BULE HORA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Engineering Thermo-Fluid System

MODULE 2

Prepared By:
1. Degefa Legesse (Msc.)
2. Ashebir Dingeto (Msc.)
3. Mohammed A/Kadir (Msc.)
4. Ephrem Asefa (Msc.)
5. Minwuyelet Chekol (Msc.)

Module Coordinator: Ashebir Dingeto (Msc.)

JANUARY 19, 2023

Contents
FLUID MECHANICS ................................................................................................................................ 4
Chapter 1. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics ............................................................................................. 4
Chapter 2. Fluid Statics ........................................................................................................................... 10
Chapter 3. Integral Relations for a Control Volume ............................................................................... 17
Chapter 4. Differential Relations for a Fluid Flow ................................................................................. 23
Chapter 5. Dimensional analysis and similitude ..................................................................................... 27
Chapter 6. Boundary Layer Concept....................................................................................................... 30
Chapter 7. Compressible Flow ................................................................................................................ 33
Chapter 8. Introduction to 2D-Potential Flow Theory ............................................................................ 37
HEAT TRANSFER ................................................................................................................................... 42
Chapter 1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 43
Chapter 2. One-Dimensional Steady-State Conduction ......................................................................... 48
Chapter 3. Two-Dimensional Steady State Conduction ......................................................................... 52
Chapter 4. Unsteady-State Conduction ................................................................................................... 55
Chapter 5. Convection Heat Transfer ..................................................................................................... 55
Chapter 6. Heat Exchangers .................................................................................................................... 57
REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING ................................................................................ 60
Chapter 1. Refrigeration, refrigerator, and refrigerant ............................................................................ 60
Chapter 2. The ideal Vapor compression refrigeration cycle ................................................................. 70
Chapter 3. Refrigerants .......................................................................................................................... 75
Chapter 4. Condensers ............................................................................................................................ 81
Chapter 5. Evaporators............................................................................................................................ 82
Chapter 6. Expansion devices ................................................................................................................. 83
Chapter 7. Compressors .......................................................................................................................... 84
Chapter 8. Vapor absorption refrigeration cycle ..................................................................................... 88
Chapter 9. Air refrigeration system......................................................................................................... 93
Chapter 10. Steam-injection refrigeration system ................................................................................... 98
Air-conditioning (AC) ............................................................................................................................. 100
Chapter 1. Fundamental Properties of Moist Air Dry and Atmospheric Air ........................................ 100
Thermodynamics I .................................................................................................................................. 113
Chapter 1. Introduction to Thermodynamics and Basic Concepts ........................................................ 113
Chapter 2. Pure Substance .................................................................................................................... 123
Property Tables and Charts ................................................................................................................... 127
Chapter 3. Ideal and Real Gases .......................................................................................................... 129
 Chapter 4. Work, Heat and Energy Transfer ........................................................................................ 133
Chapter 5. First Law of Thermodynamics ............................................................................................ 141
Chapter 6. Second Law of Thermodynamics ........................................................................................ 148
Chapter 7. Entropy ................................................................................................................................ 157
Chapter 8. Exergy ................................................................................................................................. 167
Thermodynamics II ................................................................................................................................ 174
Chapter 1. Introduction mixture of ideal gases .................................................................................... 174
Chapter 2: Gas-Vapor Mixtures And Air-Conditioning Processes ....................................................... 179
Chapter 3: Fuels and Combustion ......................................................................................................... 184
Chapter 4: Vapor and Combined Power Cycles ................................................................................... 189
Chapter 5: Gas Power Cycles................................................................................................................ 195
Chapter 6: Refrigeration Cycles ............................................................................................................ 201
Chapter 7: Thermodynamic Properties Relations ................................................................................. 205
Multiple Choice questions ...................................................................................................................... 207
Fluid Mechanics .................................................................................................................................... 207
Heat Transfer ........................................................................................................................................ 210
Thermodynamics................................................................................................................................... 211
Refrigeration ......................................................................................................................................... 213
-Answers Key- ...................................................................................................................................... 216
 FLUID MECHANICS

Chapter 1. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Fluid mechanics: The science that deals with the behavior of fluids at rest (fluid statics) or in motion (fluid
dynamics) and the interaction of fluids with solids or other fluids at the boundaries.
Hydrodynamics: The study of the motion of fluids that can be approximated as incompressible (such as
liquids, especially water, and gases at low speeds).
Gas dynamics: Deals with the flow of fluids that undergo significant density changes, such as the flow of
gases through nozzles at high speeds.
Aerodynamics: Deals with the flow of gases (especially air) over bodies such as aircraft, rockets, and
automobiles at high or low speeds.
What is a Fluid?
Fluid: A substance in the liquid or gas phase.
In a liquid, groups of molecules can move relative to each other, but the volume remains relatively
constant because of the strong cohesive forces between the molecules.
A gas expands until it encounters the walls of the container and fills the entire available space.
This is because the gas molecules are widely spaced, and the cohesive forces between them are
very small. Unlike liquids, a gas in an open container cannot form a free surface.
Intermolecular bonds are strongest in solids and weakest in gases.
Stress: Force per unit area.
Normal stress: The normal component of a force acting on a surface per unit area.
Shear stress: The tangential component of a force acting on a surface per unit area.
Pressure: The normal stress in a fluid at rest.

Figure 4: The normal stress and shear stress at the surface of a fluid element.
Note: - For fluids at rest, the shear stress is zero and pressure is the only normal stress.
1.1 Application areas of fluid mechanics
Fluid mechanics is widely used both in everyday activities and in the design of modern engineering
systems from vacuum cleaners to supersonic aircraft. Mechanics of fluids is extremely important
in many areas of engineering and science and plays a vital role in the human body.
Mechanical Engineering
Design of pumps, Turbines, Air-conditioning equipment etc
Design and analysis of aircraft, boats, submarines, rockets, jet engines, wind Turbines, Biomedical
devices, the cooling of electronic components and the transportation of water, crude-oil and natural
gas.
Turbomachines: - fan, blower, propeller, turbine, pump etc.
Automobile:- IC engine, air-conditioning, fuel flow, external aerodynamics, etc
The heart is constantly pumping blood to all parts of the human body through the arteries and
veins, and the lungs are the sites of airflow in alternating directions. Needless to say, all artificial
hearts, breathing machines, and dialysis systems are designed using fluid dynamics.
1.2 Classification of Fluid Flows
There is a wide variety of fluid flow problems encountered in practice, and it is usually convenient
to classify them on the basis of some common characteristics to make it feasible to study them in
groups. There are many ways to classify fluid flow problems, and here we present some general
categories.
Internal versus External Flow
External flow: The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such as a plate, a wire, or a pipe.
Internal flow: The flow in a pipe or duct if the fluid is completely bounded by solid surfaces.
Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
Viscous flows: Flows in which the frictional effects are significant.
Inviscid flow regions: In many flows of practical interest, there are regions (typically regions not
close to solid surfaces) where viscous forces are negligibly small compared to inertial or pressure
forces.
Compressible versus Incompressible Flow
Incompressible flow: If the density of flowing fluid remains nearly constant throughout.
Compressible flow: If the density of fluid changes during flow.
In applications that involve high-speed gas flows, the flow speed is often expressed by Mach
number

Laminar versus Turbulent Flow

Laminar flow: The highly ordered fluid motion characterized by smooth layers of fluid. The flow
of high-viscosity fluids such as oils at low velocities is typically laminar.
Turbulent flow: The highly disordered fluid motion that typically occurs at high velocities and is
characterized by velocity fluctuations. The flow of low-viscosity fluids such as air at high
velocities is typically turbulent.
Transitional flow: A flow that alternates between being laminar and turbulent.
Reynolds Number
The transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the geometry, surface roughness, flow
velocity, surface temperature, and type of fluid, among other things.

Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow

Forced flow: A fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a pipe by external means such as a pump
or a fan.
Natural flow: Fluid motion is due to natural means such as the buoyancy effect, which manifests
itself as the rise of warmer (and thus lighter) fluid and the fall of cooler (and thus denser) fluid.
Steady versus Unsteady Flow
Steady: implies no change at a point with time.
Unsteady: there is variation at a point with time.
Uniform: implies no change with location over a specified region.
Periodic: refers to the kind of unsteady flow in which the flow oscillates about a steady mean.
Turbines, compressors, boilers, condensers, and heat exchangers are classified as steady-flow
devices.
One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
A flow field is best characterized by its velocity distribution.
A flow is said to be one-, two-, or three-dimensional if the flow velocity varies in one, two, or
three dimensions, respectively.
Rheological classification of fluids: (Rheology - Study of stress – strain behavior).
Ideal fluid
A fluid, which is incompressible and is having no viscosity
Is an imaginary fluid because all the fluids, which exit, have some viscosity.
Real fluid
A fluid which possesses viscosity and all fluids in practice are real fluids.
Newtonian fluid
A real fluid, in which the shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain or velocity
gradient is known as Newtonian fluid.
Example: - water, air, kerosene
Non- Newtonian Fluid
A real fluid, in which the shear stress is not directly proportional to the rate of shear strain or
velocity gradient is known as Non - Newtonian fluid.

Figure 5: - Rheological classification of fluids

1.3 Properties of Fluids
Pressure: It is the normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. In SI system the unit and
dimensionof pressure can be written as, N/m2
Density: The density of a substance is the quantity of matter contained in unit volume of the
substance. Unit: kg/m3
Temperature: It is the measure of hotness and coldness of a system. In thermodynamic sense, it
is the measure of internal energy of a system. The units are degree Celsius and Kelvin.
Specific Weight: -The specific weight of a fluid, denoted by 𝛾 (lowercase Greek gamma), is its
weight per unit volume. Just as a mass has a weight W =mg, density and specific weight are
simply related by gravity:-

The units of 𝛾 are weight per unit volume, N/m3

Specific Gravity:- denoted by SG, is the ratio of a fluid density to a standard reference fluid, water
(for liquids), and air (for gases):

Viscosity: The property that represents the internal resistance of a fluid to motion. In general, the
viscosity of a fluid mainly depends on temperature. For liquids, the viscosity decreases with
temperature and for gases, it increases with temperature.
Coefficient of compressibility/Bulk modulus: It is the property of fluid that represents the
variation of density with pressure at constant temperature. Mathematically, it is represented as,

Coefficient of Volume Expansion: It is a property that represents the variation of the density of
a fluid with temperature at constant pressure.

For ideal gas, β = 1/T where T is absolute temperature. In the study of natural convection currents,
the condition of the surrounding fluid body will affect that of the finite hot or cold regions it
surrounds. In such cases, the volume expansion coefficient can be expressed approximately as

Where 𝜌∞ the density and T∞ is is the temperature of the fluid away from the confined hot or cold
fluid region.
Surface Tension: Liquid droplets behave like small spherical balloons filled with the liquid, and
the surface of the liquid acts like a stretched elastic membrane under tension. The pulling force
that causes this tension acts parallel to the surface and is due to the attractive forces between the
molecules of the liquid. The magnitude of this force per unit length is called surface tension.
Capillary Effect: is the rise or fall of a liquid in a small-diameter tube inserted into the liquid.
Such narrow tubes or confined flow channels are called capillaries. The rise of kerosene througha
cotton wick inserted into the reservoir of a kerosene lamp is due to this effect. The capillary effect
is also partially responsible for the rise of water to the top of tall trees. The curved free surface of
a liquid in a capillary tube is called the meniscus.

Fig 2; The contact angle for a)Wetting and b)Nonwetting fluids, c) the capillary rise of water and
the capillary fall of mercury in a small-diameter glass tube and d) forces acting on a Liquid
Column.
Referring to Figure 2 d), the capillary rise is calculated by

Exercises
Choose the correct answer for the following questions.
1. Which one of the following is characterized by smooth and chaotic flow patterns respectively?
A. internal and external flow C. compressible and incompressible flow
B. Viscous and Inviscid Flow D. laminar and Turbulent Flow
2. What is the significance of Reynold’s Number?
A. It is the ratio of inertia force to viscous force
B. To identify whether the flow is compressible or incompressible
C. To identify whether the flow is Laminar, Transitional or Turbulent Flo
D. A and C
3. Which one of the following is most likely, incompressible?
A. Oil B. Water C. Fluid D. A and B
4. An ideal fluid is.
A) One which obeys Newton’s law of viscosity B) Frictionless and incompressible
C) Very viscous D) Frictionless and compressible

Chapter 2. Fluid Statics

Fluid statics deals with problems associated with fluid at rest.
In fluid statics, there is no shear stress in the fluid trying to deform it.
The only stress in fluid statics is the normal stress.
Normal stress is due to pressure
Variations of pressure is due to only the weight of the fluid.
2.1 Pressure and Its Measurements:
When a certain mass of fluids is held in static equilibrium by confining it within solid boundaries,
it exerts force along direction perpendicular to the boundary in contact. This force is called fluid
pressure.
It is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. Unit: 1 Pa = N/m2, 1 bar = 105 N/m2

Figure: - normal force exerted by a fluid to the boundary of surface

Pressure distribution
It is the variation of pressure over the boundary in contact with the fluid. There are two types of
pressure distribution.
a) Uniform Pressure distribution.
If the force exerted by the fluid is same at all the points of contact boundary then the pressure
distribution is said to be uniform.

b) Non-Uniform Pressure distribution.

If the force exerted by the fluid is not same at all the points then the pressure distribution is said to
be non-uniform.
Absolute, gage and Vacuum pressure
Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is measured relative to absolute
vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure.
Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate
gage pressure.
Vacuum pressure: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.
𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑐 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠

Fig:- Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures

2.2 Pressure at a Point (Pascal’s Law)
Pressure at any point in a fluid is the same in all directions.

2.3 Pressure measuring devices

Pressure of a fluid is measured by the following devices:
Manometers
Mechanical gauges
Manometers are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure at a point in a fluid by
balancing the column of fluid by the same or another column of the fluid. They are classified as:
Simple Manometers
Differential Manometers
Simple Manometers
It is commonly used to measure small and moderate pressure differences. A manometer contains
one or more fluids such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil.
A simple manometer consists of a glass tube having one of its ends connected to a point where
pressure is to be measured and other end remains open to atmosphere.

Fig The basic manometer.

Common types of simple manometers are:
➢ Piezometer
➢ U-tube Manometer
➢ Single Column Manometer
➢ Simple manometer – Piezometer

It is the simplest form of manometer used for measuring gauge pressures.

One end of this manometer is connected to the point where pressure is to be measured and other
end is open to the atmosphere as shown in Figure.
The rise of liquid gives the pressure head at that point. If at a point A, the height of liquid say water
is h in piezometer tube,
Then pressure at A can be given as:
𝑃𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ (𝑁⁄𝑚2 )
Fig simple manometer piezometer
U-tube Manometer
It consists of glass tube bent in U-shape, one end of which is connected to a point at which is to be
measured and other end remains open to the atmosphere as shown in Figure.
The tube generally contains mercury or any other liquid whose specific gravity is greater than the
specific gravity of the liquid whose pressure is to be measured.

Fig u- tube Manometer

Pressure at point Q is determined by
𝑃𝑄 = 𝑃𝐴𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
Mechanical Gauges: Mechanical gauges are defined as the devices used for measuring the
pressure by balancing the fluid by the spring or dead weight.
The commonly used mechanical pressure gauges are:
Diaphragm pressure gauge
Dead-weight pressure gauge
Bourdon tube pressure gauge
Bellows pressure gauge.
2.4 Hydrostatic forces on a surface
A plate, such as a gate valve in a dam, the wall of a liquid storage tank, or the hull of a ship at rest,
is subjected to fluid pressure distributed over its surface when exposed to a liquid. On a plane
surface, the hydrostatic forces form a system of parallel forces, and we often need to determine the
magnitude of the force and its point of application, which is called the center of pressure.

Fig:- When analyzing hydrostatic forces on submerged surfaces, the atmospheric pressure can be
subtracted for simplicity when it acts on both sides of the structure.

Fig:- Hydrostatic force on an inclined plane surface completely submerged in a liquid

The magnitude of the resultant force acting on a plane surface of a completely submerged plate in
a homogeneous (constant density) fluid is equal to the product of the pressure PC at the centroid of
the surface and the area A of the surface as shown in the figure below.

The point of intersection of the line of action of the resultant force and the surface is the center of
pressure. The vertical location of the line of action is determined by equating the moment of the
resultant force to the moment of the distributed pressure force about the x-axis. It gives
Finally yp

2.5 Buoyancy and Stability

An upward force is exerted by the fluid on the body is called buoyant force.

Fig:- A flat plate of uniform thickness h submerged in a liquid parallel to the free surface
2.5.1Archimedes’ principle
The buoyant force acting on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced
by the body, and it acts upward through the centroid of the displaced volume.
For floating bodies, the weight of the entire body must be equal to the buoyant force, which is the
weight of the fluid whose volume is equal to the volume of the submerged portion of the floating
body. That is,

Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies

An important application of the buoyancy concept is the assessment of the stability of immersed
and floating bodies with no external attachments.
Fundamental concepts of stability and instability. Shown in Fig. below are three balls at rest on
the floor. Case (a) is stable since any small disturbance (someone moves the ball to the right or
left) generates a restoring force (due to gravity) that returns it to its initial position. Case (b) is
neutrally stable because if someone moves the ball to the right or left, it would stay put at its new
location. Case (c) is a situation in which the ball may be at rest at the moment, but any disturbance,
even an infinitesimal one, causes the ball to roll off the hill-it does not return to its original position;
rather it diverges from it. This situation is unstable
 Fig:- Stability is easily understood by analyzing a ball on the floor.
Metacenter
It is defined as the point about which a body starts oscillating when the body is tilted by a small
angle.
The meta-center may also be defined as the point at which the line of action of the force of
buoyancy will meet the normal axis of the body when the body is given a small angular
displacement.
The distance MG, i.e., the distance between the metacenter of a floating body and the center of
gravity of the body is called meta-centric height.

Exercises
1. If the weight of a body immersed in a fluid exceeds the buoyant force, then the body will
A) Rise until its weight equals the buoyant force B) Tend to move downward and it may finally
sink
C) Float D) None of the above
2. The position of center of pressure on a plane surface immersed vertically in a static mass of fluid
is
a) At the centroid of the submerged area b) Always above the centroid of the area c) Always below
the centroid of the area d) None of the above
3. The normal stress in a fluid will be constant in all directions at a point only if.
A) It has uniform viscosity B) It is incompressible C) It is at rest D) It has zero
viscosity
Chapter 3. Integral Relations for a Control Volume
3.1 Basic Flow-Analysis Techniques
There are three basic ways to attack a fluid-flow problem. They are equally important for a student
learning the subject, and this module tries to give adequate coverage to each method:
1. Control-volume, or integral analysis

Working with a finite region, making a balance of flow in versus flow out, and determining gross
flow effects such as the force or torque on a body or the total energy exchange.
2. Infinitesimal system, or differential analysis

seeking to describe the detailed flow pattern at every point (x, y, z) in the field
3. Experimental study, or dimensional analysis

In all cases, the flow must satisfy the three basic laws of mechanics and plus a thermodynamic
state relation associated boundary conditions:
1. Conservation of mass (continuity)

The principle of conservation of mass states that mass can neither be created nor destroyed.
2. Linear momentum (Newton’s second law)

The principle of conservation of momentum or impulse momentum principle states that the
impulse of the resultant force, or the product of the force and time increment during which it acts,
is equal to the change in the momentum of the body
3. First law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy)

The principle of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed,
but can be transferred one form to another form.
4. A state relation like 𝜌 = 𝜌(p, T)

3.2 Systems versus Control Volumes

All the laws of mechanics are written for a system, which is defined as an arbitrary quantity of
mass of fixed identity. Everything external to this system is denoted by the term surroundings, and
the system is separated from its surroundings by its boundaries. The laws of mechanics then state
what happens when there is an interaction between the system and its surroundings.
Figure:- interactions between the system and its surrounding
Systems may be considered to be closed or open.
Closed system (Control mass): A fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross its boundary.
Open system (control volume): A properly selected region in space.
Control Volume (CV): A volume in space through which fluid may flow
It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle.
Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume.
Volume and Mass Rate of Flow
The amount of mass flowing through a cross section per unit time is called the mass flow rate and
is denoted by𝑚̇. The dot over a symbol is used to indicate time rate of change.

Figure. 3.2 The normal velocity Vn for a surface is the component of velocity perpendicular to the
surface.
̇ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴…………………………………………………………….……………………3.1
𝛿𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑉
The mass flow rate through the entire cross-sectional area of a pipe or duct is obtained by
integration:
𝑚̇ = ∫𝐴 𝛿𝑚̇ = ∫𝐴 𝜌𝑉𝑛 𝑑𝐴𝑐 𝑘𝑔/𝑠………………………….……………………………………….....3.2
𝑐 𝑐
1
Average Velocity 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐴 ∫𝐴 𝑉𝑛 𝑑𝐴𝑐 …………………………………………………………...3.3
𝑐 𝑐
The volume of the fluid flowing through a cross section per unit time is called the volume flow rate𝑽̇.
𝑉̇ = ∫𝐴 𝑉𝑛 d𝐴𝑐 = 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐴𝑐 = 𝑉𝐴𝐶 …………………………..……..………………………………….....3.4
𝑐
The mass and volume flow rates are related by
𝑉̇
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑉̇ = ………………………………………………..………………………………………..3.5
𝑣
Where v is the specific volume
3.3 Conservation of Mass
The system is a fixed quantity of mass, denoted by m. Thus the mass of the system is conserved
(remains constant during a process) and does not change. This is a law of mechanics and has a
very simple mathematical form, called conservation of mass.
𝑑𝑚𝑠𝑦𝑠
𝑚𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = constant or 𝑑𝑡
= 0……………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………3.6
The conservation of mass principle for a control volume can be expressed as: The net mass
transfer to or from a control volume during a time interval ∆t is equal to the net change (increase
or decrease) in the total mass within the control volume during ∆t. That is,
Total mass entering the CV during ∆𝑡 (𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) – Total mass leaving the CV during ∆𝑡 (𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) = Net
change in mass within the CV during ∆𝑡, (∆𝑚𝑐𝑣 ).
In the rate form the conservation of mass principle expressed as
𝒅𝒎𝒄𝒗
Conservation of mass 𝒎̇in - 𝒎̇out = 𝒅𝒕
……………………….…………..…………………….…..3.7
Where 𝑚̇in and 𝑚̇out are the totals rates of mass flow into and out of the control volume,
𝑑𝑚𝑐𝑣
respectively, and is the rate of change of mass within the control volume boundaries. In fluid
𝑑𝑡

mechanics, the conservation of mass relation written for a differential control volume is usually
called the continuity equation.
Consider a control volume of arbitrary shape, as shown in Fig. 3.1.

Fig. 3.1 the differential control volume dV and the differential control surface dA used in the derivation of the
conservation of mass relation.
The mass of a differential volume dV within the control volume is dm = 𝜌dV. The total mass
within the control volume at any instant in time t is determined by integration to be
Total mass within the CV:
𝑚𝑐𝑣 = ∫ 𝜌𝑑𝑉…………………………………………………………………………….….....3.8
Then the time rate of change of the amount of mass within the control volume can be expressed as
Rate of change of mass within the CV:
𝑑𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑑
= 𝑑𝑡 ∫ 𝜌𝑑𝑉…………………………………………………………….……………3.9
𝑑𝑡
From fig. 3.1. The mass flow rate through dA is proportional to the fluid densityρ, normal velocity
Vn, and the flow area dA, and can be expressed as
Differential mass flow rate:
𝛿𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑉𝑛 dA = 𝜌(𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 𝑑𝐴 =𝜌(𝑉 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑛⃗) dA ………………………………………………….3.10
The net flow rate into or out of the control volume through the entire control surface is obtained
by integrating 𝛿𝑚̇ over the entire control surface,
Net mass flow rate:
𝑚̇net = ∫𝐶𝑠 𝛿𝑚̇ = ∫𝐶𝑆 𝜌𝑉𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = ∫𝐶𝑆 𝜌 (𝑉 ⃗ . 𝑛⃗)𝑑𝐴 ………………………………….3.11
𝒄𝒗 𝒅𝒎
Rearranging Eq. 3.7 as 𝒅𝒕
+ 𝑚̇out - 𝑚̇in the conservation of mass relation for a fixed control
volume can then be expressed as
General conservation of mass:
𝑑
∫ 𝜌𝑑𝑉 + ∫𝐶𝑆 𝜌(𝑉 ⃗ . 𝑛⃗) 𝑑𝐴 = 0 ………………………………………………………..…3.12
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑉
The above equation 3.7, states that the time rate of change of mass within the control volume plus
the net mass flow rate through the control surface is equal to zero.
Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes
During a steady-flow process, the total amount of mass contained within a control volume does
not change with time (𝑚𝐶𝑉 = constant). Then the conservation of mass principle requires that the
total amount of mass entering a control volume equal the total amount of mass leaving it.
Steady flow:
∑ 𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 = ∑ 𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 (kg/s) …………………………………………………………….…..3.13
Where mass flow rates (𝑚̇) = 𝜌𝑉𝐴
3.4 Conservation of Momentum
The product of the mass and the velocity of a body is called the linear momentum or just the
momentum of the body, and the momentum of a rigid body of mass m moving with a velocity 𝑣
is m𝑉⃗ . Newton’s second law states that the acceleration of a body is proportional to the net force
acting on it and is inversely proportional to its mass, and that the rate of change of the momentum
of a body is equal to the net force acting on the body. Therefore, the momentum of a system
remains constant when the net force acting on it is zero, and thus the momentum of such systems
is conserved. This is known as the conservation of momentum principle. In fluid mechanics,
Newton’s second law is usually referred to as the linear momentum equation.
𝑑𝑉 𝑑
F = ma = m 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡 (𝑚𝑉)……………..………………………………………………………..3.14
If the surroundings exert a net moment M about the center of mass of the system, there will be a
rotation effect.
𝑑𝐻
M = 𝑑𝑡 ………………………………………………………………………………………….3.15
Where H = ∑(𝑟𝑋 𝑉) 𝜕𝑚 is the angular moment of the system about its center of mass.
3.5 Conservation of Energy
Energy can be transferred to or from a closed system by heat or work, and the conservation of
energy principle requires that the net energy transfer to or from a system during a process be equal
to the change in the energy content of the system.
𝑑𝐸
Conservation of energy principle:𝐸̇𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡𝐶𝑉 ……………………………………….3.16
Where 𝐸̇𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 are the total rates of energy transfer into and out of the control volume,
𝑑𝐸
respectively, and 𝑑𝑡𝐶𝑉 is the rate of change of energy within the control volume boundaries.
3. 6 The Reynolds Transport Theorem
Reynolds theorem is used in formulating the basic conservation laws of continuum mechanics,
particularly fluid dynamics and large-deformation solid mechanics.
An analytical tool to shift from describing the laws governing fluid motion using the system
concept to using the control volume concept

The link between the two is given by the Reynolds transport theorem.
 Fig 3.3.The Reynolds transport theorem (RTT) provides a link between the system approach and
the control volume approach
Note: - Reynolds transport theorem can be simply stated as - What was already there plus what
goes in minus what comes out is equal to what is there.
Reynolds transport theorem states that the rate of change of an extensive property B, for the system
is equal to the time rate of change of B within the control volume and the net rate of flux of the
property B through the control surface.
Let B represent any extensive property (mass, energy, or momentum).
Let 𝛽 be the corresponding intensive property, i.e., 𝛽= B/m (property B per unit mass in any small
portion of the fluid.).
Our goal is to find a relationship between 𝐵𝑠𝑦𝑠 or 𝛽𝑠𝑦𝑠 (property of the system, for which we know
the conservation laws) and BCV or 𝛽𝐶𝑉 (property of the control volume, which we prefer to use in
our analysis).

