it became hereditary in nature, as seen
under Firoz Shah Tughlaq. It encouraged peasants to grow cash crops which led
to the emergence of artisans and craftsmen in towns. The result was the flourishing
state of trade and commerce. The regular flow of commodity led to the rise of
merchant groups like banjaras, caravanis, brokers etc. With the coming of the
Turks, the horse emerged as one of the important animals. It was used in fighting
battles. Therefore, many jobs associated with horse came into prominence which
basically dealt with making of saddles, horse shoe, etc.
Technological Impact
The Turks brought a lot of technological innovations with them. But their usage
could be more proficiently seen from thirteenth century onwards. For example,
craft production which includes spinning wheel and needle work, knowledge of
sericulture, carpet weaving, discovery of paper, distillation methods, the building
materials and techniques, military technology etc. came with the arrival of the Turks.
The establishment of Turkish rule led to the immigration of people from the regions
of Iran, Iraq, Turkistan, Khurasan, etc. who brought with them not only rituals,
customs and religion, but also their skills and dresses. Before the arrival of Turks,
the art of stitched clothes was unfamiliar which can be verified from the account
of Marco Polo wherein he reported that ‘in all this Province of Malabar there is
never a tailor, to cut a coat or stitch’. The coming of the Turks popularized the use
of Salwar Kameez etc. in India. Moti Chandra concluded that ‘jackets, tunics and
trousers’ became more common in the twelfth century owing to greater contact
with the Arabs and Persians. Also, the discovery of Spinning Wheel (charkha)
was a revolutionary step in the field of textile industry. The use of this mechanical
device is known from the account of Isami’s Futuhu-s Salatin. During the Sultanate
period this device had played an important role in the expansion of cotton cloth
production. 135
History of India-III Under the head of military technology, mention could be made of horse-shoe
(nal) of iron and steel which are mentioned in the verses of the Ghaznavid poet
Mas’ud Sa’d Salman and the Persian poet Nizami Ganjawi.
In the field of architecture important technological innovations were the use of
lime and mortar as cementing material and the use of arch and dome. The practice
of constructing minarets to commemorate military victories was known at the
Ghaznavid court. Also, during the time of Ghurid sultans one of the preeminent
architectural monument was high minaret at Jam which is situated in central
Afghanistan. Jam Minaret is believed to be a precursor of Qutb Minar in Delhi.
The inspiration of the Minar came from the Ghorian minaret of Khwaja Siyah
Posh in Sistan. It served as a memorial of victory and a mazinah to call the faithful
to prayer.
As found in the case of Arab invasion, even the Turkish invasions had far reaching
social, cultural and technological impacts. One of the significant differences
between the two was the establishment of a full-fledged state by the latter in 13th
century.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) How far do you agree with the view that Turkish invasions led to confrontation
and conflict?
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........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
2) Discuss the impact of Turkish invasions on the Indian Territory?
........................................................................................................................

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7.5 SUMMARY
To conclude it can be said that the rhetoric of medieval Muslim invaders and
rulers as iconoclastic and mere plunderer and looter is not correct and justified. In
fact, any invasion has elements of both confrontation and interaction. Highlighting
one and ignoring the other is uncalled for. In this context, it can be suggested that
the annexation of Sindh had far-reaching commercial results. Similarly, the Turkish
invasions resulted in the establishment of a long-standing state in India called the
Delhi Sultanate.

7.6 KEY WORDS

Nomad : Groups of people who do not have settled habitation

136 Eurasian Steppes : A Geographic region on the borders of Europe and Asia
Shahnama : A tenth century poetic work written by Firdausi in Social, Cultural and
Technological Impacts:
Persian
Arab and Turkish Invasions
Persian wheel : a water-lifting device used to lift water from some depth
Spinning wheel : Device for spinning the cotton. This was moved with
the help of crank-handle and had six spindles.
Iconoclast : A destroyer of images used in religious worship
Inroads : A hostile attack; a raid
Mamluk : slave

7.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) See Section 7.2
2) See Section 7.2
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) See Section 7.4
2) See Section 7.4

7.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

Asif, Manan Ahmed (2016). A Book of Conquest: The Chachnama and Muslim
Origins in South Asia. London: Harvard University Press.
Chandra, Satish (1997). Medieval India from Sultanat to the Mughals. New Delhi:
Har-Anand Publications Pvt Ltd.
Chandra, Satish (2007). History of Medieval India. New Delhi: Orient Blackswan
Pvt Ltd.
Chandra, Satish (2008). Social Change and Development in Medieval Indian
History. New Delhi: Har-Anand Publications Pvt Ltd.
Chattopadhyaya, B. D. (1998). Representing the Other? Sanskrit Sources and the
Muslims. Delhi: Manohar.
Eaton, Richard M. (ed.) (2003). India’s Islamic Traditions, 711-1750. New Delhi:
Oxford University Press.
Eaton, Richard M. (2019). India in the Persianate Age 1000-1765. UK: Penguin
Random House.
Flood, Finbarr Barry (2007) Lost in Translation: Architecture, Taxonomy, and the
Eastern ‘Turks’ Muqarnas, Vol. 24, History and Ideology: Architectural Heritage
of the “Lands of Rum”.
Habib, Irfan (2001). The Economic History of Medieval India: A Survey. New
Delhi: Tulika.

137
History of India-III Habib, Irfan (2008). Technology in Medieval India c. 650-1750. New Delhi: Tulika
Books.
Jackson, Peter (1999). The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History.
Cambridge: University Press.
Kumar, Sunil (2007). The Emergence of Delhi Sultanate 1192-1286. Ranikhet:
Permanent Black.
Siddiqui, Iqtidar Husain (2012). Composite Culture under the Sultanate of Delhi.
Delhi: Primus Books.
Thapar, Romila (2004). Somnath: The Many Voices of a History. Viking: Penguin
Books.
Wink, Andre (1990). Al- Hind the Making of the Indo- Islamic World. Vol 1.
Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Wink, Andre (1997). Al- Hind the Making of the Indo- Islamic World. Vol 2.
Leiden: Brill.

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