Fig 3.3 fixed control surface and system boundaries

The total amount of B in the control volume is thus
𝑑𝐵
𝐵𝐶𝑉 = ∫𝐶𝑣 𝛽𝜌𝑑𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 = 𝑑𝑚…………………………3.17
See text book for detailed derivation of the RTT. The results are shown below in various forms:
𝑑𝐵𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡 𝑑
RTT, for fixed control volume = 𝑑𝑡 (∫𝐶𝑣 𝛽𝜌𝑑𝑉 ) + ∫𝐶𝑆 𝛽𝜌(𝑉 ⃗ . 𝑛⃗)𝑑𝐴………………….3.18
𝑑𝑡
Generally RTT for CV implies that,Time rate of change of 𝐵 within a system is equal to Time
rate of change of 𝐵 within CV plus Net flux of 𝐵 through control surface (CS) [𝑩̇𝒐𝒖𝒕 − 𝑩̇𝒊𝒏 ]
or
𝑑𝐵𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡 𝑑
= 𝑑𝑡 (∫𝐶𝑣 𝛽𝜌𝑑𝑉 ) + ∫𝐶𝑆 𝛽𝜌(𝑉 ⃗ . 𝑛⃗)𝑑𝐴 − (− ∫ 𝛽𝜌(𝑉 ⃗ . 𝑛⃗)𝑑𝐴………………………3.19
𝑑𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐶𝑆𝑖𝑛
Where, ∫ ⃗ . 𝑛⃗)𝑑𝐴 = 𝐵̇𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝛽𝜌(𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (− ∫ 𝛽𝜌(𝑉 ⃗ . 𝑛⃗)𝑑𝐴 = 𝐵̇𝑖𝑛
𝐶𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐶𝑆𝑖𝑛
Conservation of mass
Also called the continuity equation, the control volume form of the conservation of mass is found
𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝑚
by substituting mass in for B. This means that, B = m and 𝛽 = 𝑑𝑚 = 𝑑𝑚 = 1
For fixed CV RTT for conservation of mass becomes
𝑑𝑚𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡 𝑑
= 0 =𝑑𝑡 (∫𝐶𝑣 𝜌𝑑𝑉 ) + ∫𝐶𝑆 𝜌(𝑉⃗ . 𝑛⃗)𝑑𝐴…………………………………………………….3.20
𝑑𝑡
This is the integral mass-conservation law for a deformable control volume. For a fixed control
volume, we have
𝑑
(∫ 𝜌𝑑𝑉 ) + ∫𝐶𝑆 𝜌(𝑉 ⃗ . 𝑛⃗)𝑑𝐴 = 0 ……………………………………………………………3.21
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑣
If the control volume has only a number of one-dimensional inlets and outlets, we can write
𝑑
(∫ 𝜌𝑑𝑉 ) + ∑𝑖(𝜌𝐴𝑉)𝑜𝑢𝑡 − ∑𝑖(𝜌𝐴𝑉)𝑖𝑛 = 0………………………………………………...3.22
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑣
𝑑
Suppose that the flow within the control volume is steady; then 𝑑𝑡 = 0 and the above equation
reduces to
⃗ . 𝑛⃗)𝑑𝐴 = 0 ………………………………………………………………………….......3.23
∫𝐶𝑆 𝜌(𝑉
This states that in steady flow the mass flows entering and leaving the control volume must balance
exactly. If, further, the inlets and outlets are one-dimensional, we have for steady flow
∑𝑖(𝜌𝐴𝑉)𝑜𝑢𝑡 − ∑𝑖(𝜌𝐴𝑉)𝑖𝑛 = 0 ……………………………………………………………….3.24
Linear Momentum Equation
The momentum equation is found by substituting momentum in for B. From this, 𝛽 is found to be
velocity. From Newton’s second law, we have the time rate of change of momentum is equal to
𝑑𝐵 𝑑(𝑚𝑉)
the net force. 𝛽 = 𝑑𝑚= 𝑑𝑚 = 𝑉, Thus,
𝑑𝑚𝑉𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡 𝑑
= 𝑑𝑡 (∫𝐶𝑣 𝑉𝜌𝑑𝑉 ) + ∫𝐶𝑆 𝑉𝜌(𝑉 ⃗ . 𝑛⃗)𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
∑ 𝐹 = (∫𝐶𝑣 𝑉𝜌𝑑𝑉 ) + ∫𝐶𝑆 𝑉𝜌(𝑉 ⃗ . 𝑛⃗)𝑑𝐴……….......................................................................3.25
𝑑𝑡
One-Dimensional Momentum Flux
𝑀̇𝐶𝑆 = ∫𝐶𝑆 𝑉𝜌(𝑉 ⃗ . 𝑛⃗)𝑑𝐴…………………………………………………………………………3.26
If the cross section is one-dimensional, V and 𝜌 are uniform over the area and the integrated result
is
𝑀̇𝐶𝑆𝑖 =𝑉𝑖 (𝜌𝑖 𝑉𝑛𝑖 𝐴𝑖 ) = 𝑚̇𝑖 𝑉𝑖 ……………………………………………………………….......3.27
Thus if the control volume has only onedimensional inlets and outlets, Eq. (3.25) reduces to
𝑑
∑ 𝐹 = (∫𝐶𝑣 𝑉𝜌𝑑𝑉 ) + ∑(𝑚̇𝑉)𝑜𝑢𝑡 − ∑(𝑚̇𝑉)𝑖𝑛 ………………………………………………3.28
𝑑𝑡
Conservation of energy
𝑑𝐸
The dummy variable B becomes energy E, and the energy per unit mass is 𝑑𝑚 = e.
By substituting into general RTT equations
𝑑
(∫ 𝑒𝜌𝑑𝑣 ) + ∫𝐶𝑆 𝑒𝜌(𝑉. 𝑛)𝑑𝐴................................................................................................3.29
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑉
3.7 Bernoulli Equation
The Bernoulli equation is an approximate relation between pressure, velocity, and elevation, and
is valid in regions of steady, incompressible flow where net frictional forces are negligible.
 Fig: - 3.2 The Bernoulli equations is an approximate equation that is valid only in inviscid
regions of flow where net viscous forces are negligibly small compared to inertial, gravitational,
or
pressure forces. Such regions occur outside of boundary layers and wakes.
The Bernoulli equation is obtained from the conservation of momentum for a fluid particle moving
along a streamline. It can also be obtained from the first law of thermodynamics applied to a
steady-flow system. Therefore, Bernoulli equation states
The sum of the kinetic, potential, and flow energies of a fluid particle is constant along a streamline
during steady flow when the compressibility and frictional effects are negligible.
𝑃 𝑉2
Steady, Incompressible flow: 𝜌 + + 𝑔𝑍 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡…………………………………...3.30
2
Practical applications of Bernoulli’s equation
Bernoulli's equation is applied in all problems of incompressible fluid flow where energy
considerations are involved.
Following are some of the applications of Bernoulli’s Equation:
Venturi-meter, Orifice meter, Pitot-tube
Chapter 4. Differential Relations for a Fluid Flow
Differential Relations for Fluid Flow
The differential approach provides point‐by‐point details of a flow pattern as oppose to control
volume technique that provide gross‐average information about the flow.
Indifferential analysis, all the details of the flow like velocity, density, pressure etc. are solved at
every point within the flow domain

Fig flow domain differential analysis, all the details of the flow are solved at every point within
the flow domain
In this approach, we apply our four basic conservation laws to an infinitesimally small control
volume.
4.1 Acceleration field of a fluid
The Cartesian vector form of a velocity filed can be written as:
 ⃗ 𝑤(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)…………………………….………….4.1
V (r, t) = 𝑖𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) + 𝑗𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) + 𝑘
The flow filed is the most important variable in the fluid mechanics, i.e., knowledge of the velocity
vector filed is equivalent to solving a fluid flow problem.
The acceleration vector field can be calculated:

Local acceleration Convective acceleration

4.2 The differential equation of mass conservation

All basic equations can be derived by considering an elemental system. Figure 1 shows the control
volume (dx, dy, dz) in which flow through each side of the element is approximately one‐
dimensional. Since the size of the element is so small, we can assume that all the fluid properties
are uniform and constant within the element.

\
Fig Elemental Cartesian fixed control volume showing the inlet and outlet mass flows on the x
faces
The mass-flow terms occur on all six faces, three inlets and three outlets.

The conservation of mass for the element can be written as:

After dividing by the volume of the element:

4.3 The differential equation of linear momentum

In a Cartesian coordinates, the momentum equation can be written as:

There are types of forces: body forces and surface forces.

Body forces are due to external fields such as gravity and magnetism fields. We only consider
gravity forces:

The surface forces are due to the stresses on the sides of the control surface. These stresses are
the sum of hydrostatic pressure plus viscous stresses 𝜏𝑖𝑗 which arise from the motion of the fluid:

Vorticity and Rotationality

The vorticity ξ at any given point is equal to twice of the angular velocity of a fluid element ω, and
both are related to the velocity field by
The vorticity vector is defined mathematically as the curl of the velocity vector⃗⃗⃗𝑉.

The symbol ξ used for vorticity is the Greek letter zeta.

Physically, you can tell the direction of the vorticity vector by using the right-hand rule for cross
product.

Fig: - The direction of a vector cross product is determined by the right-hand rule.
If the vorticity at a point in a flow field is nonzero, the fluid particle that happens to occupy that
point in space is rotating; the flow in that region is called rotational. Likewise, if the vorticity in
a region of the flow is zero (or negligibly small), fluid particles there are not rotating; the flow in
that region is called irrotational.
Note: - when 𝛁 𝐗 𝐕 ≠ 𝟎, the flow is said to rotational flow, but when, ∇ X V = 0, the flow said
to be irrotational flow.
Stream functions
The stream function ψ is defined such that ψ(x, y) = constant is the equation of a streamline, and
the difference in the stream function between two streamlines ∆ψ is equal to the mass flow between
the streamlines.
The stream function ψ is a clever device which allows us to wipe out the continuity equation and
solve the momentum equation directly for the single variableψ. The stream-function idea works
only if the continuity equationcan be reduced to two dimensional flow.

This equation is satisfied identically if a function ψ (x, y) is defined such that Equation above
becomes

𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
Where 𝑢 = , 𝑣 = − 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑦
Velocity potential
The velocity potential is defined for irrotational flow
The symbol ϕ used for velocity potential
Irrotationality gives rise to a scalar function ϕ similar and complementary to the stream function.
Many flows have negligible or zero vorticity and are called irrotational (potential flow).

Chapter 5. Dimensional analysis and similitude

Dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique used in research work for design and for
conducting model tests
Dimensional analysis is a means of simplifying a physical problem by appealing to dimensional
homogeneity to reduce the number of relevant variables.
The primary purposes of dimensional analysis are
To generate no dimensional parameters that help in the design of experiments (physical and/or
numerical) and in the reporting of experimental results
To obtain scaling laws so that prototype performance can be predicted from model performance
To predict trends in the relationship between parameters
Example.
The drag force, 𝐹, on a sphere is a function of approach-flow speed, 𝑈, sphere diameter, 𝐷, fluid
density, , and viscosity, 𝜇. However, instead of having to draw hundreds of graphs portraying its
variation with all combinations of these parameters, dimensional analysis will tell us that the
problem can be reduced to a dimensionless relationship between just two independent variables:

In this instance dimensional analysis has reduced the number of relevant variables from 5 to 2 and
the experimental data to a single graph of 𝑐𝐷 against Re.
DIMENSIONS
Dimensions and Units
Any physical situation can be described by certain familiar properties e.g. length, , area, volume,
etc. These are all known as dimensions
The expression for a derived quantity in terms of a basic quantities is called the dimension of the
physical quantity
Dimensions are properties which can be measured
Units are the standard elements we use to quantify these dimensions
In fluid mechanics the primary or fundamental dimensions, together with their SI units, are:
Dimensions Symbol SI units
Mass M kg(kilogram)
Length L m(meter)
Time T s(second)
Temperature θ K(kelvin)
Electric current I A(ampere)
Amount of light C cd(candela)
Amount of matter N mol(mole)

For example, force has the same dimensions as mass time’s acceleration (by Newton’s second
law). Thus, in terms of primary dimensions
length 𝐋
Force (F) = mass * acceleration = {mass Time2 } = {𝐦 𝐓𝟐 }
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐿
Velocity = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
={ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
} = {𝑇 }

5.1 Dimensional Homogeneity

The Principle of Dimensional Homogeneity
If an equation truly expresses a proper relationship between variables in a physical
process, it will be dimensionally homogeneous; i.e., each of itsadditive terms in a physical
equation must have the same dimensions.
Examples:
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 All terms have the dimensions of length (𝐿).
2

Dimensional homogeneity is a useful tool for checking formulae.

Methods of Dimensional Analysis
5.2 Buckingham’s Pi–theorem
The name pi comes from the mathematical notation (𝜋), meaning a product of variables. The
dimensionless groups found from the theorem are power products denoted by 𝝅1, 𝝅2, 𝝅3, etc. The
method allows the pi’s to be found in sequential order without resorting to free exponents.
The first part of the pi theorem explains what reduction in variables to expect:
If a physical process satisfies the principle of dimensional homogeneity (PDH) and involves n
dimensional variables, it can be reduced to a relation between only k dimensionless variables or
𝜋’s. The reduction j =n - k equals the maximum number of variables which do not form a pi among
themselves and is always less than or equal to the number of dimensions describing the variables.
The second part of the theorem shows how to find the pis one at a time:
Find the reduction j, then select j scaling variables which do not form a pi among themselves.
Each desired pi group will be a power product of these j variables plus one additional variable
which is assigned any convenient nonzero exponent. Each pi group thus found is independent.
The Method of Repeating Variables
1. List and count the n variables involved in the problem. If any important variables are missing,
dimensional analysis will fail.
2. List the primary dimensions for each of the n parameters.
3. Find j. Initially guess j equal to the number of different dimensions present, and look for j
variables which do not form a pi product.
4. Select j scaling parameters which do not form a pi product.
5. Add one additional variable to your j repeating variables, and form a power product.
Algebraically find the exponents which make the product dimensionless. Try to arrange for your
output or dependent variables (force, pressure drop, torque, power) to appear in the numerator, and
your plots will look better. Do this sequentially, adding one new variable each time, and you will
find all n - j = k desired pi products.
6. Write the final dimensionless function, and check your work to make sure all pi groups are
dimensionless.
Similitude or similarity
Similitude is defined as the similarity between the model and prototype in every aspect, which
means that the model and prototype have similar properties.

Chapter 6. Boundary Layer Concept

Fluid flow is classified as external and internal, depending on whether the fluid is forced to flow
over a surface or in a conduit. Internal and external flows exhibit very different characteristics.
Boundary layer concept is devoted to internal and external flows around bodies immersed in a
fluid stream.
Internal flow
Internal flows confined by the walls of a duct. In this case the viscous boundary layers grow from
the sidewalls, meet downstream, and fill the entire duct.In internal flows, the entire flow field is
dominated by viscous effects.
External flow
External flows are unconfined, free to expand no matter how thick the viscous layers grow.
External flow is characterized by a freely growing boundary layer surrounded by an outer flow
region that involves small velocity and temperature gradients.
Internal flow entrance region
Consider a fluid entering a circular pipe at a uniform velocity. Because of the no-slip condition,
the fluid particles in the layer in contact with the surface of the pipe come to a complete stop. This
layer also causes the fluid particles in the adjacent layers to slow down gradually as a result of
friction. To make up for this velocity reduction, the velocity of the fluid at the midsection of the
pipe has to increase to keep the mass flow rate through the pipe constant. As a result, a velocity
gradient develops along the pipe.
The region of the flow in which the effects of the viscous shearing forces caused by fluid viscosity
are felt is called the velocity boundary layer or just the boundary layer. The hypothetical
boundary surface divides the flow in a pipe into two regions: the boundary layer region, in which
the viscous effects and the velocity changes are significant, and the irrotational flow region, in
which the frictional effects are negligible and the velocity remains essentially constant in the radial
direction.

Fig: -The development of the velocity boundary layer in a pipe

The region from the pipe inlet to the point at which the boundary layer merges at the centerline is
called the hydrodynamic entrance region, and the length of this region is called the hydrodynamic
entry length Lh.
The region beyond the entrance region in which the velocity profile is fully developed and remains
unchanged is called the hydrodynamically fully developed region. The flow is said to be fully
developed when the normalized temperature profile remains unchanged as well.
The velocity profile in the fully developed region is parabolic in laminar flow and somewhat flatter
(or fuller) in turbulent flow due to eddy motion and more vigorous mixing in the radial direction.

Fig: - In the fully developed flow region of a pipe, the velocity profile does not change
downstream, and thus the wall shear stress remains constant as well.
The length of the hydrodynamic entry length Lh. It is given by

The time-averaged velocity profile remains unchanged when the flow is fully developed, and thus
The shear stress at the pipe wall 𝛕𝐰 is related to the slope of the velocity profile at the surface.
Noting that the velocity profile remains unchanged in the hydrodynamically fully developed
region, the wall shear stress also remains constant in that region as shown in fig above.

Fig: - The variation of wall shear stress in the flow direction for flow in a pipe from the entrance
region into the fully developed region.
6.1 Flow Past Immersed Bodies (external flows)
External flow is characterized by a freely growing boundary layer surrounded by an outer flow
region that involves small velocity and temperature gradients. Such a flow will have viscous (shear
and no-slip) effects near the body surfaces and in its wake, but will typically be nearly inviscid far
from the body.
The technique of boundary-layer (BL) analysis can be used to compute viscous effects near solid
walls and to “patch” these onto the outer inviscid motion. This patching is more successful as the
body Reynolds number becomes larger.
6.2 Drag and Lift
A fluid may exert forces and moments on a body in and about various directions. The force a
flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow direction is called drag.
The components of the pressure and wall shear forces in the direction normal to the flow tend to
move the body in that direction, and their sum is called lift.

The drag and lift forces depend on the density r of the fluid, the upstream velocity V, and the size,
shape, and orientation of the body, among other things, and it is not practical to list these forces
for a variety of situations. Instead, it is found convenient to work with appropriate dimensionless
numbers that represent the drag and lift characteristics of the body. These numbers are the drag
coefficient CD, and the lift coefficient CL, and they are defined as

A body is said to be streamlined if a conscious effort is made to align its shape with the anticipated
streamlines in the flow in order to reduce drag. Otherwise, a body (such as a building) tends to
block the flow and is said to be blunt or bluff. At sufficiently high velocities, the fluid stream
detaches itself from the surface of the body. This is called flow separation. When a fluid stream
separates from the body, it forms a separated region between the body and the fluid stream.
Separation may also occur on a streamlined body such as an airplane wing at a sufficiently large
angle of attack, which is the angle the incoming fluid stream makes with the chord (the line that
connects the nose and the end) of the body.

Chapter 7. Compressible Flow

Compressible flow is a flow in which there is a significant or noticeable change in fluid density.
Gases are highly compressible and liquids have a very low compressibility.
Gas has large compressibility but when its velocity is low compared with the sonic velocity the
change in density is small and it is then treated as an incompressible fluid.
7.1 Mach number
The Mach number is the dominant parameter in compressible-flow analysis, with different effects
depending upon its magnitude.
Mach number, Ma is defined as the ratio of the value of the local flow velocity, V to the speed of
sound, c.
𝑉 𝑉
𝑀𝑎 = = Where V = the flow velocity, c = speed of sound is the rate of propagation of a
𝐶 √𝑘𝑅𝑇

pressure pulse of infinitesimal strength through a still fluid.

𝑐𝑝
k= specific heat ratio 𝑐
𝑣

Flows according to Mach number:

Under small Mach number condition, changes in fluid density are everywhere small in the flow
field.
If the density change is significant, it follows from the equation of state the temperature and
pressure change are also substantial.
Density change means that, we can have significant compression or expansion work on a gas, so
the thermodynamics states of the fluid will change, meaning that in general all properties like –
temperature, internal energy, entropy, enthalpy and so on can change.
Stagnation/Total Conditions
When a moving fluid is decelerated isentropic ally to reach zero speed, then the thermodynamic
state is referred to as stagnation/total condition/state. For example, a gas contained in a high
pressure cylinder has no velocity and the thermodynamic state is known as stagnation/total
condition
In a real flow field, if the actual conditions of pressure P , temperature T , density ρ, enthalpy h,
internal energy e, entropy s etc. are referred to as static conditions while the associated stagnation
parameters are denoted as PO, TO, …etc respectively.

Fig:- The actual state, actual stagnation state, and isentropic stagnation state of a fluid on an h-s
diagram.
When dealing with compressible flow, it is convenient to combine the enthalpy and the kinetic
energy of the fluid into a single term called stagnation (or total) enthalpy ho, defined as
𝑉2 𝑘𝐽
ℎ𝑜 = ℎ + = ( ⁄𝑘𝑔)
2
The stagnation temperature of an ideal gas with constant specific heats is
𝑉2
𝑇𝑜 = 𝑇 +
2𝑐𝑝
The stagnation properties of an ideal gas are related to the static properties of the fluid by
𝑘⁄
𝑃𝑜 𝑇𝑜 𝑘−1
= ( )
𝑃 𝑇
1⁄
𝜌𝑜 𝑇𝑜 𝑘−1
= ( )
𝜌 𝑇
Property Relations for Isentropic Flow of Ideal Gases
Relations between the static properties and stagnation properties of an ideal gas in terms of the
specific heat ratio k and the Mach number Ma. We assume the flow is isentropic and the gas has
constant specific heats.
𝑇𝑜 𝑉2
=1+
𝑇 2𝑐𝑝 𝑇
𝑐𝑝
𝑘= = cp = kcv
𝑐𝑣

The ratio of the stagnation to static pressure is obtained by

7.2 Speed of sound

An important parameter in the study of compressible flow is the speed of sound, which is the speed
at which an infinitesimally small pressure wave travels through a medium. The pressure wave may
be caused by a small disturbance, which creates a slight rise in local pressure
To obtain a relation for the speed of sound in a medium, consider a duct that is filled with a fluid
at rest, as shown in Fig below.

Fig: - Propagation of a small pressure wave along a duct.

To simplify the analysis, consider a control volume that encloses the wave and derived by using
the mass balance for single-stream, steady-flow process and using thermodynamic property
relations finally the speed of sound

7.3 Flow with area change- Nozzles and Diffusers

Nozzles whose flow area decreases in the flow direction are called converging nozzles. Nozzles
whose flow area first decreases and then increases are called converging–diverging nozzles. The
location of the smallest flow area of a nozzle is called the throat. The highest velocity to which a
fluid can be accelerated in a converging nozzle is the sonic velocity. Accelerating a fluid to
supersonic velocities is possible only in converging–diverging nozzles. In all supersonic
converging– diverging nozzles, the flow velocity at the throat is the velocity of sound.

Converging nozzles

Converging–diverging nozzles

Fig: When Ma = 1, the properties at the nozzle throat become the critical properties.
The properties of a fluid at a location where the Mach number is unity (the throat) are called critical
properties, setting that Ma = 1

7.4 Shock Waves and Expansion Waves

When an abrupt changes in fluid properties occur in a very thin section of a converging–diverging
nozzle under supersonic flow conditions, creating a shock wave.
Types of Shock Waves:

Normal Shocks
First we consider shock waves that occur in a plane normal to the direction of flow, called normal
shock waves. The flow process through the shock wave is highly irreversible and cannot be
approximated as being isentropic.
In some range of back pressure, the fluid that achieved a sonic velocity at the throat of a
converging–diverging nozzle and is accelerating to supersonic velocities in the diverging section
experiences a normal shock, which causes a sudden rise in pressure and temperature and a sudden
drop in velocity to subsonic levels. Flow through the shock is highly irreversible, and thus it cannot
be approximated as isentropic. The properties of an ideal gas with constant specific heats before
(subscript 1) and after (subscript 2) a shock are related by

These equations also hold across an oblique shock, provided that the component of the Mach
number normal to the oblique shock is used in place of the Mach number.

Chapter 8. Introduction to 2D-Potential Flow Theory

Two-dimensional potential flows, focus for flow which the velocity field and all other fields only
depend on two coordinates.
8.1 Review of Velocity-Potential and stream function Concepts
Velocity potential
For an irrotational flow:
𝝏𝒘 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒘 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒖
𝛁𝑿𝑽=( − )𝒊 + ( − )𝒋 + ( − )𝒌 = 𝟎
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
So we have
𝝏𝒘 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒘 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒖
= , = , =
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
It follows that in this case the velocity components can be expressed in terms of a scalar function
ϕ (x, y, z, t), called velocity potential, as
∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
u= , v= , w=
∂x ∂y ∂z
In vector form:
𝑉 = ∇𝑋𝜙
The velocity potential is a consequence of the irrotationality of the flow field, whereas the stream
function is a consequence of conservation of mass. It is to be noted, however, that the velocity
potential can be defined for a general three-dimensional flow, whereas the stream function is
restricted to two-dimensional flows.
For an incompressible flow we know from the conservation of mass:
∇. 𝑉 = 0, and therefore for incompressible, irrotational flow, it follows that
∇2 𝜙 =0
The velocity potential satisfies the Laplace equation.
In Cartesian coordinates:
𝜕 2𝜙 𝜕 2𝜙 𝜕 2𝜙
+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
8.2 Plane Potential Flows
For potential flow, basic solutions can be simply added to obtain more complicated solutions
because of the major advantage of Laplace equation that it is a linear Partial Differential Equation.
For simplicity, only plane (two-dimensional) flows will be considered. Since we can define a
stream function for plane flow,
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝑢= , 𝑣= −
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
If we now impose the condition of irrotationality, it follows
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= , and in terms of the stream function
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

𝜕 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑣 𝜕 2𝜓 𝜕 2𝜓
( )= (− ) = + =0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 2
Thus, for a plane irrotational flow we can use either the velocity potential or the stream function—
both must satisfy Laplace's equation in two dimensions. It is apparent from these results that the
velocity potential and the stream function are somehow related. It can be shown that lines of
constant (called equipotential lines) are orthogonal to lines of constant ψ (streamlines) at all points
where they intersect. Recall that two lines are orthogonal if the product of their slopes is -1, as
illustrated by this figure

Along streamlines ψ=const:

Along equipotential lines ϕ = constant

Uniform flow at angle α with the x axis

A uniform flow consists of a velocity field where V = ui+ vj is a constant. In 2-D, this velocity
field is specified either by the freestream velocity components u∞, v∞, or by the freestream speed
U and flow angle α.
8.3 Source Flow

8.4 Sink flow

Where m = source strength

Free vortex (Γ(circulation) > 0 counterclockwise; Γ < 0 clockwise)

Doublet (with strength k=ma/π)

8.5 Superposition of Basic, Plane Potential Flows
Source in a Uniform Stream—Half-Body
Flow around a half-body is obtained by the addition of a source to a uniform flow.

The flow around a half-body: (a) superposition of a source and a uniform flow; (b) replacement of
streamline ψ = πbU with solid boundary to form half-body.

References
1] Frank M. White, Fluid Mechanics, Fourth Edition
2] Yunus A. Cengel and John Cimbala, Fluid Mechanics, Jan 31, 2005.
3] Donald F. Young, Bruce R. Munson, Theodore H. Okiishi, and Wade W. Huebsch, A Brief
Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, Jan 22, 2007.
4] Robert L Mott, Applied Fluid Mechanics SI Version, May 31, 2006.
5] Iain G. Currie, Fundamental Mechanics of Fluids, Third Edition (Mechanical Engineering
(Marcell Dekker)), Dec 12, 2002.
6] Bruce R.Munson, et al, Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 2005

HEAT TRANSFER
 Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1. Definition
Heat transfer, is defined as: the process of thermal energy transfer between systems or a system
and its surroundings due to temperature difference or
It is thermal energy in transit due to a spatial temperature difference.
Whenever a temperature difference exists in a medium or between media, heat transfer must occur.
There are three modes (ways or mechanisms) of heat transfer: Conduction, Convection and
Radiation.

Conduction:- Conduction can be defined as: the transfer of energy due to the collisions of more
energetic and less energetic molecules of a substance. Conduction can take place in solids, liquids
and gases.
The rate of energy transfer by conduction is given by Fourier’s law.

𝒅𝑻 𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 ∆𝑻
𝒒′′
𝒙 = −𝒌 𝒅𝒙 ≡𝒌 =𝒌
𝑳 𝑳

𝑊
Where, k – thermal conductivity (𝑚.𝐾)
𝑑𝑇
is temperature gradient
ansfer by conduction 𝑑𝑥

Example 1
The wall of an industrial furnace is constructed from 0.15-m-thick fireclay brick having a thermal conductivity
of 1.7 W/m .K. Measurements made during steady-state operation reveal temperatures of 1400 and 1150 K at
the inner and outer surfaces, respectively. What is the rate of heat loss through a wall that is 0.5 m x1.2 m on a
side?
SOLUTION
Known: Steady-state conditions with prescribed wall thickness, area, thermal conductivity, and surface
temperatures
Find: Wall heat loss.
Schematic:

Assumptions:
Steady-state conditions.
One-dimensional conduction through the wall.
Constant thermal conductivity.
Analysis: Since heat transfer through the wall is by conduction, the heat flux may be determined
from Fourier’s law.
∆𝑇 250𝐾
𝑞 ′′ 𝑥 = 𝑘 = 1.7 𝑊⁄𝑚. 𝐾 𝑥 = 𝟐𝟖𝟑𝟑 𝑾⁄ 𝟐
𝐿 0.15𝑚 𝒎
The heat flux represents the rate of heat transfer through a section of unit area, and it is uniform
(invariant) across the surface of the wall. The heat loss through the wall of area (𝐴 = 𝐻𝑥𝑊) is then
𝑞𝑥 = (𝐻𝑊)𝑞 ′′ 𝑥 = (0.5𝑚𝑥1.2𝑚)2833 𝑊⁄𝑚2 = 𝟏𝟕𝟎𝟎𝑾

Convection:- can be defined as: the transfer of energy that will occur between a surface and a moving
fluid when they are at different temperatures.
The convection heat transfer mode is comprised of two mechanisms: energy transfer due to
random molecular motion (diffusion) and energy transfer by the bulk, or macroscopic, motion of
the fluid. Such motion, in the presence of a temperature gradient, contributes to heat transfer.
The rate of energy transfer from the surface to the fluid (gas or liquid) is given by the Newton’s
W
law of cooling. where, h is the convection heat transfer coefficent in .
m2 K
A is the heat transfer area.
Tb or Ts is the surface temerature.
T f or T is the fluid temerature.

𝒒̇ 𝒄 = 𝒉𝑨(𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻∞ )

Fig 1.3: Heat transfer by convection

Convection heat transfer may be classified according to the nature of the flow.
Free (or natural) convection - when the flow is induced by buoyancy forces, which are due to
density differences caused by temperature variations in the fluid.
An example of free convection is heat transfer that occurs from hot components on a vertical array of circuit
boards in air. Air that makes contact with the components experiences an increase in temperature and hence a
reduction in density. Since it is now lighter than the surrounding air, buoyancy forces induce a vertical motion
for which warm air ascending from the boards is replaced by an inflow of cooler ambient air.
Forced convection - when the flow is caused by external means, such as by a fan, a pump, or
atmospheric winds.
As an example, consider the use of a fan to provide forced convection air cooling of hot electrical
components on a stack of printed circuit boards
Boiling and condensation – are convection processes associated with the change in phase of a
fluid. (solid–liquid or solid–vapor)
Radiation: - can be defined as: the transfer of energy due to electromagnetic waves or photons. If a
material is heated to a very high temperature, it produces light or photons and travels through a
medium or without a medium (in a vacuum). Unlike conduction and convection, radiation requires
no medium to propagate.
Solid surfaces, gases and liquids emit, absorb and transmit thermal radiation to varying degrees.
The net rate at which energy is emitted between two surfaces at temperature Ts and Tsur is given
by Stefan-Boltzmann law.
𝒒̇ 𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝜺𝝈𝑨𝒔 (𝑻𝒔 𝟒 − 𝑻𝒔𝒖𝒓 𝟒 )

Where, 𝜀 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (0 < 𝜀 < 1)

𝑊
𝜎 - Stefan Boltzmann constant = 5.6 x 10−8 𝑚2 𝐾4

𝐴𝑠 - The surface area

𝑇𝑠 - The surface temperature Fig 1.6: Heat transfer by Radiation
𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 - The surrounding temperature
The net rate of radiation heat transfer
𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 ⁄𝐿 = 𝑞′ = 𝝅𝑫 (𝑬 − 𝜶𝑮)
When; E= 𝝈𝜺𝑻𝟒𝒔 and G = 𝝈𝑻𝟒𝒔𝒖𝒓
Note:- An idealized body (surface) that can absorb and emit radiation at maximum rate is called a
black body. The emissivity of a black body is 1.

Example 2: An un-insulated steam pipe passes through a room in which the air and walls are at 25oC.
The outside diameter of the pipe is 70 mm, and its surface temperature and emissivity are 200oC and 0.8,
respectively. What are the surface emissive power and irradiation? If the coefficient associated with free
convection heat transfer from the surface to the air is 15 W/m2 .K, what is the rate of heat loss from the surface
per unit length of pipe?
SOLUTION
Known: Un-insulated pipe of prescribed diameter, emissivity, and surface temperature in a room with fixed
wall and air temperatures
Find:
a. Surface emissive power and irradiation
b. Pipe heat loss per unit length 𝑞′′

Assumptions:
Steady-state conditions
Radiation exchange between the pipe and the room is between a small surface and a much larger enclosure.
The surface emissivity and absorptivity are equal.
4
The surface emissive power may be evaluated as follows, while the irradiation corresponds to G = 𝜎𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 . Hence;
𝐸 = 𝜀𝜎𝑇𝑠4 = 0.8 (5.67𝑥10−8 𝑊⁄𝑚2 𝐾 4 ) 𝑥 (473𝐾)4 = 𝟐𝟐𝟕𝟎 𝑾⁄ 𝟐
𝒎
4
𝐺 = 𝜎𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟 = 5.67 𝑥 10−8 𝑊⁄𝑚2 . 𝐾 4 (298𝐾)4 = 𝟒𝟒𝟕 𝑾⁄ 𝟐
𝒎
Heat loss from the pipe is by convection to the room air and by radiation exchange with the walls. Hence,
𝑞 = 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + 𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑞 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) + 𝜀𝐴𝜎(𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
4
) When; A = 𝝅𝑫𝑳
= ℎ (𝜋𝐷𝐿)(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) + 𝜀(𝜋𝐷𝐿)𝜎(𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
4
)
The heat loss per unit length of pipe is then
𝑞
= 𝑞 ′ = ℎ (𝜋𝐷)(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) + 𝜀(𝜋𝐷)𝜎(𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
4
) (Substituting given values)
𝐿

𝑞 ′ = 15 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2 𝐾 (𝜋𝑥0.07𝑚) (200 − 25)𝑜 𝐶 + 0.8(𝜋𝑥0.07)5.67 𝑥 10−8 𝑊⁄𝑚2 . 𝐾 4 (4734 − 2984 )

𝑞 ′ = 577 𝑊 ⁄𝑚 + 421 𝑊 ⁄𝑚 = 𝟗𝟗𝟖 𝑾⁄𝒎

Example 3
The wall of a house, 7m wide and 6m high is made from 0.3m thick brick with k=0.6W/m.K. The surface
temperature on the inside of the wall is 16oC and that on the outside is 6oC. Find the heat flux through the wall
and the total heat loss through it.

SOLUTION
Heat flux can be calculated as follows
𝑑𝑇 𝑘
𝑞′ = −𝑘 = (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 )
𝑑𝑥 𝐿
0.6
𝑞′ = (16 − 6) = −𝟐𝟎𝑾/𝒎𝟐
0.3
Total heat loss through the wall can be calc. as follows
𝑄 = 𝑞′ 𝐴 = −20𝑥 (6𝑥7) = −𝟖𝟒𝟎𝑾/𝒎𝟐
The minus sign indicates heat dissipates from inside to outside

Chapter 2. One-Dimensional Steady-State Conduction

Heat transfer is a vector quantity (it has direction as well as magnitude).
The rate of heat conduction in a specified direction is proportional to the temperature gradient,
which is the change in temperature per unit length in the specified direction.
Heat conduction in a medium is said to be:
One-dimensional - when conduction is significant in one dimension only and negligible in the
other two dimensions - (T=T(x,0,0)).
Two-dimensional - when conduction in the third dimension is negligible - (T=T(x,y,0)).
Three-dimensional - when conduction is significant in all dimensions - (T=T(x,y,z)).
Unsteady or Transient - when the temperatures vary with time - (T=T(x,y,z,t)).
Steady - when the temperature does not vary with time - (T=T(x,y,z,0)).
Heat conduction through a medium, in general, is three-dimensional and time dependent. That is,
T=T(x,y,z,t) and the temperature in a medium varies with position as well as time.

Fig. 2-1 Heat conduction.

General heat conduction equation
The conduction of heat through a medium can be described using: a Rectangular or Cylindrical
or Spherical coordinate systems.
A medium through which heat is conducted may involve conversion of electrical, nuclear or chemical
energy into heat (thermal) energy. Such conversion processes are called heat generation
2.1. Boundary and Initial Conditions
To determine the temperature distribution in a medium, it is necessary to solve the appropriate
form of the heat equation.
However, such a solution depends on the physical conditions existing at the boundaries of the
medium and, if the situation is time dependent, on conditions existing in the medium at some initial
time.
With regard to the boundary conditions, there are several common possibilities that are simply
expressed in mathematical form.
Three kinds of boundary conditions commonly encountered in heat transfer are summarized in
Table 2.2
1. Boundary conditions of the first kind or Dirichlet condition (specified surface temperature)
2. Boundary conditions of the second kind or Neumann condition (specified heat flux)
3. Boundary conditions (B.C.) of the third kind (due to existence of convection)
The Thermal Resistance Concept
The flow of heat (Q) through a substance (R) due to temperature difference (T1 – T2) can be
represented as shown in Fig.4. This enables engineers to solve more complicated design problems
of heat transfer.
Where
Q is rate of heat transfer
R is thermal resistance
(T1–T2) is relevant temperature difference

Therefore for all three modes of heat transfer, heat transfer rate can be expressed as follows in the
thermal resistance concept
Heat transfer by Conduction
 T − T1  T1 − T2 T L
Q x = −k A  2 = L = R where, R =
 L  kA
kA
Heat transfer by Convection
Tb − T f Tb − T f 1
Q c = h A (Tb − T f ) = = where, R =
1 R hA
hA
Heat transfer by Radiation
Ts − Tsurr T −T  Ts − Tsurr 
Q rad =   As (Ts4 − Tsurr
4
)= = b surr where, R =  
 Ts − Tsurr  R    A (T 4
− T 4
surr 
)
  s s

   As (Ts
4
− T 4
surr 
)
The combined modes of heat transfer
Heat may also be transferred by a combination of two or three of the heat transfer modes.
The combined Convection and Conduction heat transfer
(T − T )
Q = h1 A (TA − T1 ) + k A 1 2 + h2 A (T2 − TB )
L
(TA − T1 ) (T1 − T2 ) (T2 − TB )
= + +
1 L 1
h1 A kA h2 A
TA − TB
=
1 L 1
+ +
h1 A k A h2 A
A
= (T − T )
1 L 1 A B
+ +
Fig 2.2; The
h1 combined
k h2 convection and
conduction heat transfer A
= UA (TA − TB ) where, U =
1 L 1
+ +
h1 k h2
Q = UAon
‘U’ is called the overall heat transfer coefficient. It depends (T 1 −the
T 2) geometry and thermal

conductivity of the wall and also the convective coefficients of the fluids.
Heat transfer from extended surfaces
The term extended surface is commonly used to depict an important special case involving heat transfer by
conduction within a solid and heat transfer by convection (and/or radiation) from the boundaries of the solid.
In extended surface, the direction of heat transfer from the boundaries is perpendicular to the principal direction
of heat transfer in the solid.
Extended surface/Fins are used to increase the convective heat transfer, by increasing the contact surface
area (A).

Figure 2.3; Use of fins to enhance heat transfer from a plane Figure 2.4; Schematic of typical finned-tube
wall heat exchangers
(a) Bare surface. (b) Finned surface.
Chapter 3. Two-Dimensional Steady State Conduction
To this point, we have restricted our attention to conduction problems in which the temperature
gradient is significant for only one coordinate direction.
However, in many cases such problems are grossly oversimplified if a one-dimensional treatment
is used, and it is necessary to account for multidimensional effects. In this chapter, we consider
several techniques for treating two-dimensional systems under steady-state conditions.
We begin our consideration of two-dimensional, steady-state conduction by briefly reviewing
alternative approaches to determining temperatures and heat rates.
Various methods of analysis are used in solving problems related to; two dimensional steady state
conduction. These approaches are:
Analytical Methods
Approximate methods -range from exact solutions, which may be obtained for idealized
conditions, to approximate methods of varying complexity and accuracy.
Mathematical methods
The method of separation of variables - mathematical issues associated with obtaining an exact
solution
The conduction shape factor and the dimensionless conduction heat rate- present compilations of
existing exact solutions for a variety of simple geometries
Numerical Methods
Finite difference or finite element methods- used to accurately predict temperatures and heat rates
within the medium and at its boundaries.
However, in this chapter we will see only Mathematical and Numerical Methods.
Finite-Difference Equations
As discussed above, analytical methods may be used, in certain cases, to effect exact mathematical
solutions to steady, two-dimensional conduction problems.
The Nodal Network
In contrast to an analytical solution, which allows for temperature determination at any point of
interest in a medium, a numerical solution enables determination of the temperature at only
discrete points.
The first step in any numerical analysis must therefore be
to select these points. Referring to Figure 3.1, this may
be done by subdividing the medium of interest into a
number of small regions and assigning to each a
reference point that is at its center.

Figure 3.1; Two-dimensional conduction; (a) Nodal network (b) Finite-difference approximation

Finite-Difference Form of the Heat Equation

Determination of the temperature distribution numerically dictates that an appropriate
conservation equation be written for each of the nodal points of unknown temperature.
The resulting set of equations may then be solved simultaneously for the temperature at each node.
𝜕 2𝑇 𝜕 2𝑇
+ =0 (3.1)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
However, if the system is characterized in terms of a nodal network, it is necessary to work with an approximate,
or finite-difference, form of this equation.
A finite-difference equation that is suitable for the interior nodes of a two-dimensional system may be inferred
directly from Equation 3.1.
Consider the second derivative, 𝜕 2 𝑇⁄𝜕𝑥 2From Figure 3.1b, the value of this derivative at the (m, n) nodal point
may be approximated as
𝜕𝑇⁄ | 𝜕𝑇
𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕𝑥 𝑚+1/2,𝑛 − ⁄𝜕𝑥|𝑚−1/2,𝑛
|𝑚,𝑛 ≈ (3.2)
𝜕𝑥 2 ∆𝑥

The temperature gradients may in turn be expressed as a function of the nodal temperatures. That is,
𝜕𝑇⁄ | 𝑇𝑚+1,𝑛 − 𝑇𝑚,𝑛
𝜕𝑥 𝑚+1/2,𝑛 ≈ ∆𝑥
(3.3)
 𝜕𝑇⁄ | 𝑇𝑚,𝑛 − 𝑇𝑚−1,𝑛
𝜕𝑥 𝑚−1/2,𝑛 ≈ ∆𝑥
(3.4)
Substituting Equations 3.2 and 3.3 into 4.4, we obtain
𝜕2 𝑇 𝑇𝑚+1,𝑛 + 𝑇𝑚−1,𝑛 − 2𝑇𝑚,𝑛
|
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑚,𝑛
≈ 2 (3.5)
(∆𝑥)

Proceeding in a similar fashion, it is readily shown that

𝜕𝑇⁄ | 𝜕𝑇
𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕𝑦 𝑚,𝑛+1 − ⁄𝜕𝑦|𝑚,𝑛−1 𝑇𝑚,𝑛+1 + 𝑇𝑚,𝑛−1 − 2𝑇𝑚,𝑛
|
𝜕𝑦 2 𝑚,𝑛
≈ 2
∆𝑦
2
≈ 2 (3.6)
(∆𝑦)

Using a network for which ∆𝑥 = ∆𝑦 and substituting Equations 3.5 and 3.6 into Equation 3.1, we obtain

𝑇𝑚,𝑛+1 + 𝑇𝑚,𝑛−1 + 𝑇𝑚+1,𝑛 𝑇𝑚−1,𝑛 + 4𝑇𝑚, = 0 (3.7)

Chapter 4. Unsteady-State Conduction
Our objective in this chapter is to develop procedures for determining the time dependence of the temperature
distribution within a solid during a transient process, as well as for determining heat transfer between the solid
and its surroundings.
Hence, in this chapter the variation of temperature with location or position and time, T = (x,y,z,t), will be
considered. Such a method is called transient (with uniform or non-uniform) Heat Conduction.
Various methods of analysis are used in solving problems related to Transient Heat Conduction. These methods
are:
Lumped capacitance method /Analytical Method/- comparatively simple approach used to determine the
variation of temperature with time.
Analytical solutions to transient problems are restricted to simple geometries and boundary conditions, such as
the one-dimensional cases considered in the preceding sections.
For some simple two- and three-dimensional geometry, analytical solutions are still possible.
Numerical method /finite-difference or finite-element methods/ - used to predict more complex conditions, the
time dependence of temperatures within the solid, as well as heat rates at its boundaries
In this section we consider explicit and implicit forms of finite-difference solutions to transient conduction
problems.
Under transient conditions with constant properties and no internal generation, the appropriate form of the heat
equation is written as;-
1 𝜕𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2𝑇
𝛼 𝜕𝑡
= 𝜕𝑥 2
+ 𝜕𝑦 2

Chapter 5. Convection Heat Transfer

The term convection describes energy transfer between a surface and a fluid moving over the surface.
Convection includes energy transfer by both the bulk fluid motion (advection) and the random motion of fluid
molecules (conduction or diffusion).
In our treatment of convection, we have two major objectives.
To obtaining an understanding of the physical mechanisms that underlie convection transfer and
To develop the means to perform convection transfer calculations.
The Velocity Boundary Layer
To introduce the concept of a boundary layer, consider flow over the flat plate.
When fluid particles make contact with the surface, their velocity is reduced significantly relative to the fluid
velocity upstream of the plate, and for most situations it is valid to assume that the particle velocity is zero at the
wall.
 Figure 5.1.Velocity boundary layer development on a flat plate.
𝛿 is termed the boundary layer thickness, and it is typically defined as the value of y for which 𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝒖∞
In velocity boundary layer the fluid flow is characterized by two distinct regions,
A thin fluid layer (the boundary layer) in which velocity gradients and shear stresses are large and
A region outside the boundary layer in which velocity gradients and shear stresses are negligible.
For external flows it provides the basis for determining the local friction coefficient.
𝜏𝑠
𝐶𝑓 ≡ (5.1)
𝜌𝑢∞ 2 /2

Assuming a Newtonian fluid , the surface shear stress may be evaluated by

𝜕𝑢
𝜏𝑠 = 𝜇 𝜕𝑦 |𝑦=0 (5.2)

The Thermal Boundary Layer

Just as a velocity boundary layer develops when there is fluid flow over a surface, a thermal boundary layer
must develop if the fluid free stream and surface temperatures differ.
Consider flow over an isothermal flat plate, At the leading edge the temperature profile is uniform, with T(y)
= 𝑇∞ .

Figure 5.2. Thermal boundary layer development on an isothermal flat plate

The region of the fluid in which these temperature gradients exist is the thermal boundary layer, and its thickness
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇
𝜹𝒕 is typically defined as the value of y for which the ratio [ = 0.99].
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞

With increasing distance from the leading edge, the effects of heat transfer penetrate farther into the free stream
and the thermal boundary layer grows.
Chapter 6. Heat Exchangers

T he process of heat exchange between two fluids that are at different temperatures and separated by a solid

wall occurs in many engineering applications. The device used to implement this exchange is termed a heat
exchanger.
The application areas of heat exchanger are space heating and air-conditioning, power production, waste heat
recovery, and chemical processing.
Heat Exchanger Types
Heat exchangers are typically classified according to flow arrangement and type of construction.
The simplest heat exchanger is one for which the hot and cold fluids move in the same or opposite directions in
a concentric tube (or double-pipe) construction.
Based on flow arrangement heat exchanger is classified in to two:-
Parallel flow Heat Exchanger- In the parallel-flow arrangement, the hot and cold fluids enter at the same
end, flow in the same direction, and leave at the same end.
Counter flow Heat Exchanger - In the counter-flow arrangement, the fluids enter at opposite ends, flow in
opposite directions, and leave at opposite ends.
Alternatively, the fluids may move in cross flow (perpendicular to each other), as shown by the finned and un-
finned tubular heat exchangers
Another common configuration is the shell-and-tube heat exchanger. It differ according to the number of shell-
and-tube passes, and the simplest form, which involves single tube and shell passes, is shown in Figure 6.3.

FIGURE 6.1 Concentric tube heat exchangers. (a) Parallel flow. (b) Counter flow.
 FIGURE 6.2 Cross-flow heat exchangers. (a) Finned with both fluids unmixed. (b) Un-finned with one fluid mixed and the
other unmixed.

FIGURE 6.3 Shell-and-tube heat exchanger with one shell pass and one tube pass (cross-counter flow mode of operation)

The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

The most uncertain, part of any heat exchanger analysis is determination of the overall heat transfer coefficient.
This coefficient is defined in terms of the total thermal resistance to heat transfer between two fluids.
For a wall separating two fluid streams, the overall heat transfer coefficient may be expressed as
1 1 1 1
= = + 𝑅𝑤 + (1)
𝑈𝐴 𝑈ℎ 𝐴ℎ (ℎ𝐴)𝑐 (ℎ𝐴)ℎ

Where c and h refer to the cold and hot fluids, respectively.

Note that calculation of the UA product does not require designation of the hot or cold side (UcAc = UhAh).
Rw is conduction resistance
Heat Exchanger Analysis: Use of the Log Mean Temperature Difference
Total heat transfer rate q in the heat exchanger, where
𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇𝑚
Where, ∆Tm is log mean temperature difference and U is the overall heat transfer coefficient
2∆𝑇 − ∆𝑇
1 1 2∆𝑇 − ∆𝑇
∆Tm = 𝑙𝑛(∆𝑇 ⁄∆𝑇 )
= 𝑙𝑛(∆𝑇 ⁄∆𝑇 )
2 1 1 2
Remember that, for the parallel-flow exchanger
∆𝑇1 ≡ 𝑇ℎ,1 − 𝑇𝑐,1 = 𝑇ℎ,𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐,𝑖
∆𝑇2 ≡ 𝑇ℎ,2 − 𝑇𝑐,2 = 𝑇ℎ,𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐,𝑜
However, for the counter flow exchanger the endpoint temperature differences must now be defined as
∆𝑇1 ≡ 𝑇ℎ,1 − 𝑇𝑐,1 = 𝑇ℎ,𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐,𝑜
∆𝑇2 ≡ 𝑇ℎ,2 − 𝑇𝑐,2 = 𝑇ℎ,𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐,𝑖

Example 4
1. A heat exchanger consists of numerous rectangular channels, each 18mm wide and 2.25mm high. In an
adjacent pair of channels, there are two streams: water k=0.625W/m.K and air k = 0.0371W/m.K,
separated by a 18mm wide and 0.5mm thick stainless steel plate of k = 16W/m.K. The fouling
resistances for air and water are 2 x 10-4 m2K/W and 5 x 10-4 m2K/W, respectively and the Nusselt
number given by NUDh = 5.95 where the subscript ‘Dh’ refers to the hydraulic diameter. Calculate the
overall heat transfer coefficient ignoring both the thermal resistance of the separating wall and the two
fouling resistances.

Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient with these resistances.

SOLUTION
Hydraulic diameter (𝐷ℎ ) = 4 x Area/wetted perimetre
2.25𝑥10−3 𝑥 18 𝑥 10−3
𝐷ℎ = 4𝑥 (2.25+18)𝑥 10−3
= 4 x 𝟏𝟎𝟑
𝑁𝑢𝐷 𝑘
ℎ=
𝐷
5.95 𝑥 0.625
ℎ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = = 𝟗𝟑𝟎 𝑾⁄𝒎𝟐 . 𝑲
4 𝑥 10−3
5.95 𝑥 0.0.0371
ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑟 = = 𝟓𝟓. 𝟏𝟖𝟔 𝑾⁄𝒎𝟐 . 𝑲
4 𝑥 10−3
1 1 −1
𝑈 = [930 + ] = 𝟓𝟐. 𝟏 𝑾⁄𝒎𝟐 . 𝑲
55.186
1 1 1
= [(ℎ𝐴) + 𝑅𝑤,𝑎𝑖𝑟 + + 𝑅𝑤,𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ]
𝑈𝐴 𝑎𝑖𝑟 (ℎ𝐴)𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
−1
0.5 𝑥 10−3 1 1
U=[ + 930 + 2 𝑥 10−4 + + 5 𝑥 10−4 ]
16 55.186
U = 50.2 𝑾⁄𝒎𝟐 . 𝑲
Special Operating Conditions
It is useful to note certain special conditions under which heat exchangers may be operated.
1st special condition –
The condition carry out in condensing vapor, this condition shows temperature distributions for a heat exchanger
in which the hot fluid has a heat capacity rate, 𝐶ℎ = 𝑚ℎ 𝐶𝑝,ℎ , which is much larger than that of the cold fluid,
𝐶𝑐 = 𝑚𝑐 𝐶𝑝,𝑐 .
For this case the temperature of the hot fluid remains approximately constant throughout the heat exchanger,
while the temperature of the cold fluid increases.
Condensation occurs at constant temperature, and, for all practical purposes, 𝐶ℎ → ∞.
2nd special condition -
The condition carry out in an evaporator or a boiler, it is the cold fluid that experiences a change in phase and
remains at a nearly uniform temperature (𝐶𝑐 → ∞).
The same effect is achieved without phase change if Ch ≪ Cc.
3rd special condition -
The third special case involves a counter flow heat exchanger for which the heat capacity rates are equal (Ch =
Cc).
The temperature difference ∆𝑇 must then be constant throughout the exchanger, in which case ∆𝑇1 = ∆𝑇2 =
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 .

FIGURE 6.4 Special heat exchanger conditions. (a). Ch ≫ Cc or a condensing vapor. (b). An evaporating liquid or Ch ≪ Cc.
(c). A counter flow heat exchanger with equivalent fluid heat capacities (Ch = Cc).

REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

Chapter 1. Refrigeration, refrigerator, and refrigerant

We are all aware from personal experience that heat is transmitted from high-temperature mediums
to low-temperature ones in the direction of decreasing temperature. But the opposite process
cannot happen on its own. Refrigerators are specialized equipment needed to transfer heat from
a low-temperature medium to a high-temperature one. cyclic appliances include refrigerators. A
refrigerant is the technical term for the working fluid used in the refrigeration cycle.
Refrigeration is the science that involves creating and sustaining temperatures that are lower than
those found in the ambient air. This refers to eliminating heat from a substance that needs to be
cooled.
Important refrigeration application
1. Ice making 8. Oil refining and synthetic rubber
2. Transportation of foods above and below manufacturing
freezing 9. Manufacturing and treatment of metals
3. Industrial air-conditioning 10. Freezing food products
4. Comfort air-conditioning 11. Miscellaneous applications
5. Chemical and related industries (i) Extremely low temperatures
6. Medical and surgical aids (ii) Plumbing
7. Processing food products and beverages (iii) Building construction etc.
Refrigeration Systems
The various refrigeration systems may be enumerated as below:
1. Ice refrigeration (i) Adsorption refrigeration system
2. Air refrigeration system (ii) Cascade refrigeration system
3. Vapor compression refrigeration system (iii) Mixed refrigeration system
4. Vapor absorption refrigeration system (iv) Vortex tube refrigeration
5. Special refrigeration systems system
(y) Thermoelectric refrigeration
(vi) Steam jet refrigeration system.

Standard Rating of a Refrigeration Machine

The rating of a refrigeration machine is obtained by refrigerating effect or amount of heat
extracted in a given time from a body. The rating of the refrigeration machine is given by a unit
of refrigeration known as “standard commercial tonne of refrigeration' which is defined as the
refrigerating effect produced by the melting of 1 tonne of ice from and at 0°C in 24 hours. Since
the latent heat of fusion orfice is 336 k/kg, the refrigerating effect of336 x 1000 kJ in 24 hours is
rated as one tonne, i.e.,
The rate at which heat is absorbed from the space to be cooled is termed as Refrigeration effect.
Its unit is ton. A ton of refrigeration is equivalent to rate of heat transfer needed to produce 1 ton
of ice at0, from water at 0, in 24 hours. A machine capable producing a net refrigeration
effect of 210Kj/min or 3.5 kw is called 1 ton machine. 1 ton=210ki/min=3.5kw
Heat Engine reminder
A heat engine is a thermodynamic system operating in a thermodynamic cycle to which net heat
is transferred and from which network is delivered. All Heat engines have the following common
characteristics: They receive heat from a high-temperature source (solar energy, oil furnace,
nuclear reactor, etc.), They convert part of this heat to work (usually in the form of a rotating shaft).
They reject the remaining waste heat to a low-temperature sink the atmosphere, rivers, etc.).
They operate on a cycle.

If we want to compare the output of heat engine against the input, we introduce Thermal Efficiency
for the cycle.
The thermal efficiency is the index of performance of a work producing device or a heat engine
and is defined by the ratio of the network output (the desired result) to the heat input (the costs to
obtain the desired result).

The thermal efficiency is always less than 1 or less than 100 percent.
The heat pumps
Another device that transfers heat from a low-temperature medium to a high-temperature one is
the heat-pump. Refrigerators and heat pumps operate on the same cycle but differ in their
objectives. The objective of a refrigerator is to maintain the refrigerated space at a low
temperature by removing heat from it. The objective of a heat pump, however, is to maintain a
heated space at a high temperature.
Refrigerators: move heat from colder space
Heat pump: move heat to warmer space
Both require work input

The refrigerator keeps the temperature of cold refrigerated space below that of the environment by
continuously removing heat QL from it.

Heat Pump is used in cold environments to keep the house warm by absorbing heat from cold
environment and pumping it into the house.
The index of performance of a refrigerator or heat pump is expressed in terms of the coefficient of
performance, COP, the ratio of desired result to required input.

Under the same operating conditions the COPHP and COPR are related by (substitute
QH=Win+QL, in COPHP equation)

Performance of Refrigerator and Heat pump is expressed in terms of coefficient of performance

(COP)

The Carnot cycle is composed of four totally reversible processes: isothermal

heat addition, isentropic (adiabatic) expansion, isothermal heat rejection, and isentropic
(adiabatic) compression.
The Carnot cycle can be executed in a closed system (a piston-cylinder device) or a steady-
flow system (utilizing two turbines and two compressors), and either a gas or a vapor can be
utilized as the working fluid.
The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle that can be executed between a heat source at
temperature TH and a sink at temperature TL, and its thermal efficiency is expressed as

Carnot cycle-using gas as working fluid executed in piston cylinder device

Reversible Isothermal Expansion (process 1-2, T, = constant).
Reversible Adiabatic Expansion (process 2-3, temperature drops from T to T;).
Reversible Isothermal Compression (process 3-4, T, = constant).
Reversible Adiabatic Compression (process 4-1, temperature rises from T; to T).
On a P-V diagram the area under the process curve represents the boundary work for quasi-
equilibrium (internally reversible) processes, we see that the area under curve 1-2-3 is the work
done by the gas during the expansion part of the cycle, and the area under curve 3-4-1 is the work
done on the gas during the compression part of the cycle. The area enclosed by the path of the
cycle (area 1-2-3-4-1) is the difference between these two and represents the net work done during
the cycle.

Reversed Carnot Cycle

If a machine working on reversed Carnot cycle is driven from an external source, it will work or
function as a refrigerator.
p-V and T-s diagrams of reversed Carnot cycle are shown In Figs in the following slide
Starting from point I, the clearance space of the cylinder is full of air, the air is then expanded
adiabatically to point p during which its temperature falls from Tl to T2, the cylinder is put in
contact with a cold body at temperature T2. The air is then expanded isothermally to the point n,
as a result of which heat is extracted from the cold body at temperature T2.
Now the cold body is removed; from n to m air undergoes adiabatic compression with the
assistance of some external power and temperature rises to Tl. A hot body at temperature
Tl is put in contact with the cylinder. Finally, the air is compressed isothermally during which
process heat is rejected to the hot body.
You may have observed that the power cycle operates in the clockwise direction when plotted on
a process diagram. The Carnot cycle may be reversed, in which it operates as a refrigerator. The
refrigeration cycle operates in the counter clockwise direction.
Since the coefficient of performance (C.O.P) means the ratio of the desired effect in kJ/kg to the
energy supplied in kJ/kg, therefore C.O.P. in case of Carnot cycle run either as a refrigerating
machine or a heat pump or as a heat engine will be as given below:

This indicates that C.O.P of heat pump is greater than that of a refrigerator working on reversed
Carnot cycle between the same temperature limits T1 and T2 by unity.

Reversed Carnot refrigerator-using vapor as working fluid

The fig Shown below are the cyclic refrigeration device operating between two constant
temperature reservoirs a n d t h e T-s d i a g r a m f o r t h e w o r k i n g f l u i d w h e n
t h e reversed Carnot cycle is used-vapor used as working fluid

• A refrigerator or heat pump that operates on the reversed Carnot cycle is called a Carnot
refrigerator or a Carnot heat pump.
• Coefficients of performance for Carnot cycles can be expressed in terms of temperature.

Vapor compression refrigeration cycle

Vapor-compression refrigeration systems are the most common refrigeration systems in use today.
The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle has four components:
Evaporator,
Compressor
Condenser
Expansion (or throttle) valve
In a basic vapor compression refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant enter the compressor as a
saturated vapor and is cooled to the saturated liquid state in the condenser.
It is then throttled to the evaporator pressure and vaporizes as it absorbs heat from the refrigerated
space.
Chapter 2. The ideal Vapor compression refrigeration cycle
Vapor compression refrigeration cycle is the most commonly used cycle in refrigeration, air
conditioning and pumps. It consists of four processes:
1-2 isentropic compression in compressor
2-3 constant pressure heat rejection in condenser
3-4 throttling in expansion device
4-1 constant pressure heat absorption in evaporator

Schematic and T-s diagram for the ideal vapor- compression refrigeration cycle.
In an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant enters the compressor at state 1
as saturated vapor and is compressed is entropically to the condenser pressure.
The temperature of the refrigerant increases during this isentropic compression process to
well above the temperature of the surrounding medium.
The refrigerant then enters the condenser as superheated vapor at state 2 and leaves
as saturated liquid at state 3 as a result of heat rejection to the surroundings. The temperature of
the refrigerant at this state is still above the temperature of the surroundings.
The saturated liquid refrigerant at state 3 is throttled to the evaporator pressure by passing it
through an expansion valve or capillary tube. The temperature of the refrigerant drops below the
temperature of the refrigerated space during this process.
•The refrigerant enters the evaporator at state 4 as a low-quality saturated mixture, and it
completely evaporates by absorbing heat from the refrigerated space. The refrigerant leaves the
evaporator as saturated vapor and re-enters the compressor, completing the cycle.
The throttling process (3-4) of ideal vapor compression cycle is an internally irreversible process.
If throttling valve is replaced by isentropic turbine we would have process 3-4' as indicated in T-
S diagram above but this is not done in ideal vapor compression refrigeration cycle. To make the
ideal vapor• compression refrigeration cycle more closely approximate the actual cycle.
In a household refrigerator, the tubes in the freezer compartment where heat is absorbed by
the refrigerant serves as the evaporator. The coils behind the refrigerator, where heat is dissipated
to the kitchen air, serve as the condenser
•Remember that the area under the process curve on a T-s diagram represents the heat transfer for
internally reversible processes. The area under the process curve 4-1 represents the heat
absorbed by the refrigerant in the evaporator, and the area under the process curve 2-3
represents the heat rejected in the condenser.
• A rule of thumb is that the COP improves by 2 to 4 percent for each °C the evaporating
temperature is raised or the condensing temperature is lowered.

Another diagram frequently used in the analysis of vapor-compression refrigeration cycles is the
P-h diagram, as shown in Fig. below. On this diagram, three of the four processes appear as
straight lines, and the heat transfer in the condenser and the evaporator is proportional to the
lengths of the corresponding process curves.
All four components associated with thevapour compression refrigeration cycle are steady-flow
devices, Then the steady flow energy equation on a unit-mass basis neglecting changes in ke and
pe becomes:
(Qin-Qout)+( Win-Wout)=he-hi
The condenser and the evaporator do not involve anywork, and the compressor can be
approximated as adiabatic.
•The energy balance of each of the components of vapor-compression refrigeration isgiven as
below:
Evaporator
Considering a control volume enclosing the refrigerant side of the evaporator, conservation of
mass and energy applied to this control volume together give the rate of heat transfer per unit mass
of refrigerant flow in the evaporator as:
𝑄
qe = 𝑚𝑒 = h1 – h4

Compressor
It is usually adequate to assume that there is no heat transfer to or from the compressor.
Conservation of mass and energy rate applied to a control volume enclosing the compressor then
give:

Condenser:
For a control volume enclosing the refrigerant side of the condenser, the rate of heat transfer from
the refrigerant per unit mass of refrigerant.
𝑄
qe = 𝑚𝑒 = h1 – h4

Control valve
Finally, the refrigerant at state 3 enters the expansion valve and expands to the evaporator pressure.
This process is usually modeled as a throttling process in which there is no heat transfer, i.e., for
which

In the vapor-compression system, the net power input is equal to the compressor power, the
expansion valve involving no power input or output.
Using the quantities and expressions introduced above, the coefficient of performance (COP), of
the vapor compression refrigeration system for heat pump and refrigerator is given by:

If a system aims at the heat, the system is called as Heat pump, it requires work to move thermal
energy from a cold source to a warmer heat sink.
Since the heat pump uses a certain amount of work to move the heat, the amount of energy
deposited at the hot side is greater than the energy taken from the cold side by an amount equal to
the work required.
The term coefficient of performance (COP) is also used to describe the ratio of useful heat
movement to work input.
Heat pumps are more effective for heating than for cooling if the temperature difference is held
equal.
Example
A refrigerator uses refrigerant-134a as the working fluid and operates on an ideal vapor-
compression refrigeration cycle between 0.14 and 0.8 Mpa. If the mass flow rate of the refrigerant
is 0.05 kg/s, determine
(a) The rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space and the power input to the compressor,
(b) The rate of heat rejection to the environment, and
(c) The COP of the refrigerator.
Solution
We note that this is an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, and thus the compressor is
isentropic and the refrigerant leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid and enters the compressor
as saturated vapor.
From the refrigerant-134a tables, the enthalpies of the refrigerant at all four states are determined
as follows:

The rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space and the power input to the compressor are
determined from their definitions:
Effect of various parameters on VCR Cycle:

Introducing of regenerative heat exchanger increases COP of the system (Refer P K Nag).

Chapter 3. Refrigerants
The working agent in a refrigerating system that absorbs heat from the place to be cooled or
refrigerated and dissipates it to the environment can be termed as a refrigerant. This heat transfer
generally takes place through a phase change of the refrigerant. A more complete definition of a
refrigerant could be given as follows:
Refrigerant is the fluid used for heat transfer in a refrigerating system that absorbs heat during
evaporation from the region of low temperature and pressure, and releases heat during
condensation at a region of higher temperature and pressure."
Classification of Refrigerants
Based on Working Principle: we have the primary or common refrigerants and the secondary
refrigerants
The primary refrigerants are those that pass through the processes of compression, cooling or
condensation, expansion and evaporation or warming up during cyclic processes. Ammonia, R12,
R22, carbon dioxide come under this class of refrigerants.
The secondary refrigerants: On the other hand, the medium which does not go through the cyclic
processes in a refrigeration system and is only used as a medium for heat transfer are referred to
as secondary refrigerants. Water, brine solutions of sodium chloride and calcium chloride come
under this category.
•Based on Safety Considerations: Under this heading, we have the following three sub-divisions.
Safe refrigerants: These are the non-toxic, non• flammable refrigerants such as Rll, R12, R13,
R14, R21, R22, R113, R114, methyl chloride, carbon dioxide, water etc.
Toxic and moderately flammable: Dichloroethylene methyl format, ethylchloride, sulphur
dioxide, ammonia etc. come under this category.
Highly flammable refrigerants: The refrigerants under this category are butane, isobutene,
propane, ethane, methane, ethylene etc.
•Based on Chemical Compositions: They are further sub-divided as
Halocarbon compounds: These are obtained by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms in ethane
or methane with halogens.
Azeotropes: These are the mixtures of two or more refrigerants and behave as a compound.
Oxygen and Nitrogen Compounds: Refrigerants having either oxygen or nitrogen molecules in
their structure, such as ammonia, are grouped separately and have a separate nomenclature from
the halogenated refrigerants.
Cyclic organic Compounds: The compounds coming under this class are R316, R317 and R318.
Inorganic Compounds: These are further divided into two categories: Cryogenic and Non-
cryogenic.
Cryogenic fluids are those which are applied for achieving temperatures as low as - 160 0C to -
273 0C. Above this temperature range, we can use a multi-stage refrigeration system to realize the
desired temperature. But below - 160 0C, this is not possible since the COP of the cycle becomes
very low. To attain temperatures below - 160 0C, we use refrigerants such as nitrogen, oxygen,
helium, hydrogen etc. and for temperatures close to - 2730C, magnetic cooling is employed. The
inorganic compounds which are employed above the cryogenic temperature ranges come under
the remaining sub-division of inorganic refrigerants.
Unsaturated Compounds: Compounds such as ethylene, propylene etc. are grouped under this
head and grouped under the 1000 series for convenience.
DESIGNATION OF REFRIGERANTS
The American Society of Refrigerating Engineers (ASRE) has developed certain conventions for
use in naming different types of refrigerants. These naming conventions differ according to the
type of refrigerant. Each refrigerant type is denoted by a different series. Thus, we have separate
series for halogenated refrigerants and other types. The naming conventions are simple and easy
to follow. These conventions are now accepted worldwide and help to name the large variety
of refrigerants available commercially nowadays.
Halocarbon Compounds: These are represented by a three-digit nomenclature. Here, the first
digit represents the number of carbon atoms in the compound minus one, the second digit stands
for the number of hydrogen atoms plus one while the third digit stands for the number of fluorine
atoms. The remaining atoms are chlorine.
As an example, let us consider the refrigerant having R22 as its three-digit nomenclature.
According to the above-mentioned convention,
• No. of C atoms in R22: C - 1 = 0 => C = 1
• No. of H atoms in R22: H + 1 = 2 => H = 1
• No. of F atoms in R22: F = 2
Since there is only one carbon atom in the compound, this compound has originated from the
methane series {CH4). From the calculation, we can see there is one hydrogen atom and two
fluorine atoms. The remaining valence bond of carbon will be balanced by chlorine. Thus, the
substance is Mono-chloro-Difluoro- Methane represented graphically as

Therefore, chemical formula of R22 is CHCIF2 and has the name Mono-chloro-difluoro-
methane
Taking again the example of R134, we can calculate its chemical formula as above which
gives us
• No. of C atoms: C - 1 = 1 => C = 2
• No. of H atoms: H + 1 = 3 =>H = 2
• No. of F atoms: F = 4
• Therefore, no. of Cl atoms: Cl = 0
• The compound is C2H2F2 and its name is Tetrafluoro-ethane
The non-halogenated refrigerants follow a different naming convention which is depend upon the
series of the refrigerant.

Required Properties of ideal Refrigerant:

The refrigerant should have low boiling point and low freezing point.
It must have low specific heat and high latent heat. Because high specific heat decreases the
refrigerating effect per kg of refrigerant and high latent heat at low temperature increases the
refrigerating effect per kg of refrigerant.
The pressures required to be maintained in the evaporator and condenser should be low enough
to reduce the material cost and must be positive to avoid leakage of air into the system.
It must have high critical pressure and temperature to avoid large power requirements.
It should have low specific volume to reduce the size of the compressor.
It must have high thermal conductivity to reduce the area of heat transfer in evaporator and
condenser.
It should be non-flammable, non-explosive, non-toxic and non-corrosive.
It should not have any bad effects on the stored material or food, when any leak develops in the
system.
It must have high miscibility with lubricating oil and it should not have reacting properly with
lubricating oil in the temperature range of the system.
It should give high COP in the working temperature range. This is necessary to reduce the running
cost of the system.
It must be readily available and it must be cheap also.
COMMON REFRIGERANTS
The refrigerants which are available commercially in the market are numerous. Some of them
which are in common use are mentioned below:
Air: Air (molecular weight 28.97, specific heats cp = 1.04 kJ/kgK and cv = 0. 712 kJ/kg-K) is one
of the earliest refrigerants to be used in the refrigeration systems. Its advantages are that it is
available free of cost, is non-toxic and non-flammable and does not affect the commodity if pure.
However, air suffers from a number of drawbacks. Air contains moisture and this reacts with the
material of the evaporator and condenser severely affecting their working capacity. Further, there
is a possibility that the passages may be blocked by the formation of ice from this moisture. The
COP of air is of the order of 0.6 and thus, not suitable for use in refrigeration systems on a
commercial scale. It is mainly used for air conditioning inaircrafts where efficiency of operation
is of secondary importance
Ammonia: Ammonia (molecular weight 17) is one of the oldest refrigerants and it was commonly
employed in places where toxicity effects were of secondary importance. Its advantages are its low
cost, low specific volume, high COP (of the order of 4.0) and high refrigeration effect per unit
mass of the refrigerant. Its primary drawback is its toxicity which prevents its use in air-
conditioning and food preservation systems. Ammonia has a boiling point of -33 0C at atmospheric
pressure.
Carbon Dioxide: Carbon dioxide (molecular weight 44) is a non-toxic and non-
poisonous refrigerant. Also, it is not only non-flammable but and is an excellent extinguishing
agent as well. Its other advantages are that it is chemically stable, immiscible with the lubricating
oil and does not affect the metal used in the system. It has a low specific volume and this requires
volume displacement per ton of refrigeration. However, its critical pressure is too high. Also, its
critical temperature is only 310C which makes it unsuitable for use in countries with a hot climate
like India. It is an excellent refrigerant for low temperature refrigeration.
Sulphur Dioxide: Sulphur dioxide (molecular weight 64) is a color-less, suffocating and irritating
gas and is twice as heavy as air at atmospheric conditions. It was mostly used as a household
refrigerant in the older days, but has since been discarded for better refrigerants. It suffers from a
lot of disadvantages. Sulphur dioxide reacts with water forming sulphurous acid, which in presence
of oxygen becomes sulphuric acid, a corrosive compound for metals. It is non-flammable but
attacks foodstuff on coming in contact with it. It is also partially miscible with the lubricating oil.
Hydrocarbons: This group consists of color-less fluids normally in gaseous state and made up of
various combinations of carbon and hydrogen. Most of the refrigerants from this category are
suitable for low temperature refrigeration. Iso-butane falls in this category and has been suitable
for domestic refrigeration. They are non-poisonous, but are flammable and highly explosive when
exposed to air. The molecular weight and boiling point of each gas varies according to the number
of hydrogen and carbon atoms. The larger the number of hydrogen and carbon atoms, the heavier
is the gas and higher is its boiling point.
Halocarbon Refrigerants: The halocarbon refrigerants are formed by replacing one or more of
hydrogen atoms of methane or ethane by one or more atoms of the three halogens: fluorine,
chlorine or bromine. Some of the refrigerants coming under this category are mentioned below:
Refrigerant R12: The refrigerant R12 is the most widely used refrigerant in the domestic and large
commercial establishments. Its chemical formula is CCl2F2 and its boiling point is -300C at 1
bar. It is a non-flammable, non-explosive, non-irritating, non-toxic and odorless refrigerant. It
remains chemically stable up to SS00C. Also, it does not affect the material ofthe refrigeration
system. It is available in abundance and is quite cheap. However, its use is being discontinued
nowadays for its contribution to ozone depletion which will be discussed later.
Refrigerant R13: Its chemical formula is CCIF3. it is a non-flammable, non-toxic and stable
refrigerant. It is very suitable for achieving low temperatures in a cascade refrigeration system.
Its specific volume is high and therefore, it is suitable for centrifugal compressors. However, it
also has a negative effect on ozone depletion.
Refrigerant R22: Its chemical formula is CHCIF2. it is also a non-toxic, non• flammable, non-
corrosive and non-irritating refrigerant. It is the most common refrigerant for use in large
refrigeration systems and is preferred to R12.
Refrigerant R114: Its chemical formula is C2Cl2F4. Its boiling point corresponding to 1 bar is
about 3 OC. It has properties very similar to those of R12 with respect to water and oil combination.
It is not suitable for low temperature refrigeration since it has negative evaporator pressure even
at around 9OC. It is non-toxic, non-explosive and non-corrosive even in the presence of water.
OZONE DEPLETION AND GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL OF REFRIGERANTS
An issue of growing concern for the present-day environment is the impact of the
various refrigerants on the ozone depletion and global warming of the environment. The main
culprits in this case are the chlorine containing halogenated hydrocarbons, commonly known as
chlorofluorocarbons or CFC which are being used as refrigerants.
The Earth's atmosphere is made up of various layers. The layer just above the Earth’s surface is
known as the troposphere. The troposphere extends up to 10 km from the surface. The ozone layer
is just above the troposphere and located in the stratosphere. The stratospheric ozone is Earth's
natural protection to harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun. UV radiation is harmful to
human, plant and animal life. The ozone layer gets depleted by the action of these refrigerants.
CFCs, when they are released from the surface of the Earth, rise slowly into the stratosphere. Here
they are bombarded by the incoming UV light from the Sun, which releases the chlorine atoms
from the parent compound. It is this chlorine atom which reacts with the ozone molecules. The
detailed reactions are given below:
The free chlorine atom can again take part in the reaction with another ozone
atom. A single chlorine atom, released by the action of UV radiation on CFCs, can catalytically
destroy tens of thousands of ozone molecules during its residence in the stratosphere AS IN
FIGURE BELOW
Ozone depletion will permit UV rays to reach earth which can result in several harmful effects on
living creatures. The UV radiation can cause skin cancer, cataracts and destruction of the body's
immune system.
Along with ozone depletion, CFC refrigerants also contribute to a large extent in the global
warming of the planet. These gases create a greenhouse effect which traps the heat in the lower
atmosphere. This makes the Earth warmer because the greenhouse gases do not allow infrared
radiation to pass through tern. The earth emits IR rays during its cooling when sun is not there.
CO2 is the most important greenhouse gas but one molecule of CFC has warming potential which
is more than 1000 times the warming potential of one molecule of CO2. Sun's rays are allowed
into the lower atmosphere, but the heat from these rays is not allowed to escape.

Chapter 4. Condensers
The condenser is a heat exchanger that rejects heat from the refrigerant to air, water, or some other
fluid. The three common types of condensers are air-cooled, water-cooled, and evaporative
Air-Cooled Condensers: A typical air-cooled condenser uses propeller-type fans to draw outdoor air
over a finned tube heat transfer surface. The temperature difference between the hot refrigerant
vapor that is flowing through the tubes and the cooler outdoor air induces heat transfer. The
resulting reduction in the heat content of the refrigerant vapor causes it to condense into liquid.
Within the final few lengths of condenser tubing (the sub-cooler), the liquid refrigerant is further
cooled below the temperature at which it was condensed. The air-cooled condenser is very popular
in both residential and commercial applications because of its convenience. It requires very
little maintenance and does not require the freeze protection and water treatment that is necessary
with a water- cooled condenser. Additionally, it is favored in areas that have an inadequate or
costly water supply, or where the use of water for air conditioning is restricted.
Evaporative Condenser: A modification of the air-cooled condenser is the evaporative
condenser. Within this device, the refrigerant flows through tubes and air is drawn or blown over
the tubes by a fan. The difference is that water is sprayed on the tube surfaces. As the air
passes over the coil, it causes a small portion of the water to evaporate. This evaporation process
absorbs heat from the coil, causing the refrigerant vapor within the tubes to condense. The
remaining water then falls to the sump to be re-circulated and used again.
Sub cooling of the refrigerant can be accomplished by piping the condensed liquid back through
another few rows of coil tubing, located either in the condenser airstream or in the water sump,
where additional heat transfer reduces the temperature of the liquid refrigerant.
Water-cooled Condenser: The shell-and-tube is the most common type of water-cooled condenser.
With this design, water is pumped through the tubes while the refrigerant vapor fills the shell space
surrounding the tubes. As heat is transferred from the refrigerant to the water, the refrigerant
vapor condenses on the tube surfaces. The condensed liquid refrigerant then falls to the bottom of
the shell, where it flows through an enclosure that contains additional tubes (the sub cooler). More
heat is transferred from the liquid refrigerant to the water inside these tubes, sub cooling the
refrigerant. After the warm water leaves the condenser, it must either be disposed of (as in the case
of using water from a well) or it must be cooled before it can be reused by the condenser. In this
example, the condenser brings in 85°F [29°C] water and warms it up to 95°F [35°C]. Before this
water can be used again, it must be cooled backdown to 85F [29°C].
Cooling tower A cooling tower is a device commonly used to cool condensing water. In this design,
warm water is sprayed over fill in the cooling tower while a propeller fan draws outdoor air
upward through the fill. The movement of air through the spray causes some of the water to
evaporate, a process that cools the remaining water. This cooled water then falls to the tower
sump to be returned to the condenser.

Chapter 5. Evaporators
The evaporator is a heat exchanger that transfers heat from air, water, or some other fluid to the
cool liquid refrigerant. Two common types of evaporators are the finned-tube and the shell-and-
tube.
Finned-Tube Evaporators: A finned-tube evaporator includes rows of tubes passing through sheets of
formed fins. Cool, liquid refrigerant flows through the tubes, cooling the tube and fin surfaces. As
air passes through the coil and comes into contact with the cold fin surfaces, heat is transferred
from the air to the refrigerant. This heat transfer causes the refrigerant to boil and leave the
evaporator as vapor. The fins of the coil are formed to produce turbulence as the air passes through
them. This turbulence enhances heat transfer, preventing stratification within the coil-leaving
airstream. To provide uniform heat transfer throughout the coil, the liquid refrigerant is distributed
to the coil tubes in several parallel circuits. A distributor is used to ensure uniform refrigerant
distribution through these multiple coil circuits. It distributes the liquid/vapor refrigerant mixture
to the coil through several tubes of equal length and diameter. As the refrigerant passes
through the tubes of the coil, the liquid refrigerant absorbs heat from the air, causing it to boil
off into vapor. The refrigerant vapor leaves the coil tubes and collects in a suction
header.
Shell-and-Tube Evaporators: Instead of producing cooled air, a shell-and-tube evaporator is
used to produce chilled water. In this type of evaporator, the cool liquid refrigerant flows through
the tubes and water fills the shell space surrounding the tubes.
As heat is transferred from the water to the refrigerant, the refrigerant boils inside the tubes and
the resulting vapor is drawn to the compressor. Water enters the shell at one end and leaves at the
opposite end. This chilled water is pumped to one or more heat exchangers to handle the
system cooling load. These heat exchangers could be coils used to cool air or they could be some
other load that requires chilled water.

Chapter 6. Expansion devices

An expansion device is used to maintain a pressure difference between the high-pressure
(condenser) and low-pressure (evaporator) sides of the system established by the compressor.This
pressure difference allows the evaporator temperature to be low enough to absorb heat from the
air or water to be cooled, while also allowing the refrigerant to be at a high enough temperature in
the condenser to reject heat to air or water at normally available temperatures. There are several
types of expansion devices, including expansion valves (thermostatic or electronic), capillary
tubes, and orifices.
In addition to maintaining a pressure difference, the thermostatic expansion valve controls the
quantity of liquid refrigerant entering the evaporator. It ensures that the refrigerant will be
completely vaporized within the evaporator (A) and maintains the proper amount of superheat in
the system. If not, enough liquid refrigerants enters the evaporator, it vaporizes too quickly. As a
result, the remaining coil tubes fill with vapor, producing very little refrigeration effect. On the
other hand, if too much liquid refrigerant enters the evaporator, not all of it will be vaporized. As
a result, some liquid refrigerant gets into the compressor suction line. Since the compressor is
designed to compress vapor and not liquid, liquid refrigerant can cause excess wear and damage
to the compressor.

Chapter 7. Compressors
The compressor is the active element of the refrigerating circuit. It has two functions: a) to
maintain the pressure by drawing off the vapor produced through evaporation of the liquid
refrigerant and b) to compress the vapor by raising its temperature and pressure to the point at
which the vapor can be condensed at the normal temperature of the condensing media.
The only way the vaporized refrigerant can be made to give up the latent heat of vaporization that
it absorbed in the evaporator is by cooling and condensing it. Because of the relatively high
temperature of the available cooling medium, the only way to make the vapor condense is to
compress it. When we raise the pressure, we also raise the temperature. This enables the vapor to
be condensed back into liquid by some convenient low-cost source of cooling, such as ambient air
or water.
Compressor Principle
A compressor has two major openings (ports) through which it connects to the system by copper
tubing. The inlet to the compressor is called the “Suction Line" which brings the low-pressure
refrigerant vapor from the evaporator into the compressor. The other is the discharge port where
the compressed refrigerant vapor, now at high pressure, is discharged into the condenser for
cooling. During compression the pressure of the refrigerant increases and the volume decreases.
This is explained by Boyle’s law which states that at a constant temperature, a volume of gas (or
vapor) is inversely proportional to the applied pressure acting on it. That is, as the pressure
increases, the volume of gas decreases. Also, during compression, the temperature of the
refrigerant increases, the effect of a physical phenomenon known as the heat of compression. This
is explained by Charles’s law which states that at a constant volume, the temperature varies directly
with the pressure i.e. as the pressure of a gas increases, so does its temperature.
Types of Compressors
Compressors can be reciprocating piston, scroll, screw or centrifugal. The first three are
positive displacement machines and the last is a dynamic compressor.
1) Reciprocating compressor: Reciprocating compressors are the positive displacement machines,
usually provided with two to 16 cylinders. This design minimizes their poor adaptation to large
volume rates, which is one of their disadvantages. The Single stage reciprocating machines have
an ability to operate at compression ratios of 10 to 12.The Reciprocating compressors are available
in two basic types: hermetic sealed units and units of open construction. In hermetic sealed units,
the motor and the compressor are direct-coupled and housed in a single casing that is sealed to the
atmosphere. In open construction units, the motor and the compressor are in separate housings.
In general, open construction units have a longer service life, lower maintenance requirements and
higher operating efficiencies. The hermetic sealed units are most common particularly in small
capacities. The Reciprocating machines are manufactured in capacities from 0.5 to 200
TR. The main factors favoring reciprocating machine is low cost. The other advantage is that
multiple reciprocating machines can be installed to closely match the building loads. Multiple
units allow flexibility to operate machines per the need. If properly managed this could attribute
to significant energy savings during low loads. A major drawback is a high level of maintenance
requirements, noise and vibration. Since the capacity is limited to 200TR, multiple units costmore
than other options. Multiple chiller configurations require large space and consume more energy
per ton of refrigeration.
2) Centrifugal Compressors: The Centrifugal compressors are categorized as variable volume
displacement units. Like reciprocating machines these are also available in both hermetic and
open construction. Commercially the hermetic sealed units are more widely used, despite its lower
operating efficiency. Centrifugal compressors for refrigeration applications are generally designed
for a fixed compression ratio of 18. The centrifugal compressors are manufactured in capacities
from 90 to 2000 tons. The main factor favoring centrifugal machine is their high operational
efficiency at full load, compact size and availability in large sizes. The biggest drawback of
centrifugal machine is a very poor part load performance and inability to operate at low cooling
loads. At extreme low loads, these chillers are prone to a condition known as surging. The main
limitation is that these are not suitablefor air-cooled condenser options and require water and
cooling tower.
3) Screw Compressors: Rotary or screw compressors, like reciprocating machines are positive
displacement compressors. Rotary is a wider term that may include vane, eccentric, gear orscrew
types. The commercial refrigeration installation relies more on screw machines. Screw
compressors are available in several designs, both single screw and twin screw, with oil free and
oil-injected designs in both types. Twin-screw oil• injected compressors are slightly more energy
efficient at mode rate compression ratios. Twin• screw compressors have an ability to operate at
compression ratio of 30. Units are available in both hermetic sealed and open construction.
Screw compressors are available in capacities ranging from 20 to 1000 tons and even higher from
few manufacturers. The Screw compressors have an ability to operate at compression ratios of as
high as 30 which can be varied for optimum load adjustment.The factors favoring screw
compressors is their compact size, lightweight, quite &vibration free operation and high energy
efficiency both in full and part load operation.The major drawback is their high cost. For smaller
loads, reciprocating machines are less expensive to purchase and for large loads centrifugal
machines cost less.

EXERCISES
1. A steady-flow Carnot refrigeration cycle uses refrigerant134a as the working fluid. The
refrigerant changes from saturated vapor to saturated liquid at 30°C in the condenser as it rejects
heat. The evaporator pressure is160 kPa. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram relative to saturation
lines, and determine (a) the coefficient of performance, (b) the amount of heat absorbed from the
refrigerated space, and (c) the network input.
2. A refrigerator uses refrigerant-134a as the working fluid and operates onan ideal vapor-
compression refrigeration cycle between 0. 12 and 0. 7MPa. The mass flow rate of the refrigerant
is 0.05 kg/s. Show the cycleon a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines.Determine
( a) the rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space and the power input
3. Refrigerant-I34a enters the compressor of a refrigerator as superheated vapor at 0.14 MPa and
I0°C at a rate of 0.12 kg/s, and it leaves at 0.7MPa and 50°C. The refrigerant is cooled in the
condenser to 24°C and0.65 MPa, and it is throttled to 0.1 5 MPa. Disregarding any heat transfer
and pressure drops in the connecting lines between the components, show the cycle on a T-s
diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determine (a) the rate of heat removal from the
refrigerated space and the power input to the compressor, (b) the isentropic efficiency of the
compressor, and (c) the COP of the refrigerator.
4. Refrigerant-I 34a enters the compressor of a refrigerator at I 40 kPa and I0°C at a rate of 0.3
m33/min and leaves at1 MPa. The isentropic efficiency of the compressor is 78 percent. The
refrigerant enters the throttling valve at 0.95 Mpa and 30°C and leaves the evaporator as saturated
vapor at 18.5°C. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determine
(a) the power input to the compressor, (b) the rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space, and
(c) the pressure drop and rate of heat gain in the line between the evaporator and the compressor.
5. A refrigerator uses refrigerant-134a as the working fluid and operates on the ideal vapor-
compression refrigeration cycle. The refrigerant enters the evaporator at 120 kPa with a quality of
30 percent and leavesthe compressor at 60°C. If the compressor consumes 450 W of power,
determine (a) the mass flow rate ofthe refrigerant, (b) the condenser pressure, and (c) the COP of
the refrigerator.
6. Refrigerant-134a enters the compressor of a refrigerator at 140 kPa and 10°C at a rate of 0.3
m3/min and leaves at 1 MPa. The isentropic efficiency of the compressor is 78 percent. The
refrigerant enters the throttling valve at 0.95 MPa and 30°C and leaves the evaporator as saturated
vapor at 18.5°C. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determine
(a) the power input to the compressor, (b) the rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space, and
(c) the pressure drop and rate of heat gain in the line between the evaporator and the compressor.
7. A refrigerator that operates on the ideal vapor compression cycle with refrigerant-134a is to
maintain the refrigerated space at 10°C while rejecting heat to the environment at 25°C. Select
reasonable pressures for the evaporator and the condenser, and explain why you chose those
values.
8.A heat pump that operates on the ideal vapor compression cycle with refrigerant-134a is used to
heat a house and maintain it at 22°C by using underground water at 10°C as the heat source. Select
reasonable pressures for the evaporator and the condenser, and explain why you chose those
values.
9. A heat pump that operates on the ideal vapor compression cycle with refrigerant-134a is used
to heat water from 15 to 45 °C at a rate of 0.12 kg/s. The condenser and evaporator pressures are
1.4 and 0.32 MPa, respectively. Determine the power input to the heat pump.
10.A heat pump using refrigerant-134a heats a house by using underground water at 8°C as the
heat source. The house is losing heat at a rate of 60,000 kJ/h. The refrigerant enters the compressor
at 280 kPa and 0°C, and it leaves at1 MPa
11. Refrigerant-134a enters the condenser of a residential heat pump at 800 kPa and 55°C at rate
of 0.018 kg/s and leaves at 750 kPa sub-cooled by 3°C. The refrigerant enters the compressor at
200 kPa superheated by 4 °C. Determine (a) the isentropic efficiency of the compressor, (b) the
rate of heat supplied to the heated room, and (c) the COP of the heat pump. Also, determine (d)
the COP and the rate of heat supplied to the heated room if this heat pump operated on the ideal
vapor• compression cycle between the pressure limits of 200 and 800 kPa.
12. Consider a two-stage cascade refrigeration system operating between the pressure
limits of 0.8 and 0.14 MPa. Each stage operates on the ideal vapor-compression refrigeration
cycle with refrigerant-134a as the working fluid. Heat rejection from the lower cycle to the upper
cycle takes place in an adiabatic counter-flow heat exchanger where both streams enter at about
0.4 MPa. If the mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the upper cycle is 0.24 kg/s, determine
(a) the mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the lower cycle, (b) the rate of heat removal from
the refrigerated space and the power input to the compressor, and (c) the coefficient of performance
of this cascade refrigerator.

Chapter 8. Vapor absorption refrigeration cycle

Another form of refrigeration that becomes economically attractive when there is a source
of inexpensive thermal energy at a temperature of 100 to 200°C is absorption refrigeration. Some
examples of inexpensive thermal energy sources include geothermal energy, solar energy, and
waste heat from cogeneration or process steam plants, and even natural gas when it is available
at a relatively low price.
As the name implies, absorption refrigeration systems involve the absorption of a refrigerant by a
transport medium. The most widely used absorption refrigeration system is the ammonia• water
system, where ammonia (NH3) serves as the refrigerant and water (H2O) as the transport medium.
Other absorption refrigeration systems include water-lithium bromide and water-lithium
chloride systems, where water serves as the refrigerant.
The absorption process can be compared to the vapor compression system in that the
process of mechanical compression of the refrigerant gas is replaced by the absorption of the gas
into a liquid (solution), followed by pumping the liquid to the required pressure where the
refrigerant vapor is liberated from the solution by application of heat.
Relation b/n the vapor compression and vapor absorption systems
Both the mechanical vapor compression refrigeration cycle and the absorption refrigeration cycle
accomplish the removal of heat through the evaporation of a refrigerant at a low pressure and the
rejection of heat through the condensation of the refrigerant at a higher pressure.

The method of creating the pressure difference and circulating the refrigerant is the primary
difference between the two cycles.
The mechanical vapor compression cycle employs a mechanical compressor to create the pressure
difference necessary to circulate the refrigerant.
In the absorption system, another liquid, which is called absorbent, is used to circulate the
refrigerant.
To understand the basic principles involved in absorption refrigeration, we examine the
NH3--H2O system shown in the figure below.

Notice from the figure that this system looks very much like the vapor-compression system, except
that the compressor has been replaced by a complex absorption mechanism consisting of an
absorber, a pump, a generator, a regenerator, a valve, and a rectifier.
Once the pressure of NH3 is raised by the components in the box (this is the only thing they are
set up to do), it is cooled and condensed in the condenser by rejecting heat to the surroundings, is
throttled to the evaporator pressure, and absorbs heat from the refrigerated space as it flows through
the evaporator. So, there is nothing new there.
Here is what happens in the box:
Ammonia vapor leaves the evaporator and enters the absorber, where it dissolves and reacts
with water to form NH3 · H20. This is an exothermic reaction; thus, heat is released during
this process.
The amount of NH3 that can be dissolved in H20 is inversely proportional to the temperature.
Therefore, it is necessary to cool the absorber to maintain its temperature as low as possible, hence
to maximize the amount of NH3 dissolved in water.
The liquid NH3 H20 solution, which is rich in NH3, is then pumped to the generator. Heat is
transferred to the solution from a source to vaporize some of the solution. The vapor, which is
rich in NH3, passes through a rectifier, which separates the water and returns it to the generator.
The high-pressure pure NH3 vapor then continues its journey through the rest of the cycle.
The hot NH3 H20 solution, which is weak in NH3, then passes through are generator, where it
transfers some heat to the rich solution leaving the pump, and is throttled to the absorber
pressure.
Compared with vapor-compression systems, absorption refrigeration systems have one major
advantage: A liquid is compressed instead of a vapor.
The steady-flow work is proportional to the specific volume, and thus the work
input for absorption refrigeration systems is very small (on the order of one percent of the heat
supplied to the generator) and often neglected in the cycle analysis. The operation of these systems
is based on heat transfer from an external source.
Therefore, absorption refrigeration systems are often classified as heat-driven systems.
The solubility of ammonia in water at low temperatures and pressures is higher than it
is at higher temperatures and pressures. The ammonia vapor leaving the evaporator at point 2 is
readily absorbed in the low temperature hot solution in the absorber. This process is
accompanied by the rejection of heat. The ammonia in water solution is pumped to the higher
pressure and is heated in the generator.
Due to reduced solubility of ammonia in water at the higher pressure and temperature, the vapor
is removed from the solution. The vapor then passes to the condenser and the weakened ammonia
in water solution is returned to the absorber.
The absorption refrigeration systems are much more expensive than the vapor compression
refrigeration systems. They are more complex and occupy more space, they are much less efficient
thus requiring much larger cooling towers to reject the waste heat, and they are more difficult
to service since they are less common.
Therefore, absorption refrigeration systems should be considered only when the unit cost
of thermal energy is low and is projected to remain low relative to electricity.
Absorption refrigeration systems are primarily used in large commercial and
industrial installations.
Thermodynamic analysis and performance of the ideal vapor absorption cycle
The COP of absorption refrigeration systems is defined as

The maximum COP of an absorption refrigeration system is determined by assuming that the entire
cycle is totally reversible (i.e., the cycle involves no irreversibilities and any heat transfer is
through a differential temperature difference). The refrigeration system would be reversible if the
heat from the of this heat engine (W = Th. .~) is supplied to a Carnot refrigerator to source (Q~)
were transferred to a Carnot heat engine, and the work output remove heat from the refrigerated
space. Note that Q, = W X COP, nh.«s•.~COP, Then the overall COP of an absorption
refrigeration system under reversible conditions becomes
Where T, Tk and T, are the thermodynamic temperatures of the refrigerated space, the
environment, and the heat source, respectively
Any absorption refrigeration system that receives heat from a source at Ts and removes heat from
the refrigerated space at Ti while operating in an environment at To has a lower COP than the
one determined from the above equation (Actual VARC• HAS LOWER COP THAN THAT OF
REVERSIBLE VARC BECAUSE OF I RREVERSI BLITI ES)
For example, when the source is at 120°C, the refrigerated space is at 10°C, and the
environment is at 25°C, the maximum COP that an absorption refrigeration system can have is
1.8. The COP ofactual absorption refrigeration systems are usually less than 1.
Absorption Chillers
► Absorption systems offer at least three advantages over conventional electric vapor
compression systems.
► First, they do not use CFC or HCFC refrigerants. The solutions used in absorption
systems are not refrigerants that could someday be limited because of ozone depletion or
global warming concerns.
► Second, absorption systems can utilize a variety of heat sources, including natural gas, steam,
solar-heated water, and waste heat from a turbine or industrial process. If the source of heat is
from waste heat, such as from a co-generation system, absorption systems may provide the lowest
cost alternative for providing chilled water for air conditioning. Because sources of energy besides
electricity are used, installation of an absorption system can be used to reduce peak electrical
demand in situations where electrical demand charges are high.
► Third, because of the absence of heavy rotating parts, absorption systems produce much less
vibration and noise compared to large centrifugal systems
Water-lithium bromide absorption machines can be classified by the method of heat input
and whether the cycle is single or multiple effects. Indirect fired chillers use steam or hot liquids
as a heat source. Direct fired chillers use the heat energy from the firing of fossil fuels. Heat-
recovery chillers use waste gases as the heat source. Single effect and double effect chillers
are described below.

Chapter 9. Air refrigeration system

Limitation of the Reversed Carnot cycle with gas as a refrigerant
Carnot cycle is an idealization and it suffers from several practical limitations. One of the main
difficulties with Carnot cycle employing a gas is the difficulty of achieving isothermal heat transfer
during processes 2-3 and 4-1. For a gas to have heat transfer isothermally, it is essential to carry
out work transfer from or to the system when heat is transferred to the system (process 4-1)
or from the system (process 2-3). This is difficult to achieve in practice.
In addition, the volumetric refrigeration capacity of the Carnot system is very small leading to
large compressor displacement, which gives rise to large frictional effects.
All actual processes are irreversible; hence completely reversible cycles are idealizations only.
Reversed Brayton or Joule or Bell Coleman cycle
This is an important cycle frequently employed in gas cycle refrigeration systems.
This may be thought of as a modification of reversed Carnot cycle, as the two isothermal processes
of Carnot cycle are replaced by two isobaric heat transfer processes.
This cycle is also called as Joule or Bell-Coleman cycle.
The ideal cycle consists of the following four processes: Process 1-2: Reversible,
adiabaticcompression in a compressor
Process 2-3: Reversible, isobaric heat rejection ina heat exchanger
Process 3-4: Reversible, adiabatic expansion in a turbine
Process 4-1: Reversible, isobaric heat absorption ina heat exchanger
Fig. schematic of a closed, reverse Brayton cycle and also the cycle on T-s diagram.
All the processes described are internally reversible, and the cycle executed is the ideal
gas refrigeration cycle.
• In actual gas refrigeration cycles, the compression and expansion processes
deviate from the isentropic ones, and T3 is higher than to unless the heat exchanger is infinitely
large.
On a T-s diagram, the area under process curve
4-1 represents the heat removed from the refrigerated space, and the enclosed area 1-2-3-
4-1 represents the network input. The ratio of these areas is the COP for the cycle, which may be
expressed as
The gas refrigeration cycle deviates from the reversed Carnot cycle because the heat transfer
processes are not isothermal. In fact, the gas temperature varies considerably during heat
transfer processes. Consequently, the gas refrigeration cycles have lower COPs relative to the
vapor-compression refrigeration cycles or the reversed Carnot cycle.
This is also evident from the T-s diagram in Fig. in next slide. The reversed Carnot cycle
consumes a fraction of the net work (rectangular area lA3B) but produces a greater amount
of refrigeration (triangular area under Bl).
Despite their relatively low COPs, the gas refrigeration cycles have two desirable characteristics:
They involve simple, lighter components, which make them suitable for aircraft cooling, and
they can incorporate regeneration, which makes them suitable for liquefaction of gases and
cryogenic applications.

Sterling cycle
In Sterling cycle, Carnot cycle's isentropic compression and expansion processes are
replaced by two constant-volume regeneration processes.
During the regeneration process heat is transferred to a thermal storage device
(regenerator) during one part and is transferred back to the working fluid in another part of the
cycle.
The regenerator can be a wire or a ceramic mesh or any kind of porous plug with a high
thermal mass (mass times specific heat). The regenerator is assumed to be reversible heat transfer
device.
• 1-2 isothermal expansion- heat addition from external source
• 2-3 const. vol. heat transfer- internal heat transfer from the gas to the regenerator
• 3-4 isothermal compression- heat rejection to the external sink
• 4-1 const. vol. heat transfer- internal heat transfer from the regenerator to the gas

Application of the gas refrigeration cycle

Gas cycle refrigeration systems find applications in air craft cabin cooling and also in the
liquefaction of various gases.
Despite their relatively low COPs, the gas refrigeration cycles have two desirable
characteristics: They involve simple, lighter components, which make them suitable for
aircraft cooling, and they can incorporate regeneration, which makes them suitable for liquefaction
of gases and cryogenic applications. Commonly used gas in this cycle is air.
Chapter 10. Steam-injection refrigeration system
Ejector or jet pump refrigeration is a thermally driven technology that has been used for
cooling applications for many years. In their present state of development they have a much lower
COP than vapor compression systems but offer advantages of simplicity and no moving parts.
Their greatest advantage is their capability to produce refrigeration using waste heat or
solar energy as a heat source at temperatures above 80°C.
The schematic diagram of the basic ejector refrigeration cycle is shown in the next
slide

Referring to the basic ejector refrigeration cycle in Figure above, the system
consists of two loops, the power loop and the refrigeration loop.
In the power loop, low-grade heat, Qb, is used in a boiler or generator to
evaporate high pressure liquid refrigerant (process 1-2). The high pressure vapor
generated, known as the primary fluid, flows through the ejector where it accelerates through the
nozzle.
The reduction in pressure that occurs induces vapor from the evaporator, known as the secondary
fluid, at point 3.
The two fluids mix in the mixing chamber before entering the diffuser section where the
flow decelerates and pressure recovery occurs. The mixed fluid then flows to the condenser where
it is condensed rejecting heat to the environment, Qc. A portion of the liquid exiting the condenser
at point 5 is then pumped to the boiler for the completion of the power cycle.
The remainder of the liquid is expanded through an expansion device and enters the
evaporator of the refrigeration loop at point 6 as a mixture of liquid and vapor.
The refrigerant evaporates in the evaporator producing a refrigeration effect, Qe, and the resulting
vapor is then drawn into the ejector at point 3. The refrigerant (secondary fluid) mixes
with the primary fluid in the ejector and is compressed in the diffuser section before entering
the condenser at point 4.
The mixed fluid condenses in the condenser and exits at point 5 for the repetition of the
refrigeration cycle.
Ejector refrigeration system (ERS) powered by low-grade energy has been studied since the
mid-1950s. Compared with other refrigeration systems, ERS has some special advantages such
as the simplicity in construction, high reliability and low cost.
However, the coefficient of performance for the conventional ERS is significantly lower
than that for others. This has restricted its wide applications.
In recent years, people have tried to find wider application for ejector refrigeration systems
in refrigeration and air conditioning field by directly utilizing low-grade thermal energy,
such as solar energy and waste heat.
Despite extensive development effort the COP of Ejector refrigeration system the system,
which can be defined as the ratio of the refrigeration effect to the heat input to the
boiler, if one neglects the pump work which is relatively small, is still relatively low, less
than0.2.
Ejector refrigeration systems are not presently commercially available off the shelf but a
number of companies specialize in the design and application of bespoke steam ejector systems
that use water as a refrigerant for cooling applications above 0°C.
To improve the efficiency of the simple ejector cycle more complex cycles have been investigated
as well as the integration of ejectors with vapor compression and absorption systems.
Significant effort has also been devoted to the development of solar driven ejector refrigeration
systems
The main barrier to uptake of ejector refrigeration technology is Lower COP,
0.20.3, compared to vapor compression systems and other thermally driven
technologies.
 Air-conditioning (AC)

Chapter 1. Fundamental Properties of Moist Air Dry and Atmospheric Air

Atmospheric air: Air in the atmosphere containing some water vapor (or moisture).
Dry air: Air that contains no water vapor. Water vapor in the air plays a major role in human
comfort. Therefore, it is an important consideration in air-conditioning applications. For air-
conditioning applications, air pressure is nominally 1 atmosphere and air temperature varies in the
range −10 oC to 50oC. Under these conditions, dry air and atmospheric air are treated as ideal
gases.
Atmospheric air normally contains some water vapor (moisture). The dry-air contains no water.
Although the amount of water vapor in the air is small, it plays a major role in human comfort and
thus in air-conditioning applications. The temperature of air in air-conditioning applications
ranges from about -10 to 50°C. In that range both dry air and atmospheric air (including water-
vapor) can be treated as ideal gas, with negligible error. Thus the ideal-gas relation PV = RT can
be applied.

Enthalpy of Atmospheric Air • Note that since air is considered as an ideal-gas, the enthalpy of air
(both water-vapor and dry air) is only a function of temperature, at the temperature range of
interest, i.e., -10 to 50°C. • Taking 0°C as the reference temperature; with the constant-pressure
specific for dry-air (in the range of interest) cp = 1.005 kJ/kg.°C; one obtains:

The enthalpy of water vapor at 0°C is 2500.9 kJ/kg. The average cp value of water vapor in the
temperature range -10 to 50°C can be taken to be 1.82 kJ/kg.°C. Then the enthalpy of water vapor
can be determined from:
The study of properties of air is called Psychrometrics or Psychrometry
The comfort of human body depends on three factors:
Temperature: most important index of comfort, most people feel comfortable when temperature is
between 22 and 27°C
Relative humidity: it affects the amount of heat that body can dissipate through evaporation.
Relative humidity is a measure of air’s ability to absorb moisture. Most people prefer relative
humidity of 40 to 60%.
Air motion: it removes the warm, moist air that builds up around body and replaces it with fresh
air. Most people feel comfortable at an airspeed of 15 m/min. • Other important factors in air-
conditioning include: noise, filtration, air-distribution, fresh air supply, supply air temperature, etc.

Psychometric Chart
Simple Heating: During simple cooling, specific humidity remains constant, but relative humidity
increases. During simple heating, specific humidity remains constant, but relative humidity
decreases.
Heating with Humidification:
Cooling with Dehumidification:
Selection of suitable inside design conditions:
For a person to feel comfortable it appears that the following conditions are desirable:
The air temperature should be higher than the mean radiant temperature in summer, but lower in
winter. (22-27oC in summer and 20-25oC in winter)
The average air velocity in the room should probably not exceed 0.15 m/ s in an air conditioned
room but higher velocities may be acceptable with air temperatures greater than 26oC
Relative humidity should desirably lie between about 45 per cent and 60 per cent.
Relative humidity should never exceed 70 per cent.
The dew point should never be less than 2 oC
The temperature difference between the feet and the head should be as small as possible, normally
not exceeding 1.5 oC and never more than 3 oC
Floor temperatures should not be greater than 26oC when people are standing and probably not
less than 17oC
The radiant temperature asymmetry should not be more than 5 oC vertically or 10oC horizontally.
The carbon dioxide content should not exceed about 0.1 per cent.
Heating and Cooling load calculations:
Classification of air conditioning systems:
➢ Based on the fluid media used in the thermal distribution system, air conditioning
systems can be classified as:
4. All air systems
5. All water systems
6. Air- water systems
7. 4. Unitary refrigerant based systems (Room AC)
 Thermodynamics I

Chapter 1. Introduction to Thermodynamics and Basic Concepts

Course Title: Engineering Thermodynamics 1
Topic No.: 1
Topic Title: Introduction to Thermodynamics and Basic Concepts
Topic Objectives: Identify the unique vocabulary associated with thermodynamics through the precise definition
of basic concepts to form a sound foundation for the development of the principles of
thermodynamics.
Review the metric unit systems.
Explain the basic concepts of thermodynamics such as system, state, state postulate,
equilibrium, process, and cycle.
Review concepts of temperature, temperature scales, pressure, and absolute and gage pressure
Introduce an intuitive systematic problem-solving technique.

Theory and Discussion

Thermodynamics and Energy
Thermodynamics: The science of energy.
Energy: The ability to cause changes.
The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme (heat) and dynamis (power).
Conservation of energy principle: During an interaction, energy can change from one form to another but the total
amount of energy remains constant. Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
The first law of thermodynamics: An expression of the conservation of energy principle.
The first law asserts that energy is a thermodynamic property.
The second law of thermodynamics: It asserts that energy has quality as well as quantity, and actual processes occur in
the direction of decreasing quality of energy.
Classical thermodynamics: A macroscopic approach to the study of thermodynamics that does not require a knowledge
of the behavior of individual particles. It provides a direct and easy way to the solution of engineering problems..
Statistical thermodynamics: A microscopic approach, based on the average behavior of large groups of individual
particles.

Importance of Dimensions and Units

Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions.
The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions are called units.
Some basic dimensions such as mass m, length L, time t, and temperature T are selected as primary or fundamental
dimensions, while others such as velocity V, energy E, and volume V are expressed in terms of the primary dimensions
and are called secondary dimensions, or derived dimensions.
Metric SI system: A simple and logical system based on a decimal relationship between the various units.
English system: It has no apparent systematic numerical base, and various units in this system are related to each other
rather arbitrarily.

Dimensional Homogeniety: All equations must be dimensionally homogeneous.

UNITY CONVERSION RATIONS
All nonprimary units (secondary units) can be formed by combinations of primary units.
Force units, for example, can be expressed as
They can also be expressed more conveniently as unity conversion ratios as

Unity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and are unitless, and thus such ratios (or their inverses) can be
inserted conveniently into any calculation to properly convert units.

Systems and Control Volumes

System: A quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study.

Surroundings: The mass or region outside the system

Boundary: The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings.
The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable.

Systems may be considered to be closed or open.

Closed system (Control mass): A fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross its boundary.
Open system (control volume): A properly selected region in space.
It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle.
Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume.
Control surface: The boundaries of a control volume. It can be real or imaginary.

Properties of a System
Property: Any characteristic of a system. Some familiar properties are pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass
m. Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive.
Intensive properties: Those those are independent of the mass of a system, such as temperature, pressure, and density.
Extensive properties: Those whose values depend on the size—or extent—of the system.
Specific properties: Extensive properties per unit mass.

Continuum
Matter is made up of atoms that are widely spaced in the gas phase. Yet it is very convenient to disregard the atomic
nature of a substance and view it as a continuous, homogeneous matter with no holes, that is, a continuum.
The continuum idealization allows us to treat properties as point functions and to assume the properties vary
continually in space with no jump discontinuities.
This idealization is valid as long as the size of the system we deal with is large relative to the space between the
molecules.
This is the case in practically all problems.
In this text we will limit our consideration to substances that can be modeled as a continuum.
STATE & EQUILIBRIUM
Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states.
Equilibrium: A state of balance.
In an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced potentials (or driving forces) within the system.
Thermal equilibrium: If the temperature is the same throughout the entire system.
Mechanical equilibrium: If there is no change in pressure at any point of the system with time.
Phase equilibrium: If a system involves two phases and when the mass of each phase reaches an equilibrium level and
stays there.
Chemical equilibrium: If the chemical composition of a system does not change with time, that is, no chemical reactions
occur.

State Postulate:
The number of properties required to fix the state of a system is given by the state postulate:
The state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent, intensive properties.
Simple compressible system: If a system involves no electrical, magnetic, gravitational, motion, and surface tension
effects.
Processes and Cycles
Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another.
Path: The series of states through which a system passes during a process.
To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states, as well as the path it follows, and the
interactions with the surroundings.
Quasistatic or quasi-equilibrium process: When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains
infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all times.

Process diagrams plotted by employing thermodynamic properties as coordinates are very useful in visualizing the
processes.
Some common properties that are used as coordinates are temperature T, pressure P, and volume V (or specific volume
v).
The prefix iso- is often used to designate a process for which a particular property remains constant.
Isothermal process: A process during which the temperature T remains constant.
Isobaric process: A process during which the pressure P remains constant.
Isochoric (or isometric) process: A process during which the specific volume v remains constant.
Cycle: A process during which the initial and final states are identical.

Steady Flow Processes

The term steady implies no change with time. The opposite of steady is unsteady, or transient.
A large number of engineering devices operate for long periods of time under the same conditions, and they are
classified as steady-flow devices.
Steady-flow process: A process during which a fluid flows through a control volume steadily.
Steady-flow conditions can be closely approximated by devices that are intended for continuous operation such as
turbines, pumps, boilers, condensers, and heat exchangers or power plants or refrigeration systems.
Properties:
Mass, m
It is define as a quantity of matter.

Volume, V
It is the space occupied by the substance.

Density, 𝛒
𝐦
It is the ratio of mass and volume. 𝛒 = 𝐕
Specific volume, 𝐯
𝐕
It is define as the ratio of volume and mass. 𝐯 = 𝐦

Weight, W
𝐦𝐠
It is a gravitational force that tends to pull the body towards the center of the earth. 𝐖 = wher g local
𝐠𝐜
acceleration due to gravity, gc the proportionality constant.

Specific weight, 𝛄
𝐖 𝐦𝐠 𝛒𝐠 𝐠
It is the ratio of weight and volume of a substance. 𝛄 = = = =
𝐕 𝐕𝐠 𝐜 𝐠𝐜 𝐯𝐠 𝐜

Specific Gravity, SG
The ratio of the density of a substance to the density of some standard substance at a specified temperature (usually
𝛒 𝛄
water at 4°C). 𝐒𝐆 = =
𝛒𝐫𝐞𝐟 𝛄𝐫𝐞𝐟

Temperature, T
Temperature Scales:
❖ All temperature scales are based on some easily reproducible states such as the freezing and boiling points of
water: the ice point and the steam point.
➢ Ice point: A mixture of ice and water that is in equilibrium with air saturated with vapor at 1 atm pressure
(0°C or 32°F).
➢ Steam point: A mixture of liquid water and water vapor (with no air) in equilibrium at 1 atm pressure (100°C
or 212°F).
➢ Celsius scale: in SI unit system
➢ Fahrenheit scale: in English unit system
❖ Thermodynamic temperature scale: A temperature scale that is independent of the properties of any substance.
➢ Kelvin scale (SI) Rankine scale (E)
A temperature scale nearly identical to the Kelvin scale is the ideal-gas temperature scale. The temperatures on this
scale are measured using a constant-volume gas thermometer.

The reference temperature in the original Kelvin scale was the ice point, 273.15 K, which is the temperature at which
water freezes (or ice melts).
The reference point was changed to a much more precisely reproducible point, the triple point of water (the state at
which all three phases of water coexist in equilibrium), which is assigned the value 273.16 K.
 ZEROTH LAW
The zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can be restated as two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium if both have the same temperature reading even if they are not in contact.

Pressure, p
Pressure: A normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area

Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero
pressure).
Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure. Most pressure-
measuring devices are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate gage pressure.
Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.
 Variation of Pressure with Elevation
The general equation for pressure variation with elevation is 𝐝𝐏 = −𝛄𝐝𝐳

For a fluid system that has constant specific weight 𝛄, the equation becomes ∆𝐏 = −𝛄∆𝐳

Pascal’s law: The pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure throughout by the same amount.

Manometers:
It is commonly used to measure small and moderate pressure differences. A manometer contains one or more fluids
such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil.
 Barometer and Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the atmospheric pressure is often referred to as
the barometric pressure.
A frequently used pressure unit is the standard atmosphere, which is defined as the pressure produced by a column of
mercury 760 mm in height at 0°C (Hg = 13,595 kg/m3) under standard gravitational acceleration (g = 9.807 m/s2).

Other pressure measurement devices:

Bourdon tube: Consists of a hollow metal tube bent like a hook whose end is closed and connected to a dial indicator
needle.
Pressure transducers: Use various techniques to convert the pressure effect to an electrical effect such as a change in
voltage, resistance, or capacitance.
Pressure transducers are smaller and faster, and they can be more sensitive, reliable, and precise than their mechanical
counterparts.
Strain-gage pressure transducers: Work by having a diaphragm deflect between two chambers open to the pressure
inputs.
Piezoelectric transducers: Also called solid-state pressure transducers, work on the principle that an electric potential is
generated in a crystalline substance when it is subjected to mechanical pressure.

ARCHIMENDES PRINCIPLE
The basic principle of buoyancy and floatation was first discovered and stated by Archimedes over 2200 years ago.
Archimedes principle maybe stated as follows: A body floating or submerged in a fluid is buoyed (lifted) upward by a
force equal to the weight of the fluid that would be in the volume displaced by the fluid. This force is known as the
buoyant force. The point through which the buoyant force acts is called the center of buoyancy; it is located at the
center of gravity of the displaced fluid.
 FB = Weight of displaced fluid
where FB is the bouyant force

Problem Solving Technique:

Step 1: Problem Statement
Step 2: Schematic
Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations
Step 4: Physical Laws
Step 5: Properties
Step 6: Calculations
Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion

Illustrative Problems
1. Determine the mass and the weight of the air contained in a room whose dimensions are 6mx6mx8m. Assume
the density of the air is 1.16kg/m3.

2. Determine the pressure exerted on a diver at 30m below the free surface of the sea. Assume a barometric
pressure of 101kPa and a specific gravity of 1.03 for seawater.

3. A manometer containing oil ( density =850kg/m3) is attached to a tank filled with air. If the oil-level difference
between the two columns is 45cm and the atmospheric pressure is 98kPa, determine the absolute pressure of
the air in the tank.

4. The average temperature of the atmosphere in the world is approximated as function of altitude by the relation
Tatm = 288.15 − 6.5z where Tatm is the temperature of the atmosphere in K and z is the altitude in km with
z =0 at sea level. Determine the average temperature of the atmosphere outside an airplane that is cruising at
an altitude of 12,000m.

5. An air-conditioning system requires a 20m long section of 15-cm diameter duct work to be laid underwater.
Determine the upward force the water will exert on the duct. Take the densities of air and water to be 1.3kg/m 3
and 1000kg/m3, respectively.

6. The lower half of a 10m high cylindrical container is filled with water (density = 1000kg/m 3) and the upper half
with oil that has a specific gravity of 0.85. Determine the pressure difference between the top and bottom of
the cylinder.

7. A vertical, frictionless piston-cylinder device contains a gas at 500kPa. The atmospheric pressure outside is
100kPa and the piston area is 30cm2. Determine the mass of the piston.
 8. What fraction of the volume of a solid piece of metal of specific gravity 7.25 floats above the surface of a
container of mercury?

9. The weight of a certain crown in air was found to be 14N and its weight in water is 12.7N. Compute its specific
gravity.

10. A balloon weighs 122kg and has a volume of 423m3. It is filled with helium, which weighs 1.76kN/m3 at the
temperature and pressure of the air, which weighs 0.013 kN/m3. What load will the balloon support

Question and Answer

1. What is the difference between the classical and the statistical approaches to thermodynamics?
2. A can of softdrink at room temperature is put into the refrigerator so that it will cool. Would you model the
can of sofdrink as a closed system or as open system? Explain.
3. What is quasi-equilibrium process? What is its importance in engineering?
4. What is the state postulate?
5. What is a steady flow process?
6. For a system to be in thermodynamic equilibrium, do the temperature and pressure have to be the same
everywhere?
7. What is the zeroth law of thermodynamics?
8. What is the difference between gage pressure and absolute pressure?
9. Express Pascal’s principle, and give a real world example of it.
10. Is the number of occupants an important consideration in the design of heating and cooling systems of
classrooms? Explain.

Exercise
The pressure in a steam boiler is given by 75kg/cm2. Express the pressure in psi, kPa, atm and bars.
The average atmospheric pressure on earth is approximated as a function of altitude by the relation R =
101.325(1 − 0.02256z)5.256 where Patm is the atmospheric pressure in kPa and z is the altitude in km with
z = 0 at sea level. Determine the approximate atmospheric pressure in Atlanta (z=306m), Denver (z=1620m)
and the top of mount Everest ( z=8848m).
The boiling temperature of water decreases by about 3C for each 1000m rise in altitude. What is the decrease
in the boiling temperature in a)K b) F and c) R for each 1000m ris in altitude?
Hyperhtrmia of 5C (5C rise above the normal body temperature) is considered fatal. Express this fatal level of
hyperthermia in a) K and b) R.
The range of healthy weight for adults is usually expressed in terms of the body index (BMI), defined in SI
W(kg)
Units, as BMI = where W is the weight in kg of a person and H is the height in meters. The range
H2 (m2 )

of a healthy person is 19 ≤ BMI ≤ 25 . What is your BMI? How many kg you need to gain or loose to be
fit.
The hydraulic lift in a car repair shop has an output diameter of 30cm, and is to lift cars up to 2000kg.
determine the fluid gage pressure that must be maintained in the reservoir.
A vacuum gage connected to a tank reads 30kPa at a location where the barometric reading is 755mmHg.
Determine the absolute pressure in the tank. Take density of mercury as 13,590kg/m3.
At 450 latitude, the gravitational acceleration as a function of elevation z above sea level is given by g=a – bz,
where a=9.807m/s2 and b=3.32x10-6/s2. Determine the height above sea level where the weight of an object
will decrease by 1percent.

Chapter 2. Pure Substance

Course Title: Engineering Thermodynamics 1
Topic No.: 2
Topic Title: Pure Substance
Topic Objectives: Introduce the concept of a pure substance.
Discuss the physics of phase-change processes.
Illustrate the P-v, T-v, and P-T property diagrams and P-v-T surfaces of pure substances.
Demonstrate the procedures for determining thermodynamic properties of pure substances
from tables of property data.

Theory and Discussion

A substance that has a fixed chemical composition all throughout.
It can be:
1. A single element
Example: Nitrogen, helium, oxygen,
2. A compound
Example: water, gaseous air, ammonia
3. A mixture
Example: ice and water, steam and water

The three principal phases of a pure substance:

➢ Solid phase
➢ Liquid phase
➢ Gas phase
A phase is identified as having a distinct molecular arrangement that is homogeneous throughout and separated from
the others by easily identifiable boundary surfaces.
Types of Heating and cooling
Sensible heating/cooling
This is a heating/cooling process where the substances undergo changes in temperature while adding/removing
heat into it without changing the phase of the substance.
Latent heating/Cooling
This is a heating/cooling process where the substances undergo phase change without changing its temperature
while adding/removing heat into it.

Phase Change Processes

Compressed/sub cooled Liquid to Saturated Liquid or vice versa
Saturated Vapor to Superheated Vapor or vice versa
Saturated liquid to saturated vapor or vice versa
Solid substance to liquid substance or vice versa
Solid substance to vapor substance or vice versa (example: dry ice or Carbon dioxide)
Saturation Pressure and Temperature
At a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance changes phase (from liquid to vapor or vice versa) is
called the saturation temperature.
At a given temperature, the pressure at which a pure substance changes phase ( from liquid to vapor or vice versa) is
called the saturation pressure.
Example: for water, at a pressure of 101.325kPa the saturation temperature is 100C; or at a temperature of 100C the
saturation pressure is 101.325kPa.

Latent Heat
A heat absorbed or released during a phase change process.
Latent Heat of fusion – the amount of energy absorbed during melting process or the amount of energy released during
freezing process.
For ice water at 1 atm , latent heat of fusion is 333.7kJ/kg
Latent heat of vaporization – the energy absorbed during vaporization process or the energy released during
condensation process.
For saturated water at 1 atm, latent heat of vaporization is 2257.1kJ/kg.

Property Diagrams for Phase Change Processes

T-v Diagram

P-v Diangram
P-T Diagram

PVT Diagram
 Other property diagrams of Interest
Ts Diagram

hs Diagram

Ph Diagram

Critical Point:

The temperature, pressure, and specific volume of a substance at the critical point are called, respectively, the critical
temperature Tcr, critical pressure Pcr, and critical specific volume vcr.
The critical-point properties of water are Pcr =22.06 MPa, Tcr =373.95°C, and vcr =0.003106 m3/kg.
For helium, they are 0.23 MPa,267.85°C, and 0.01444 m3/kg.
The critical properties for various substances are given in Table A–1 in the appendix.
Triple Point:
It is a point where the three phases (solid, liquid, vapor) coexist for a given
substance.
For water it occurs at a pressure of 0.61kPa and a temperature of 273.16K.
Property Tables and Charts:
Sub cooled/compressed Liquid Table for water (table A-7)

Some Triple point of Common Substances:

Saturation Temperature Table for water (Table A-4)

Let x – be the quality of vapor in the mixture

Then v, u and h can be solved as follows:

Saturation Pressure Table for water (Table A-5)

Superheated Vapor for water (Table A-6)
T-s Diagram for water (figure A-9)
Mollier Diagram for water (figure A-10)
Saturated Refrigerant 134a temperature table (table A-11)
Superheated refrigerant 134a table ( table A-13)
Ph Diagram for refrigerant 134a (figure A-14)

Illustrative Problems

Determine the properties of compressed water at 100C and 5Mpa.

Determine the properties of compressed water at 12Mpa and 160C.

Determine the properties of compressed water at 15Mpa and s= 2.1023kJ/kg-K.

Determine the properties of superheated steam at 10Mpa and 400C.
Determine the temperature of superheated steam at a state of 1Mpa and s = 7.5684kJ/kg-K.
Determine the pressure of a superheated steam at 300C and h=3031.2kJ/kg.
A rigid tank contains 15kg of water at 100C. If 10kg of the water is in the liquid form and the rest is vapor, determine a)
the pressure in the tank b) the volume of the tank c) the internal energy and enthalpy of the mixture.
An 80L vessel contains 4kg of refrigerant 134a at a pressure of 160kPa. Determine a) the temperature of the refrigerant
b) the quality c) the enthalpy d) the volume occupied by the vapor phase.

A mass of 200g of saturated liquid water is completely vaporized at a constant pressure of 100kpa. Determine a) the
volume change and b) the amount of energy added to the water.

Question and Answer

1. Is ice water a pure substance?
2. What is the difference between saturated liquid and compressed liquid?
3. What is the difference between saturated vapor and superheated vapor?
4. Is there any difference between the properties of saturated vapor at a given temperature and the vapor of a
saturated mixture at the same temperature?
5. Is it true that water boils at higher temperatures at higher pressures? Explain.
6. What is the difference between the critical point ant the triple point?
7. Is it possible to have water vapor at -10C?
8. Why are the temperature and pressure dependent properties in the saturated mixture region?
9. Is the pressure and temperature are increased during boiling process? Why?
10. In 1775, Dr. William Cullen made ice in Scotland by evacuating the air in a water tank. Explain how that device
works, and discuss how the process can be mdade more efficient.

Exercise
Complete the table below for water:
T, C P, Kpa h, kJ/kg x Phase description
200 0.7
140 1800
950 0.0
80 500
800 3161.7

Complete the table below for water:

T, C P, Kpa v, m3/kg Phase description
140 0.48
800 Saturated liquid
25 750
500 0.13
Complete the table below for R134-A:
T, C P, Kpa h, kJ/kg Phase description
20
-12 SATURATED LIQUID
400 300
8 600

The average atmospheric pressure in Denver Colorado (elevation=1610m) is 83.4kPa. Determine the temperature
at which water in an uncovered pan will boil in Denver.
A rigid vessel contains 2kg of refrigerant 134a at 900kPa and 80C. Determine the volume of the vessel and the
total internal energy.
A piston-cylinder device initially contains 50L of liquid water at 25C and 300kPa. Heat is added to the water at
constant pressure until the entire liquid is vaporized. A) what is the mass of the water? B) what is the final
temperature? C) determine the total enthalpy change. D) show the process on Tv Diagram.
A 0.5m3 rigid vessel initially contains saturated liquid-vapor mixture of water at 100C. the water is now heated
until it reaches he critical state. Determine the mass of the liquid water and the volume occupied by the liquid
at the initial state.
A piston-cylinder device contains 0.8kg of steam at 300C and 1Mpa. Steam is cooled at constant pressure until
one-half of the mass condenses. A) show the process on the Tv Diagram b) find the final temperature c)
determine the volume change.

Chapter 3. Ideal and Real Gases

Topic No.: 3
Topic Title: Ideal and Real Gases
Topic Objectives: Describe the hypothetical substance “ideal gas” and the ideal-gas equation of state.
 Apply the ideal-gas equation of state in the solution of typical problems.
Introduce the compressibility factor, which accounts for the deviation of real gases from ideal-gas
behavior.
Present some of the best-known equations of state.
Determine the value of specific heats for ideal gases.

Theory and Discussion

Gas Laws
Experiments with a wide variety of gases revealed that four variables were sufficient to fully describe the state of a gas
Pressure (P)
Volume (V)
Temperature (T)
The amount of the gas in moles (n)
Boyle’s Law
Robert Boyle discover the relationship between pressure and volume of a gas at constant temperature;
𝟏
Pressure is inversely proportional to volume. 𝐏 ∝ 𝐕 𝐨𝐫 𝐏𝐕 = 𝐂 𝐚𝐭 𝐓 = 𝐜
Charles’s Law and Gay-Lussac’s law
In 1802, Jacques Charles and Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, Frenchmen conducted the study on the gas volume/temperature
relationship.
V  T (constant pressure and amount of gas)
Note T represents the temperature on the absolute (Kelvin) temperature scale
𝐕
=𝐂
𝐓
Amonton’s Law
P  T (constant volume and amount of gas)
Note T represents the temperature on the absolute (Kelvin) temperature scale
𝐏
=𝐂
𝐓
Combined Gas Law
𝐓 𝐏𝐕
𝐏∝ 𝐨𝐫 =𝐂
𝐕 𝐓
Ideal Gas Equation of State
𝐦 ̅
𝐑
𝐏𝐕 = 𝐦𝐑𝐓 𝐨𝐫 𝐏𝐕 = 𝐧𝐑 ̅𝐓 where 𝐧 = and 𝐑 =
𝐌𝐖 𝐌𝐖

𝐤𝐉
𝟖. 𝟑𝟏𝟒 𝐤𝐠𝐦𝐨𝐥−𝐊
𝐛𝐚𝐫−𝐦𝟑
𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟑𝟏𝟒 𝐤𝐠𝐦𝐨𝐥−𝐊
𝟏.𝟗𝟖𝟔𝐁𝐭𝐮
̅=
Where 𝐑 and MW – Molecular weight of the gas
𝐩𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞−𝐑
𝐩𝐬𝐢𝐚−𝐟𝐭 𝟑
𝟏𝟎. 𝟕𝟑 𝐩𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞−𝐑
𝐟𝐭−𝐥𝐛
[ 𝟏𝟓𝟒𝟓 𝐩𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞−𝐑

Real Gases
Compressibility Factor
𝐏𝐕 𝐏𝐯
The compressibility factor Z is given by 𝐳 = 𝐦𝐑𝐓 = 𝐑𝐓 where the value of Z can be taken from Charts below.
 Please see also appendix 1 of the textbook; figure A-30a, 30b , and 30c.

Real Gas Equations of State

Van Der Waals

Beattie-Bridgeman
Benedict-Webb-Rubin

Virial Equation of State

Illustrative Problems
1. A Steel company plans on using 17 cubic meters of O2 in processing 1 metric ton of steel. If this volume is
measured at 101.325kPa and 21C, what mass of O2 is needed for a 20,000 metric ton/month furnace?

2. A spherical balloon with a diameter of 6m is filled with helium at 20C and 200kPaa. Determine the number of
moles and the mass of helium in the balloon.

3. The pressure in an automobile tire depends on the temperature of the air in the tire. When the air
temperature is 25C, the pressure gage reads 210kPa. If the volume of the tire is 0.025m 3, determine the
pressure rise in the tire when the air temperature in the tire rises to 50C, also, determine the amount of air
that must be bleed to restore pressure to its original value at this temperature. Assume the atmospheric
pressure is 100kPa.

4. Determine the specific volume of refrigerant 134a at 1MPa and 50C, using a) the ideal gas equation of state b)
the generalized compressibility chart.c) using the refrigerant table. Determine the error involved in each case.

Question and Answer

1. What are values of the universal gas constants?
2. What are the ideal gas laws?
3. What is the difference between R and R̅?
 4. What is the difference between mass and molar mass?
5. What is the significance of the compressibility factor Z?
6. What is the principle of corresponding states?
7. How the reduced pressure and reduced temperature are is defined?
8. What is the physical significance of the constants that appears in the Van Der Waals equation of state? On
what basis are they determined?

Exercise
Determine the specific volume of nitrogen gas at 10Mpa and 150K based on a) ideal gas equation b) the
generalized compressibility chart.
Determine the specific volume of superheated water vapor at 10Mpa and 400C using a) the ideal gas equation
b) the generalized compressibility chart c) the steam tables. Also determine the error involved in the first two
cases.
A 1m3 tank contains 2.841kg of steam at 0.6Mpa. Determine the temperature of the steam, using a) the ideal
gas equation b) the Van der waals equation c) the steam tables.
Somebody claims that oxygen gas at 160K and 3Mpa can be treated as an ideal gas with an error of less than
10%. Is this valid?
What is the percentage of error involved in treating carbon dioxide at 5Mpa and 350K as an ideal gas?
A 1m3 tank containing air at 25C and 500kPa is connected through a valve to another tank containing 5kg of
air at 35C and 200kPa. Now the valve is opened, and the entire system is allowed to reach thermal equilibrium
with the surroundings, which are at 20C. Determine the volume of the second tank and the final equilibrium
pressure of air.
A 20m3 tank contains nitrogen at 23C and 600kPa. Some nitrogen is allowed to escape until the pressure in
the tank drops to 400kPa. If the temperature at this point is 20c, determine the amount of nitrogen that has
escaped.
A tank contains argon at 600C AND 200kPa gage. The argon is cooled in a process by heat transfer to the
surroundings such that the argon reaches a final equilibrium state at 300C. Determine the final gage pressure
of the argon. Assume atmospheric pressure is 100kPa.
Determine the pressure of water vapor at 315C and 0.032m3/kg, using a) the steam table b) the ideal gas
equation c) the generalized compressibility chart.

Chapter 4. Work, Heat and Energy Transfer

Topic No.: 4
Topic Title: Work, Heat and Energy Transfer
Topic Objectives: Introduce the concept of energy transfer by heat.
Discuss the various forms of work with emphasis on the moving boundary work.
Discuss the flow work, the work associated with forcing a fluid into or out of a control volume.
 Discuss the combination of the internal energy and the flow work (i.e. Enthalpy).
Discuss the conservation of mass principle and apply it to various systems.

Theory and Discussion

Energy
The capability to produce an effect or work. Energy appear in different forms.

Types of Energy
Stored Energy: A type of energy that is dependent on the mass of the substance/body that crosses the boundary of the
system.
1. Potential Energy (PE)
This is a form of energy that depends on the elevation of the mass of a substance/body. In equation form:
𝐦𝐠𝐳
𝐏𝐄 = = 𝐖𝐳
𝐠𝐜
And the change in PE is
𝐦𝐠 ∆𝐳
∆𝐏𝐄 = = 𝐖∆𝐳
𝐠𝐜
2. Kinetic Energy (KE)
This is a form of energy that depends on the velocity of the mass of a substance/body. In equation form:

An the change in kinetic energy is:

3. Internal Energy (U)

It is defined as the energy associated with the random, disordered motion of molecules. It is separated in scale
from the macroscopic ordered energy associated with moving objects; it refers to the invisible microscopic energy on the
atomic and molecular scale.

The change in internal energy for a fluid system is

For ideal gases, the change in internal energy is

Where cv is the specific heat of the fluid at constant volume.

4. Flow Energy (FE)

This is a form of energy that depends on the pressure of the mass of a flowing substance. In equation form:

And the change in flow energy between two points is:

Energy in transit: A type of energy that crosses boundary of the system and it is independent of the mass of the
substance/body.
Heat;
Heat is defined as the form of energy (thermal energy) that is transferred between two systems (or surroundings) by
virtue of a temperature difference.
Heat is energy in transition. It is recognized as it crosses the boundary of a system.
Q or 1Q2; The amount of total heat transferred during a process from state 1 to state 2.
Units: kJ or BTU
q; Heat transfer per unit mass. Units: kJ/kg or BTU/lbm
𝐐̇ - Rate of heat transfer; Units: kJ/sec

Three modes of Heat Transfer:

Conduction
Transfer of heat through direct contact.
Occurs anytime objects at different temperatures are touching each other.
As long as the objects are in contact, transfer of heat will continue until the temperature of the objects is the same.
Example: If you leave a metal spoon in a pan of soup that you are heating on the stove, it may burn your fingers. The
spoon is in direct contact with the hot soup and heat is transferred to the spoon.

Some materials conduct heat better than others.

Materials that transfer heat well are called conductors.
Metals are usually good conductors.
Wood, paper and plastic are not.
Materials that stop the transfer of heat are called insulators (styrofoam, wool, fiberglass).
The rate at which heat is conducted is given by the Fourier Equation:

Convection
The transfer of energy in a liquid or gas.
When part of a gas or liquid is heated, the particles it is made up of move faster and spread out more.
The moving particles bump into other particles, causing them to move faster and spread out more.
Convection currents:
When particles in the air spread out, they become less dense and generally rise above the unheated, denser particles
around them.
The denser masses of the gas or liquid move in to fill the space left by the heated particles.
The particles that move away from the source of heat become cooler and denser.
The rate of heat transfer by convection is given by:
Q conv = h A (Ts − Tf )

Radiation
Energy transferred in the form of rays or waves or particles.
We will concentrate on the type of radiation that travels as electromagnetic waves.
Include visible light, microwaves and infrared light
Can travel through space.
The sun is our major source of heat energy.

Radiative heat transfer is energy in transition from the surface of one body to the surface of another due to electromagnetic
radiation. The radiative energy transferred is proportional to the difference in the fourth power of the absolute
temperatures of the bodies exchanging energy.
(
Q rad = A Ts4 − Tsurr
4
)
𝐐̇= heat transfer per unit time (W)
A= surface area for heat transfer (m2)
σ= Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.67x10-8 W/m2K4 and 0.1713x10-8 BTU/h ft2 R4
= emissivity
Ts= absolute temperature of surface (K)
Tsurr= absolute temperature of surroundings (K)

Work
Work is defined as the energy transfer associated with force acting through a distance.
Work is a Mechanical form of Energy.
𝐖𝐨𝐫𝐤 = 𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 𝐱 𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 or 𝐝𝐖 = 𝐅𝐝𝐬 𝐨𝐫 𝐝𝐖 = 𝐬𝐝𝐅 𝐨𝐫 𝐝𝐖 = 𝐝𝐅 𝐝𝐬
If the force is constant all throughout the path then
𝐖 = 𝐅∆𝐱

Sign Convention:
Work done on a system by external force acting in the direction of motion is negative.
Work done by a system against external force acting in the opposite direction of the motion is positive.

Characteristic of Heat and Work:

Both of them are boundary phenomena. That is they are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they cross them.
Systems possess energy, not heat or work.
Both are associated with a process, not a state.
Both are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes depend on the path followed during a process as well as the end states).

Work Category
➢ Mechanical Work
➢ Moving boundary work
➢ Shaft work
➢ Spring work
➢ Electrical Work
Ex. An electric wire crossing the system boundaries, (We=V I Δt)
V =voltage
I=current
Δt =time

Two requirements for Mechanical work to exist as Boundary Work:

There must be a force on the boundary.
Example: the expansion of a gas into an evacuated space (is not work since there is no force).
The boundary must move.
Example: Fixed piston in the presence of external force (is not work since the boundary did not move).

Computing moving boundary work:

The area under the process curve on a P-V diagram represents the boundary work. By equation:
𝟐
𝐖𝐍 = ∫ 𝐏𝐝𝐕
𝟏
Boundary is path dependent. Thus the equation for boundary depends on the process involve in the fluid. Work for the
processes Isobaric, Isothermal, Isentropic and Special polytropic can be handled easily.

Law of Conservation of Mass

 The law states that “ mass is indestructible”.

For closed system

Mass is constant in the system. 𝐦𝟏 = 𝐦𝟐

Open system

𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦 = 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐥𝐞𝐚𝐯𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦 + 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐬𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦
If the system does not store mass then the equation becomes:
𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐢𝐧 = 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐨𝐫 𝐦𝐢𝐧 = 𝐦𝐨𝐮𝐭 = ∑ 𝛒𝐢𝐧 𝐕̇𝐢𝐧 = ∑ 𝛒𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐕̇𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐚𝐥𝐬𝐨 𝐦 = 𝛒𝐀𝜵

Specific Heat, Internal Energy and Enthalpy of Ideal Gases

The amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one degree is called the specific
heat at constant volume cv for a constant volume process and the specific heat at constant pressure c p for a constant
pressure process. They are defined as
𝛛𝐮 𝛛𝐡
𝐜𝐯 = (𝛛𝐓) and 𝐜𝐩 = (𝛛𝐓)
𝐯 𝐩

For ideal gases u, h, cv, and cp are functions of temperature alone. The Δu and Δh of ideal gases are expressed as
𝟐 𝟐
∆𝐮 = 𝐮𝟐 − 𝐮𝟏 = ∫𝟏 𝐜𝐯 (𝐓)𝐝𝐓 ≅ 𝐜𝐯,𝐚𝐯𝐠 (𝐓𝟐 − 𝐓𝟏 ) and ∆𝐡 = 𝐡𝟐 − 𝐡𝟏 = ∫𝟏 𝐜𝐩 (𝐓)𝐝𝐓 ≅ 𝐜𝐩,𝐚𝐯𝐠 (𝐓𝟐 − 𝐓𝟏 )

For ideal gases, cv, and cp are related by 𝐜𝐩 = 𝐜𝐯 + 𝐑 kJ/kg-K where R is the gas constant. The specific heat ratio k
𝐜𝐩
is defined as 𝐤 = 𝐜 .
𝐯

For incompressible substances (liquids and solids), both the constant-pressure and constant-volume specific heats are
identical and denoted by c: 𝐜 = 𝐜𝐩 = 𝐜𝐯

The Δu and Δh of incompressible substance Δu and Δhs are given by

𝟐 𝟐
∆𝐮 = 𝐮𝟐 − 𝐮𝟏 = ∫𝟏 𝐜(𝐓)𝐝𝐓 ≅ 𝐜𝐚𝐯𝐠 (𝐓𝟐 − 𝐓𝟏 ) and ∆𝐡 = 𝐡𝟐 − 𝐡𝟏 = ∫𝟏 𝐜(𝐓)𝐝𝐓 ≅ 𝐜𝐚𝐯𝐠 (𝐓𝟐 − 𝐓𝟏 )
Illustrative Problems

1. A mass of 5kg of saturated water vapor at 200kPa is heated at constant pressure until the temperature reaches
300C. Calculate the work done by the steam during this process.

2. A mass of 2.4kg of air at 150kPa and 12C is contained in gas-tight, frictionless piston-cylinder device. The air is
now compresses to a final pressure of 600kPa. During the process, heat is transferred from the air such that
the temperature inside the cylinder remains constant. Calculate the work input during this process.

3. Determine the energy required to accelerate an 800kg car from rest to 100km/hr on a level road.

4. Water is pumped from a lake to a storage tank 20m above at a rate of 70L/s while consuming 20.4kW of
electric power. Disregarding any frictional losses in the pipes and any changes in kinetic energy, determine a)
the overall efficiency of the pump motor unit and b) the pressure difference between the inlet and the exit of
the pump.

5. A hollow spherical iron (k=80.2W/m-K) container whose outer diameter is 20cm and thickness is 0.4cm is filled
with iced water at 0C. if the outer surface temperature is 5C,determine the approximate rate of heat loss from
the sphere, and the rate at which ice melts in the container.

6. Consider a vertical elevator whose cabin has a total mass of 800kg when fully loaded and 150 kg when empty.
The weight of the elevator cabin is partially balanced by a 400-kg counterweight that is connected to the top
of the cabin by cables that pass through a pulley located on top of the cabin by cables that pass through a
pulley located on top of the cabin by cables pass through a pulley located on top of the elevator well.
Neglecting the weight of the cables and assuming the guide rails and the pulleys to be frictionless, determine a)
the power required while the fully loaded cabin is rising at a constant speed of 1.2m/s and b) the power
required while the empty cabin is descending at a constant speed of 1.2m/s.

7. A 1000W iron is left on the ironing board with its base exposed to the air at 20C. The convection coefficient
between the base and the surrounding air is 35W/m2-C. If the base has an emissivity of 0.6 and a surface area
of 0.02m2, determine the temperature of the base of the iron.

8. For a certain ideal gas, R=0.277kJ/kg-K and k=1.384. What are the values of cp and cv?
9. What mass of this gas would occupy a volume of 0.425cubic meters at 517.11kPaa and 26.7C?
10. If 31.65kJ are transferred to this gas at constant volume in (b), what are the resulting pressure and
temperature?

11. The increase of enthalpy of an ideal gas is 141.7kJ when the pressure increases from 103.4kPaa to 1034kPaa and
the volume decreases from 477L to 74.5L. Determine a) the change of internal energy b) the final temperature
of the gas if the initial temperature is 28.3C.
Question and Answer
Portable electric heaters are commonly used to heat small rooms. Explain the enrgy transformation involved
during this heating process.
What is the difference between the macroscopic and microscopic forms of energy?
What is total energy? Identify the different forms of energy that constitute the total energy.
List the forms of energy that contribute to the internal energy of a system.
What is mechanical energy? How does it differ from thermal energy? What are the forms of mechanical energy
of a fluid stream?
How are heat, internal energy and thermal energy related to each other?
In what forms that an energy crosses its boundary?
What are point and path functions? Give some examples.
A gas in a piston-cylinder device is compressed and as a result its temperature rises. Is this a heat or work
interaction?
What is an adiabatic process? What is an adiabatic system?
What are the mechanisms of heat transfer?
How does forced convection differ from free convection?
Exercise
1. A damaged car 1200kg car is being towed by a truck. Neglecting the friction, air drag, and rolling resistance,
determine the extra power required a) for constant velocity on a level road, b) for constant velocity of 50kph
on a 300 uphill road, b) to accelerate on a level road from stop to 90kph in 12 s.

2. A person gets into an elevator at the lobby level of a hotel together with his 30kg suitcase, and gets out at the
10th floor 35m above. Determine the amount of energy consumed by the motor of the elevator that is now
stored in the suitcase.

3. A river flowing steadily at a rate of 240m/s is considered for hydroelectric power generation. It is determined
that a dam can be built to collect water and release it from an elevation difference of 50m to generate power.
Determine how much power can be generated from this river water after the dam is constructed.

4. A fan is to accelerate quiescent air to a velocity of 10m/s at a rate of 4m3/s. determine the minimum power
that must be supplied to the fan. Take density of air to be 1.18kg/m3.

5. Consider a 1400kg car cruising at constant speed of 70km/h. now the car starts to ass another car, by
accelerating to 110km/h in 5s. Determine the additional power needed to achieve this acceleration.

6. Hot air at 80C is blown over a 2mx4m flat surface at 30C. If the convection heat transfer coefficient is 55
W/m2-C, determine the rate of heat transfer from the air to the plate, in kW.
 7. A 5cm diameter spherical ball whose surface is maintained at a temperature of 70C is suspended in the middle
of a room at 20C. if the convection heat transfer coefficient is 15W/m2-C and the emissivity of the surface is
0.8. Determine the total rate of heat transfer from the ball.

8. A 2kW pump is used to pump kerosene (density = 0.82kg/L) from a tank on the ground to a tank at a higher
elevation. Both tanks are open to the atmosphere, and the elevation difference between the free surfaces of the
tanks is 30m. the maximum volume flow rate of kerosene is what?
Chapter 5. First Law of Thermodynamics
Topic No.: 5
Topic Title: First Law of Thermodynamics
Topic Objectives: Completely define Thermodynamic Systems.
State the First Law of Thermodynamics
Apply energy analysis on thermodynamic systems.
Solve specific problems regarding the applications of First Law of Thermodynamics

Theory and Discussion

Law of Conservation of Energy
“ ENERGY CANNOT BE CREATED NOR DESTROYED BUT IT CAN ONLY BE TRANSFORM FROM ONE FORM
TO ANOTHER FORM.”
Energy Balance Equation
total energy entering the system − total energy leaving the system
= change in the total energy of the system
Ein − Eout = ∆Esystem
Energy Change of a System
∆Esystem = Efinal − Einitial = E2 − E1
In the absence of electric, magnetic, and surface tension effects, the change in the total energy of a system
during a process is the sum of the changes in its internal energy, kinetic and potential energies and can be
expressed as
∆E = ∆U + ∆KE + ∆PE
If ∆KE and ∆PE are negligible then ∆E = ∆U.
Mechanisms of Energy Transfer:
Heat Transfer
Work
Mass Flow
Energy Balance for Closed System
Closed system = Control mass
Mass is constant in the system
No mass can cross its boundary but energy can.

Ein − Eout = ∆Esystem = ∆E

∆E = ∆U = m(u2 − u1 )

Energy Balance for Steady-flow Systems

Open system = Control volume
It is a properly selected region in space.
Mass and energy can cross its boundary.
Steady flow processes.
Fluid flows through the control volume steadily.
Its properties do not change with time at a fixed position.
Unsteady flow processes.
Fluid properties are changing with time.
Some of the most common open system:

Ein − Eout = ∆Esystem = ∆E

∆E = 0 for steady flow system so that equation reduces to Ein − Eout = 0 or Ein = Eout
For a Cyclic System:
Wnet = ∑ Wi = ∑ Qi the sign convention for work and heat are observed.

Illustrative Problems
An insulated piston-cylinder device contains 5L of saturated liquid water at a constant pressure of 150kPa. Water
is stirred by a paddle wheel while a current of 8A flows for 45min through a resistor placed in the water. If
one-half of the liquid is evaporated during this constant-pressure process and the paddle-wheel work amounts
to 300kJ, determine the voltage of the source. Show the process on the Pv and Ts diagram. Ans. 230.9V
Air enters an adiabatic nozzle steadily at 300kPa, 200C, and 30m/s and leaves at 100kPa and 180m/s. The inlet
area of the nozzle is 80cm2. Determine a) the mass flowrate of air through the nozzle b) the exit temperature
of the air and c) the exit area of the nozzle. ANS. 0.53kg/s, 184.6C, 38.7cm2
Refrigerant 134A enters a diffuser steadily as saturated vapor at 700kPa with a velocity of 140m/s and it leaves
at 800kPa and 40C. The refrigerant is gaining heat at a rate of 3kJ/s as it passes through the diffuser. If the exit
area is 80% greater than the inlet area, determine a) the exit velocity and b) the mass flowrate of the refrigerant.
Ans. 71.7m/s, 0.655kg/s
Steam flows steadily through an adiabatic turbine. The inlet conditions of the steam are 10Mpa, 450C and
80m/s; and the exit conditions are 10kPa, 92% quality and 50m/s. The mass flowrate of steam is 12kg/s.
Determine a) the change in kinetic energy, b) the power output and c) the turbine inlet area. Ans. -1.95kJ/kg,
10.2MW, 0.00446m2
Helium is to be compressed from 120kPa, 5m/s and 310K to 700kPa, 10m/s and 430K. A heat loss of 20kJ/kg
occurs during the compression process. Neglecting potential energy changes, determine the power input
required for a mass flowrate of 90kg/min.
Refrigerant 134a is throttled from the saturated liquid state at 800kPa to a pressure of 140kPa. Determine the
temperature drop during this process and the final specific volume of the refrigerant. Ans. 50.1C , 0.0454m3/kg
A hot water stream at 80C enters a mixing chamber with a mass flowrate of 0.5kg/s where it is mixed with a
stream of cold water at 20C. If it is desired that the mixture leave the chamber at 42C, determine the mass
flowrate of the cold water stream. Assume all the streams are at a pressure of 250kPa.
Steam enters the condenser of a steam power plant at 20kPa and a quality of 95% with a mass flow rate of
20,000kg/h. it is to be cooled by water from a nearby river by circulating the water through the tubes within
the condenser. To prevent thermal pollution, the river water is not allowed to experience a temperature rise
above 10C. If the steam is to leave the condenser as saturated liquid at 20kPa, determine the mass flow rate of
the cooling water required. Ans. 17866kg/min
Question and Answer
For a cycle, is the network necessarily be zero? For what kind of a system will this be the case?
What are the different mechanisms for transferring energy to or from a control volume?
Consider two identical rooms, one with a refrigerator in it and on the other without one. If all the doors and
windows are closed, will the room that contains the refrigerator be cooler or warmer than the other room?
Why?
On a hot summer day, a student turns his fan on when he leaves his room in the morning. When he returns in
the evening, will the room be warmer or cooler than the neighboring rooms? Assume all the doors and windows
are kept closed.
Is it possible to compress an ideal gas isothermally in an adiabatic piston-cylinder device? Explain.
How is steady-flow system characterized?
Can a steady flow system involve boundary work?
The kinetic energy of a fluid increases as it is accelerating in an adiabatic nozzle. Where does this energy come
from?
A diffuser is an adiabatic device that decreases the kinetic energy of the fluid by slowing it down. What happen
to this lost kinetic energy?
Will the temperature of air rise as it is compressed by an adiabatic compressor? Why?

Exercise
Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 10Mpa and 400C and leaves at 20kPa with a quality of 90%. Neglecting
the change in kinetic and potential energy, determine the mass flowrate required for a power output of 5MW.
Carbon dioxide enters an adiabatic compressor at 100kPa and 300K at a rate of 0.5kg/s and leaves at 600kPa
and 450K. Neglecting kinetic energy changes, determine a) the volume flowrate of the carbon dioxide at the
compressor inlet and b) the power input to the compressor.
Refrigerant 134a is throttled from the saturated liquid state at 800kPa to a pressure of 140kPa. Determine the
temperature drop during this process and the final specific volume of the refrigerant.
Air at 80kpa, 27C, and 220m/s enters a diffuser at a rate of 2.5kg/s and leaves at 42C. the exit area of the
diffuser is 400cm2. The air is estimated to lose heat at a rate of 18kJ/s during this process. Determine the exit
velocity and exit pressure of the air.
A piston-cylinder device whose piston is resting on top of a set of stops initially contains 0.5kg of helium gas
at 100kPa and 25C. the mass of the piston is such that 500kPa of pressure is required to raise it. How much
heat must be transferred to the helium before the piston starts rising.
A piston-cylinder device contains 5kg of refrigerant134a at 800kPa and 60C. the refrigerant is now cooled at
constant pressure until it exists as a liquid at 20C. Determine the amount of heat loss and show the process on
a Tv diagram with respect to saturation lines.
A rigid tank contains a hot fluid that is cooled while being stirred by a paddle wheel. Initially, the internal
energy of the fluid is 800kj. During the cooling process, the fluid loses 500kj of heat, and the paddle wheel does
100 kJ of work on the fluid. Determine the final internal energy of the fluid.

A piston-cylinder device contains 25 g of saturated water vapor that is maintained at a constant pressure of
300 kPa. A resistance heater within the cylinder is turned on and passes a current of 0.2 A for 5 min from a
120-V source. At the same time, a heat loss of 3.7 kJ occurs.
Show that for a closed system the boundary work Wb and the change in internal energy U in the first-law
relation can be combined into one term, H, for a constant pressure process.
Determine the final temperature of the steam.

A piston-cylinder device initially contains air at 150 kPa and 27oC. At this state, the piston is resting on a pair
of stops, as shown in the figure above, and the enclosed volume is 400 L. The mass of the piston is such that
a 350-kPa pressure is required to move it. The air now heated until its volume has doubled. Determine(a) the
finaltemperature, (b) the work done by the air, and c) the total heat transferred to the air. <Answers: a) 1400
K, b) 140 kJ, c) 766.9 kJ>
Air at 10oC and 80 kpa enters the diffuser of a jet engine steadily with a velocity of 200 m/s. The inlet area of
the diffuser is 0.4 m2. The air leaves the diffuser with a velocity that is very small compare to the inlet velocity.
Determine
(1) The mass flow rate of the air and
(2) The temperature of the air leaving the diffuser.

Steam at 1.72 Mpa (250 psia) and 371C (700 F) steadily enters a nozzle whose inlet area is 0.019 m2 (0.2 ft2.)
The mass flow rate of the steam through thenozzle is 4.54 kg/s (10 lbm/s) . Steam leaves the nozzle at 1.38
Mpa (200 psia) with a velocity of 274.3 m/s (900 ft/s). The heat losses from the nozzle per unit mass of the
steam are estimated to be 2.8 KJ/kg (1.2 Btu/lbm).
Determine:
(a) the inlet velocity and
(b) the exit temperature of the steam.
Answers: a) 41.0 m/s or 134.4 ft/s, b) 350 C or 661.9 F

The power output of an adiabatic steam turbine is 5 MW, and the inlet and the exit conditions of the steam
are as indicated in the figure on the right.
Compare the magnitude of h, ke, and pe.
Determine the work done per unit mass of the steam flowing through the turbine.
Calculate the mass flow rate of the steam.
Answers: a) h = -885.9 kJ/kg, ke = 14.95 kJ/kg, pe = -0.04 kJ/kg, b) 871.0 kJ/kg, and c) 5.74 kg/s
Refrigerant-134a enters the capillary tube of a refrigerator as saturated liquid at 0.8 MPa and is throttled to a
pressure of 0.12 MPa. Determine the quality of the refrigerant at the final state and the temperature drop during
this process. <Answers: 0.339, -53.69oC>

Consider an ordinary shower where hot water at 140oF is mixed with cold water at 50oF. If it is desired that a
steady stream of warm water at 110oF be supplied, determine the ratio of the mass flow rates of the hot to cold
water. Assume the heat losses from the mixing chamber to be negligible and the mixing to take place at a
pressure of 20 psia.
<Answer: 2.0>
Refrigerant-134a is to be cooled by water in a condenser. The refrigerant enters the condenser with a mass flow
rate of 6 kg/min at 1 MPa and 70oC and leaves at 35oC. The cooling water enters at 300 kPa and 15oC and leaves
at 25oC. Neglecting any pressure drop, determine
the mass flow rate of the cooling water required and (b) the heat transfer rate from the refrigerant to water.

<Answers: a) 0.486 kg/s, b) 20.35 kJ/s>

Chapter 6. Second Law of Thermodynamics

Topic No.: 6
Topic Title: Second Law of Thermodynamics
Topic Objectives: Describe the second Law of Thermodynamics with its associated statements.
Define heat reservoirs, heat engines, work reservoirs and other related terms.
Define thermal efficiency, coefficient of performance, performance factor, energy
efficiency ratio as applied to thermodynamic systems.
Apply the second law of thermodynamic to systems analysis.

Theory and Discussion

The second law of thermodynamics states that processes occur in a certain direction, not in just any direction.
Physical processes in nature can proceed toward equilibrium spontaneously. Examples
Water flows down a waterfall.
Gases expand from a high pressure to a low pressure.
Heat flows from a high temperature to a low temperature.
 Once it has taken place, a spontaneous process can be reversed, but it will not reverse itself
spontaneously. Some external inputs, energy, must be expended to reverse the process. As it falls down the
waterfall, water can be collected in a water wheel, cause a shaft to rotate, coil a rope onto the shaft, and lift a
weight. So the energy of the falling water is captured as potential energy increase in the weight, and the first
law of thermodynamics is satisfied. However, there are losses associated with this process (friction). Allowing
the weight to fall, causing the shaft to rotate in the opposite direction, will not pump all of the water back up
the waterfall.
Spontaneous processes can proceed only in a particular direction. The first law of thermodynamics
gives no information about direction; it states only that when one form of energy is converted into another,
identical quantities of energy are involved regardless of the feasibility of the process. We know by experience
that heat flows spontaneously from a high temperature to a low temperature. But heat flowing from a low
temperature to a higher temperature with no expenditure of energy to cause the process to take place would
not violate the first law.
Heat (thermal) reservoir
A heat reservoir is a sufficiently large system in stable equilibrium to which and from which finite amounts of
heat can be transferred without any change in its temperature.
A high temperature heat reservoir from which heat is transferred is sometimes called a heat source. A low
temperature heat reservoir to which heat is transferred is sometimes called a heat sink.
Work Reservoir
A work reservoir is a sufficiently large system in stable equilibrium to which and from which finite amounts of
work can be transferred adiabatically without any change in its pressure.
Thermodynamic Cycle
A system has completed a thermodynamic cycle when the system undergoes a series of processes and then
returns to its original state, so that the properties of the system at the end of the cycle are the same as at its
beginning.
Thus, for whole numbers of cycles
Pf = Pi , Tf = Ti , u f = ui , v f = vi , etc.
Heat Engine
A heat engine is a thermodynamic system operating in a thermodynamic cycle to which net heat is transferred
and from which net work is delivered.
The system, or working fluid, undergoes a series of processes that constitute the heat engine cycle.
The following figure illustrates a steam power plant as a heat engine operating in a thermodynamic cycle.
Thermal Efficiency,
The thermal efficiency is the index of performance of a work-producing device or a heat engine and is defined
by the ratio of the net work output (the desired result) to the heat input (the costs to obtain the desired result).
Desired Result
 th =
Required Input

For a heat engine the desired result is the net work done and the input is the heat supplied to make the cycle
operate. The thermal efficiency is always less than 1 or less than 100 percent.
Wnet , out Wnet , out = Wout − Win
 th =
Qin Qin  Qnet

Here the use of the in and out subscripts means to use the magnitude (take the positive value) of either the
work or heat transfer and let the minus sign in the net expression take care of the direction.
Wnet , out
 th =
Qin
Qin − Qout
Qnet , in − Wnet , out = U =
Qin
Wnet , out = Qnet , in Q
= 1 − out
Wnet , out = Qin − Qout Qin

Cyclic devices such as heat engines, refrigerators, and heat pumps often operate between a high-temperature
reservoir at temperature TH and a low-temperature reservoir at temperature TL.
 QL
 th = 1 −
QH

Heat Pump
A heat pump is a thermodynamic system operating in a thermodynamic cycle that removes heat from a low-
temperature body and delivers heat to a high-temperature body. To accomplish this energy transfer, the heat
pump receives external energy in the form of work or heat from the surroundings.
While the name “heat pump” is the thermodynamic term used to describe a cyclic device that allows the transfer
of heat energy from a low temperature to a higher temperature, we use the terms “refrigerator” and “heat
pump” to apply to particular devices. Here a refrigerator is a device that operates on a thermodynamic cycle
and extracts heat from a low-temperature medium. The heat pump also operates on a thermodynamic cycle
but rejects heat to the high-temperature medium.
The index of performance of a refrigerator or heat pump is expressed in terms of the coefficient of performance,
COP, the ratio of desired result to input. This measure of performance may be larger than 1, and we want the
COP to be as large as possible.
Desired Result
COP =
Required Input
The following figure illustrates a refrigerator as a heat pump operating in a thermodynamic cycle.

For the heat pump acting like a refrigerator or an air conditioner, the primary function of the device is the
transfer of heat from the low- temperature system.
 For the refrigerator the desired result is the heat supplied at the low temperature and the input is
the net work into the device to make the cycle operate.
QL QL
COPR = COPR =
Wnet , in QH − QL
For the device acting like a “heat pump,” the primary function of the device is the transfer of heat to the high-
temperature system. The coefficient of performance for a heat pump is
QH QH
COPHP = =
Wnet , in QH − QL
Note, under the same operating conditions the COPHP and COPR are related by
COPHP = COPR + 1
Heat Pump and Air Conditioner Ratings
Heat pumps and air conditioners are rated using the SEER system. SEER is the seasonal adjusted energy
efficiency (bad term for HP and A/C devices) rating. The SEER rating is the amount of heating (cooling) on a
seasonal basis in Btu/hr per unit rate of power expended in watts, W.
The heat transfer rate is often given in terms of tons of heating or cooling. One ton of refrigeration equals
12,000 Btu/hr = 211 kJ/min.
Second Law Statements
The following two statements of the second law of thermodynamics are based on the definitions of
the heat engines and heat pumps.
Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law
It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a single reservoir and produce a
net amount of work.
The Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law of thermodynamics states that no heat engine can produce a net
amount of work while exchanging heat with a single reservoir only. In other words, the maximum possible
efficiency is less than 100 percent.
 Heat engine that violates the Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law

Clausius statement of the second law

The Clausius statement of the second law states that it is impossible to construct a device that operates in a
cycle and produces no effect other than the transfer of heat from a lower-temperature body to a higher-
temperature body.

Heat pump that violates the Clausius statement of the second law
Or energy from the surroundings in the form of work or heat has to be expended to force heat to flow from a
low-temperature medium to a high-temperature medium.
Thus, the COP of a refrigerator or heat pump must be less than infinity.
COP  
A violation of either the Kelvin-Planck or Clausius statements of the second law implies a violation of
the other. Assume that the heat engine shown below is violating the Kelvin-Planck statement by absorbing heat
from a single reservoir and producing an equal amount of work W. The output of the engine drives a heat
pump that transfers an amount of heat QL from the low-temperature thermal reservoir and an amount of heat
QH + QL to the high-temperature thermal reservoir. The combination of the heat engine and refrigerator in
the left figure acts like a heat pump that transfers heat QL from the low-temperature reservoir without any
external energy input. This is a violation of the Clausius statement of the second law.
Perpetual-Motion Machines
Any device that violates the first or second law of thermodynamics is called a perpetual-motion machine. If the
device violates the first law, it is a perpetual-motion machine of the first kind. If the device violates the second
law, it is a perpetual-motion machine of the second kind.
Reversible Processes
A reversible process is a quasi-equilibrium, or quasi-static, process with a more restrictive requirement.
Internally reversible process
The internally reversible process is a quasi-equilibrium process, which, once having taken place, can be reversed
and in so doing leave no change in the system. This says nothing about what happens to the surroundings
about the system.
Totally or externally reversible process
The externally reversible process is a quasi-equilibrium process, which, once having taken place, can be reversed
and in so doing leave no change in the system or surroundings.
Irreversible Process
An irreversible process is a process that is not reversible.
All real processes are irreversible. Irreversible processes occur because of the following:
Friction
Unrestrained expansion of gases
Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference
Mixing of two different substances
Hysteresis effects
I2R losses in electrical circuits
Any deviation from a quasi-static process
The Carnot Cycle
French military engineer Nicolas Sadi Carnot (1769-1832) was among the first to study the principles of the
second law of thermodynamics. Carnot was the first to introduce the concept of cyclic operation and devised
a reversible cycle that is composed of four reversible processes, two isothermal and two adiabatic.
The Carnot Cycle
Process 1-2: Reversible isothermal heat addition at high temperature, TH>TL, to the working fluid in a piston-
cylinder device that does some boundary work.
Process 2-3: Reversible adiabatic expansion during which the system does work as the working fluid
temperature decreases from TH to TL.
Process 3-4: The system is brought in contact with a heat reservoir at TL<TH and a reversible isothermal heat
exchange takes place while work of compression is done on the system.
Process 4-1:A reversible adiabatic compression process increases the working fluid temperature from TL to TH

You may have observed that power cycles operate in the clockwise direction when plotted on a process diagram.
The Carnot cycle may be reversed, in which it operates as a refrigerator. The refrigeration cycle operates in
the counterclockwise direction.
Carnot Principles
The second law of thermodynamics puts limits on the operation of cyclic devices as expressed by the Kelvin-
Planck and Clausius statements. A heat engine cannot operate by exchanging heat with a single heat reservoir,
and a refrigerator cannot operate without net work input from an external source.
Consider heat engines operating between two fixed temperature reservoirs at TH> TL. We draw two conclusions
about the thermal efficiency of reversible and irreversible heat engines, known as the Carnot principles.
The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the efficiency of a reversible one operating
between the same two reservoirs.
 th   th , Carnot
The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between the same two constant-temperature heat
reservoirs have the same efficiency.
The thermal efficiencies of actual and reversible heat engines operating between the same temperature limits
compare as follows:

Reversed Carnot Device Coefficient of Performance

If the Carnot device is caused to operate in the reversed cycle, the reversible heat pump is created. The
COP of reversible refrigerators and heat pumps are given in a similar manner to that of the Carnot heat engine
as
 QH
QL 1
COPR = = COPHP =
QH
=
QL
QH − QL QH − 1 QH − QL QH − 1
QL QL
TH
TL 1
= = =
TH
=
TL
TH − TL TH − 1 TH − TL TH − 1
TL TL

Again, these are the maximum possible COPs for a refrigerator or a heat pump operating between the
temperature limits of TH and TL.
The coefficients of performance of actual and reversible (such as Carnot) refrigerators operating between the
same temperature limits compare as follows:

Illustrative Problems
A Carnot heat engine receives 500 kJ of heat per cycle from a high-temperature heat reservoir at 652oC and
rejects heat to a low-temperature heat reservoir at 30oC. Determine
(a) The thermal efficiency of this Carnot engine.
(b) The amount of heat rejected to the low-temperature heat reservoir.

An inventor claims to have invented a heat engine that develops a thermal efficiency of 80 percent when
operating between two heat reservoirs at 1000 K and 300 K. Evaluate his claim.

A steam power plant receives heat from a furnace at a rate of 280GJ/h. Heat losses to the surrounding air from
the steam as it passes through the pipes and other components are estimated to be about 8GJ/h. If the waste
heat is transferred to the cooling water at a rate of 145GJ/h, determine a) the net power output b) the thermal
efficiency of this power plant.
An innovative way of power generation involves the utilization of geothermal energy – the energy of hot water
that exists naturally underground – as the heat source. If a supply of hot water at 140C is discovered at a
location where the environmental temperature is 20C, determine the maximum thermal efficiency of a
geothermal power plant built at that location can have.
An inventor claims to have developed a refrigerator that maintains the refrigerated space at 2oC while operating
in a room where the temperature is 25oC and has a COP of 13.5. Is there any truth to his claim?
A heat pump is to be used to heat a building during the winter. The building is to be maintained at 21oC at all
times. The building is estimated to be losing heat at a rate of 135,000 kJ/h when the outside temperature drops
to -5oC. Determine the minimum power required to drive the heat pump unit for this outside temperature.

Question and Answer

What is a thermal reservoir? Give some examples.
Consider a process of baking a potatoes in a conventional oven. Can the hot air in the oven be treated as a
thermal reservoir? Explain.
Is it impossible for a heat engine to operate without rejecting any waste heat to a low temperature reservoir?
Explain.
What are the characteristics of all heat engines?
What is the Kelvin-Planck expression of the second law of thermodynamics?
In the absence of any friction and other irreversibilities, can a heat engine have an efficiency of 100%? Explain.
Are the efficiencies of all work-producing devices, including the hydroelectric power plants, limited by Kelvin-
Planck statement of the second law? Explain.
What is the difference between a heat pump and a refrigerator?
What is the difference between a refrigerator and an air-conditioner?
Define COP of a refrigerator.
What is the Clausius statement of the second law of thermodynamics?

Exercise

1. A household refrigerator with a cop of 1.5 removes heat from the refrigerated space at a rate of 60kJ/min.
determine a) the electric power consumed by the refrigerator and b) the rate of heat transfer to the kitchen air.
2. An air-conditioner removes heat steadily from a house at a rate 750kJ/min while drawing electric power at a rate of
6kW. Determine a) the COP of this air conditioner and b) the rate of heat transfer to the outside air.
3. A carnot heat engines operates between a source at 1000K and a sink at 300K. if the heat engine is supplied with
heat at a rate of 800kJ/min. determine a) the thermal efficiency and b) the power output of this heat engine.
4. A carnot refrigerator operates in a room in which the temperature is 25C. the refrigerator consumes 500W of
power when operating and has a COP of 4.5. Determine a) the rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space
and b) the temperature of the refrigerated space.
5. A carnot heat pump is to be used to heat a house and maintain it at 20C in winter. On a day when the average
outdoor temperature remains at about 2C, the house is estimated to lose heat at a rate of 82,000kJ/h. If the heat
pump consumes 8kW of power while operating, determine a) how long the heat pump ran on that day; b) the total
heating costs, assuming an average price of 5cents/Kw-hr for electricity; and c) the heating cost for the same day if
resistance heating is used instead of a heat pump.

Chapter 7. Entropy
Topic No.: 7
Topic Title: Entropy
Topic Objectives: Define entropy as a thermodynamic property.
Explain the increase in entropy principle.
Calculate change in entropy for pure substance and ideal gases.
Describe the isentropic process and its applications.
Quantify isentropic efficiencies for common systems.
Perform entropy balance for thermodynamic systems.

Theory and Discussion

The second law of thermodynamics leads to the definition of a new property called entropy, a quantitative
measure of microscopic disorder for a system.
Entropy is a measure of energy that is no longer available to perform useful work within the current
environment.

Clausius Inequality
Consider a heat reservoir giving up heat to a reversible heat engine, which in turn gives up heat to a piston-
cylinder device as shown.

We apply the first law on an incremental basis to the combined system composed of the heat engine and the
system.
Ein − Eout = Ec
QR − (Wrev + Wsys ) = dEc
where Ec is the energy of the combined system. Let Wc be the work done by the combined system. Then the
first law becomes
QR Q
=
Wc = Wrev + Wsys TR T
Q
QR − Wc = dEc QR = TR
T
The total net work done by the combined system becomes
 Q
Wc = TR − dEc
T
Now the total work done is found by taking the cyclic integral of the incremental work.

If the system, as well as the heat engine, is required to undergo a cycle, then

If Wc is positive, we have a cyclic device exchanging energy with a single heat reservoir and producing an
equivalent amount of work; thus, the Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law is violated. But Wc can be zero
(no work done) or negative (work is done on the combined system) and not violate the Kelvin-Planck statement
of the second law. Therefore, since TR> 0 (absolute temperature), we conclude

This equation is called the Clausius inequality. The equality holds for the reversible process and the inequality
holds for the irreversible process.

Entropy

If no irreversibilities occur within the system as well as the reversible cyclic device, then the cycle undergone
by the combined system will be internally reversible. As such, it can be reversed. In the reversed cycle case, all
the quantities will have the same magnitude but of opposite sign. Therefore, the work W C, which could not be
a positive quantity in the regular case, cannot be a negative quantity in the reversed case. Then it follows that
WC,int rev = 0 . Since it cannot be a positive or negative quantity, and therefore

for internally reversible cycles. Thus we conclude that the equality in the Clausius inequality holds for totally
or just internally reversible cycles and the inequality for the irreversible ones.
Consider the cycle shown below composed of two reversible processes A and B. Apply the Clausius inequality
for this cycle. What do you conclude about these two integrals?

We should find

Since the quantity (Qnet/T)int rev is independent of the path and must be a property, we call this property the
entropy S.
The entropy change occurring during a process is related to the heat transfer and the temperature of the
system. The entropy is given the symbol S (kJ/K), and the specific entropy is s (kJ/kgK).
The entropy change during a reversible process, sometimes called an internally reversible process, is defined as

Consider the cycle 1-A-2-B-1, shown below, where process A is arbitrary that is, it can be either reversible or
irreversible, and process B is internally reversible.

The integral along the internally reversible path, process B, is the entropy change S1 –S2. Therefore,

In general the entropy change during a process is defined as

Qnet
dS 
T
where = holds for the internally reversible process
> holds for the irreversible process
From the above, we see that for a reversible, adiabatic process
dS = 0
S2 = S1
The reversible, adiabatic process is called an isentropic process.
Entropy change is caused by heat transfer and irreversibilities. Heat transfer to a system increases the entropy;
heat transfer from a system decreases it. The effect of irreversibilities is always to increase the entropy. In
fact, a process in which the heat transfer is out of the system may be so irreversible that the actual entropy
change is positive. Friction is one source of irreversibilities in a system.
The entropy change during a process is obtained by integrating the dS equation over the process:

Here, the inequality is to remind us that the entropy change of a system during an irreversible process is always
greater than 0 , called the entropy transfer. That is, some entropy is generated or created during an
irreversible process, and this generation is due entirely to the presence of irreversibilities. The entropy generated
during a process is called entropy generation and is denoted as Sgen.
We can remove the inequality by noting the following

Sgen is always a positive quantity or zero. Its value depends upon the process and thus it is not a property. Sgen
is zero for an internally reversible process.
Now consider an isolated system composed of several subsystems exchanging energy among themselves. Since
the isolated system has no energy transfer across its system boundary, the heat transfer across the system
boundary is zero.

The total entropy change for the isolated system is

Sisolated  0
This equation is the working definition of the second law of thermodynamics. The second law, known as the
principle of increase of entropy, is stated as
The total entropy change of an isolated system during a process always increases or, in the limiting
case of a reversible process, remains constant.
Now consider a general system exchanging mass as well as energy with its surroundings.

S gen = Stotal = Ssys +  Ssurr  0

where = holds for the totally reversible process
> holds for the irreversible process
Thus, the entropy generated or the total entropy change (sometimes called the entropy change of the universe
or net entropy change) due to the process of this isolated system is positive (for actual processes) or zero (for
reversible processes). The total entropy change for a process is the amount of entropy generated during that
process (Sgen), and it is equal to the sum of the entropy changes of the system and the surroundings. The
entropy changes of the important system (closed system or control volume) and its surroundings do not both
have to be positive. The entropy for a given system (important or surroundings) may decrease during a process,
but the sum of the entropy changes of the system and its surroundings for an isolated system can never
decrease.
Entropy change is caused by heat transfer and irreversibilities. Heat transfer to a system increases the entropy,
and heat transfer from a system decreases it. The effect of irreversibilities is always to increase the entropy.
The increase in entropy principle can be summarized as follows:

Some Remarks about Entropy

Processes can occur in a certain direction only, not in just any direction, such that Sgen≥0.
Entropy is a nonconserved property, and there is no such thing as the conservation of entropy principle. The
entropy of the universe is continuously increasing.
The performance of engineering systems is degraded by the presence of irreversibilities, and entropy generation
is a measure of the magnitudes of the irreversibilities present during that process.

Heat Transfer as the Area under a T-S Curve

For the reversible process, the equation for dS implies that
Qnet
dS =
T
Qnet = TdS
or the incremental heat transfer in a process is the product of the temperature and the differential of the
entropy, the differential area under the process curve plotted on the T-S diagram.

In the above figure, the heat transfer in an internally reversible process is shown as the area under the process
curve plotted on the T-S diagram.

Isothermal, Reversible Process

For an isothermal, reversible process, the temperature is constant and the integral to find the entropy change
is readily performed. If the system has a constant temperature, T0, the entropy change becomes

For a process occurring over a varying temperature, the entropy change must be found by integration over the
process.

Adiabatic, Reversible (Isentropic) Process

For an adiabatic process, one in which there is no heat transfer, the entropy change is

If the process is adiabatic and reversible, the equality holds and the entropy change is
S = S2 − S1 = 0
S2 = S1
The adiabatic, reversible process is a constant entropy process and is called isentropic. As will be shown later
for an ideal gas, the adiabatic, reversible process is the same as the polytropic process where the polytropic
exponent n = k = Cp/Cv.

The principle of increase of entropy for a closed system exchanging heat with its surroundings at a constant
temperature Tsurr is found by using the equation for the entropy generated for an isolated system.
 S gen = Stotal = S sys +  S surr  0
S sys = ( S2 − S1 ) sys
Qnet , surr
 S surr =
Tsurr

Third Law of Thermodynamics

The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a pure crystalline substance at absolute zero
temperature is zero. This law provides an absolute reference point for the determination of entropy. The
entropy determined relative to this point is called absolute entropy.

Entropy as a Property
Entropy is a property, and it can be expressed in terms of more familiar properties (P,v,T) through the Tds
relations. These relations come from the analysis of a reversible closed system that does boundary work and
has heat added. Writing the first law for the closed system in differential form on a per unit mass basis

Qint rev − Wint rev, out = dU

Qint rev = T dS
Wint rev, out = P dV
TdS − P dV = dU
Tds = du + Pdv
Recall that the enthalpy is related to the internal energy by h = u + Pv. Using this relation in the above equation,
the second Tds equation is
T ds = dh − v dP
These last two relations have many uses in thermodynamics and serve as the starting point in developing
entropy-change relations for processes. The successful use of Tds relations depends on the availability of
property relations. Such relations do not exist in an easily used form for a general pure substance but are
available for incompressible substances (liquids, solids) and ideal gases. So, for the general pure substance,
such as water and the refrigerants, we must resort to property tables to find values of entropy and entropy
changes.

The temperature-entropy and enthalpy-entropy diagrams for water are shown below.
Entropy Change for Ideal Gases

a. Constant specific heats (approximate treatment): Any process:

T2 v2
+ dv s2 − s1 = Cv , av ln + R ln
du P
ds =
T T T1 v1
T P
s2 − s1 = C p , av ln 2 − R ln 2
T ds = dh − v dP T1 P1

Or, on a unit-mole basis,

T2 v T2 P2
s2 − s1 = Cv , av ln + Ru ln 2 s2 − s1 = C p , av ln − Ru ln
T1 v1 T1 P1
Remember for Isentropic process:
k
 P2  v 
  = 1 
 1  s = const .  v2 
P
For an isentropic process this last result looks like Pvk = constant which is the polytropic process equation Pvn
= constant with n = k = Cp/Cv.

b. Variable specific heats (exact treatment): From Tds = dh - vdP, we obtain

2 C p (T ) P
s =  dT − R ln 2
1 T P1

The integrals on the right-hand side of the above equation are called the standard state entropies, so, at state 1,
T1, and state 2, T2; so is a function of temperature only.

 P2   P2 / Pref  P
  =  = r2
 P1  s = const .  P1 / Pref  s = const . Pr1
And in terms of v the equation is:
Therefore, for any process:
P2 s − s = s o − s o − R ln P2
s2 − s1 = s2o − s1o − R ln 2 1 2 1 u
P1 P1
The standard state entropies are found in Tables A-17 for air on a mass basis and Tables A-18 through A-25 for
other gases on a mole basis. When using this variable specific heat approach to finding the entropy change for
an ideal gas, remember to include the pressure term along with the standard state entropy terms--the tables
don’t warn you to do this.
Isentropic process: s = 0

Mechanisms of Entropy Transfer

Heat Transfer
Mass flow

Entropy Generation
Entropy balance for any system undergoing any process is expressed as
𝐒𝐢𝐧 − 𝐒𝐨𝐮𝐭 + 𝐒𝐠𝐞𝐧 = ∆𝐒𝐬𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦

𝐝𝐒𝐬𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦
Or in the rate form: 𝐒̇𝐢𝐧 − 𝐒̇𝐨𝐮𝐭 + 𝐒̇𝐠𝐞𝐧 = 𝐝𝐭

𝐐𝐤
For Closed System: ∑ + 𝐒𝐠𝐞𝐧 = ∆𝐒𝐬𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦 = 𝐒𝟐 − 𝐒𝟏
𝐓𝐤

The entropy balance relation above can be stated as:

The entropy change of a closed system during a process is equal to the sum of the net entropy transferred
through the system boundary by heat transfer and the entropy generated within the system boundaries.
𝐒𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦 + 𝐒𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐬: 𝐒𝐠𝐞𝐧 = ∑ ∆𝐒 = ∆𝐒𝐬𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦 + ∆𝐒𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐬
𝐀𝐝𝐢𝐚𝐛𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐂𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐞𝐝 𝐒𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦: 𝐒𝐠𝐞𝐧 = ∆𝐒𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐚𝐛𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐬𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦

For open system:

In general:
𝐐𝐤
∑ + ∑ 𝐦𝐢 𝐬𝐢 − ∑ 𝐦𝐞 𝐬𝐞 + 𝐒𝐠𝐞𝐧 = (𝐒𝟐 − 𝐒𝟏 )𝐂𝐕
𝐓𝐤

𝐐̇𝐤 𝐝𝐒
∑ + ∑ 𝐦̇𝐢 𝐬𝐢 − ∑ 𝐦̇𝐞 𝐬𝐞 + 𝐒̇𝐠𝐞𝐧 =
𝐓𝐤 𝐝𝐭 𝐂𝐕

𝐐̇𝐤
𝐒𝐭𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐲 − 𝐟𝐥𝐨𝐰: 𝐒̇𝐠𝐞𝐧 = ∑ 𝐦̇𝐞 𝐬𝐞 − ∑ 𝐦̇𝐢 𝐬𝐢 − ∑
𝐓𝐤
 𝐐̇𝐤
𝐒𝐭𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐲 − 𝐟𝐥𝐨𝐰, 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐦: 𝐒̇𝐠𝐞𝐧 = ∑ 𝐦̇𝐞 (𝐬𝐞 − 𝐬𝐢 ) − ∑
𝐓𝐤

𝐒𝐭𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐲 − 𝐟𝐥𝐨𝐰, 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐦 𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐚𝐛𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜: 𝐒̇𝐠𝐞𝐧 = ∑ 𝐦̇𝐞 (𝐬𝐞 − 𝐬𝐢 )

Question and Answer

Is it possible to create entropy? How about destroying it?
A system undergoes a process between two fixed states first in a reversible manner and then in an irreversible
manner. For which case is the entropy change greater? Why?
The entropy of a hot baked potato decreases as it cools. Is this a violation of the increase of entropy principle?
Explain?
What three different mechanisms can cause the entropy of a control volume to change?
Is it possible for the entropy change of a closed system to be zero during an irreversible process? Explain.
Is a quantity whose cyclic integral is zero necessarily a property?
What happen to the entropy of a steam as it flows through an actual adiabatic turbine?
Describe the ideal process for an adiabatic turbine, adiabatic compressor, and adiabatic nozzle.
Is the isentropic process a suitable model for compressors that are cooled intentionally? Explain.
On a Ts diagram, does the actual exit state of an adiabatic turbine have to be on the right-hand side of the
isentropic exit state? Why?

Exercise
Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 6Mpa, 600C, and 80m/s and leaves at 50kPa, 100C,and 140m/s. If the
power output of the turbine is 8000kW, determine the a) the mass flowrate of the steam flowing through the
turbine and b) the isentropic efficiency of the turbine.
A 20kg aluminum block initially at 200C is brought into contact with a 20kg block of iron at 100C in an
insulated enclosure. Determine the final equilibrium temperature and the total entropy change for this process.
Air is compressed by a 12kW compressor from P1 to P2. The air temperature is maintained constant at 25C
during this process as a result of heat transfer to the surrounding medium at 10C. Determine the rate of entropy
change of the air. State the assumptions used in solving this problem.
A 0.5m3 rigid tank contains refrigerant 134a initially at 200kPa and 40% quality. Heat is transferred now to the
refrigerant from a source at 35C until the pressure rises to 400kPa. Determine a) the entropy change of the
refrigerant b) the entropy change of the heat source and c) the total entropy change for this process.
Steam is to be condensed in the condenser of a steam power plant at a temperature of 50C with cooling water
from a nearby lake, which enters the tubes of the condenser at 18C at a rate of 101kg/s and leaves at 27C.
Assuming the condenser to be perfectly insulated, determine a) the rate of condensation of the steam b) the
rate of entropy generation in the condenser.
Steam enters an adiabatic nozzle at 3Mpa and 400C with a velocity of 70m/s and exits at 2Mpa and 320m/s. if
the nozzle has an inlet area of 7cm2, determine a) the exit temperature and b) the rate of entropy generation
for this process.
Determine the entropy change of water contained in a closed system as it changes phase from saturated liquid
to saturated vapor when the pressure is 0.1 MPa and constant. Why is the entropy change positive for this
process?

Steam at 1 MPa, 600oC, expands in a turbine to 0.01 MPa. If the process is isentropic, find the final temperature,
the final enthalpy of the steam, and the turbine work.

Aluminum at 100oC is placed in a large, insulated tank having 10 kg of water at a temperature of 30 oC. If the
mass of the aluminum is 0.5 kg, find the final equilibrium temperature of the aluminum and water, the entropy
change of the aluminum and the water, and the total entropy change of the universe because of this process.

Carbon dioxide initially at 50 kPa, 400 K, undergoes a process in a closed system until its pressure and
temperature are 2 MPa and 800 K, respectively. Assuming ideal gas behavior, find the entropy change of the
carbon dioxide by first assuming constant specific heats and then assuming variable specific heats.

Consider steady heat transfer through a 5m by 6m brick wall of a house of thickness 30cm. On a day when the
temperature of the outdoors is 0C, the house is maintained at 27C. the temperatures of the inner and outer
surfaces of the brick wall are measured to be 20C and 5C, respectively, and the rate of heat transfer through
the wall is 1035W. Determine the rate of entropy generation in the wall, and the rate of total entropy generation
associated with this heat transfer process.

Steam at 7Mpa and 450C is throttled in a valve to a pressure of 3Mpa during a steady-flow process. Determine
the entropy generated during this process.

Chapter 8. Exergy

Topic No.: 8
Topic Title: Exergy
Topic Objectives: Define Exergy in engineering point of view.
Derive exergy equations for thermodynamic systems.
Define and derive equations for irreversibility.
Apply exergy to real engineering problems.

Theory and Discussion

The energy content of the universe is constant, just as its mass content is. Yet at times of crisis we are bombarded with
speeches and articles on how to “conserve” energy. As engineers, we know that energy is already conserved. What is not
conserved is exergy, which is the useful work potential of the energy. Once the exergy is wasted, it can never be recovered.
When we use energy (to heat our homes, for example), we are not destroying any energy; we are merely converting it to
a less useful form, a form of less exergy.

Exergy and the Dead State

The useful work potential of a system is the amount of energy we extract as useful work. The useful work
potential of a system at the specified state is called exergy. Exergy is a property and is associated with the state of the
system and the environment. A system that is in equilibrium with its surroundings has zero exergy and is said to be at
the dead state. The exergy of the thermal energy of thermal reservoirs is equivalent to the work output of a Carnot heat
engine operating between the reservoir and the environment.

Exergy Forms
Now let’s determine the exergy of various forms of energy.
Exergy of kinetic energy
Kinetic energy is a form of mechanical energy and can be converted directly into work. Kinetic energy itself is the work
potential or exergy of kinetic energy independent of the temperature and pressure of the environment.

Exergy of potential energy

Potential energy is a form of mechanical energy and can be converted directly into work. Potential energy itself is the
work potential or exergy of potential energy independent of the temperature and pressure of the environment.

Useful Work and Reversible work

The work done by work producing devices is not always entirely in a useable form. Consider the piston-cylinder device
shown in the following figure.

 W = P dV = ( P − P0 ) dV + P0 dV
=  Wb, useful + P0 dV

The actual work done by the fluid

W = Wb, useful +  P0 dV
= Wb, useful + P0 (V2 − V1 )
The word done on the surroundings is
Wsurr =  P0 dV = P0 (V2 − V1 )
Any useful work delivered by a piston-cylinder device is due to the pressure above the atmospheric level.
Wu = W − Wsurr
Reversible Work
Reversible work Wrev is defined as the maximum amount of useful work that can be produced (or the minimum work
that needs to be supplied) as a system undergoes a process between the specified initial and final states. This is the useful
work output (or input) obtained when the process between the initial and final states is executed in a totally reversible
manner.
Exergy of flow
The energy needed to force mass to flow into or out of a control volume is the flow work per unit mass given by
wflow = Pv

The exergy of flow work is the excess of flow work done against atmospheric air at P0 to displace it by volume v. According
to the above figure, the useful work potential due to flow work is
wflow, energy = Pv − P0v
Exergy of a closed system
𝐦 𝐦𝐠
𝐗 = (𝐔 − 𝐔𝟎 ) + 𝐏𝟎 (𝐕 − 𝐕𝟎 ) − 𝐓𝐎 (𝐒 − 𝐒𝟎 ) + (𝜵𝟐 ) + (𝐳)
𝟐𝐠 𝐜 𝐠𝐜
on a unit mass basis, the closed system (or nonflow) exergy is
𝟏 𝐠
∅ = (𝐮 − 𝐮𝟎 ) + 𝐏𝟎 (𝐯 − 𝐯𝟎 ) − 𝐓𝐎 (𝐬 − 𝐬𝟎 ) + (𝜵𝟐 ) + (𝐳)
𝟐𝐠 𝐜 𝐠𝐜

Here, u0, v0, and s0 are the properties of the system evaluated at the dead state. Note that the exergy of the
internal energy of a system is zero at the dead state is zero since u = u0, v = v0, and s = s0at that state.
The exergy change of a closed system during a process is simply the difference between the final and initial exergies of
the system,

∆𝐗 = 𝐗 𝟐 − 𝐗 𝟏 = 𝐦(∅𝟐 − ∅𝟏 ) = (𝐄𝟐 − 𝐄𝟏 ) + 𝐏𝟎 (𝐕𝟐 − 𝐕𝟏 ) − 𝐓𝐎 (𝐒𝟐 − 𝐒𝟏 )

𝐦 𝐦𝐠
∆𝐗 = (𝐔𝟐 − 𝐔𝟏 ) + 𝐏𝟎 (𝐕𝟐 − 𝐕𝟏 ) − 𝐓𝐎 (𝐒𝟐 − 𝐒𝟏 ) + (𝜵𝟐𝟐 − 𝜵𝟐𝟏 ) + (𝐳 − 𝐳𝟏 )
𝟐𝐠 𝐜 𝐠𝐜 𝟐

On a unit mass basis the exergy change of a closed system is

∆𝐱 = 𝐱𝟐 − 𝐱𝟏 = ∆∅ = (∅𝟐 − ∅𝟏 ) = (𝐞𝟐 − 𝐞𝟏 ) + 𝐏𝟎 (𝐯𝟐 − 𝐯𝟏 ) − 𝐓𝐎 (𝐬𝟐 − 𝐬𝟏 )

𝟏 𝐠
∆𝐱 = (𝐮𝟐 − 𝐮𝟏 ) + 𝐏𝟎 (𝐯𝟐 − 𝐯𝟏 ) − 𝐓𝐎 (𝐬𝟐 − 𝐬𝟏 ) + (𝜵𝟐𝟐 − 𝜵𝟐𝟏 ) + (𝐳𝟐 − 𝐳𝟏 )
𝟐𝐠 𝐜 𝐠𝐜

Exergy of Flowing Fluid

Since flow energy is the sum of nonflow energy and the flow energy, the exergy of flow is the sum of the exergies of
nonflow exergy and flow exergy.

𝐗 𝐟𝐥𝐨𝐰𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐟𝐥𝐮𝐢𝐝 = 𝐗 𝐧𝐨𝐧𝐟𝐥𝐨𝐰𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐟𝐥𝐮𝐢𝐝 + 𝐗 𝐟𝐥𝐨𝐰 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲

𝐦 𝐦𝐠
𝐗 = (𝐔 − 𝐔𝟎 ) + 𝐏𝟎 (𝐕 − 𝐕𝟎 ) − 𝐓𝐎 (𝐒 − 𝐒𝟎 ) + (𝜵𝟐 ) + (𝐳) + (𝐏 − 𝐏𝟎 )𝐕
𝟐𝐠 𝐜 𝐠𝐜
𝐦 𝐦𝐠
𝐗 = (𝐔 + 𝐏𝐕) − (𝐔𝟎 + 𝐏𝟎 𝐕𝟎 ) − 𝐓𝐎 (𝐒 − 𝐒𝟎 ) + (𝜵𝟐 ) + (𝐳)
𝟐𝐠 𝐜 𝐠𝐜
𝐦 𝐦𝐠
𝐗 = (𝐇 − 𝐇𝟎 ) − 𝐓𝐎 (𝐒 − 𝐒𝟎 ) + (𝜵𝟐 ) + (𝐳)
𝟐𝐠 𝐜 𝐠𝐜

The flow (or stream) exergy per unit mass is given by

𝟏 𝐠
𝛗 = (𝐡 − 𝐡𝟎 ) − 𝐓𝐎 (𝐬 − 𝐬𝟎 ) + (𝜵𝟐 ) + (𝐳)
𝟐𝐠 𝐜 𝐠𝐜

The exergy of flow can be negative if the pressure is lower than atmospheric pressure.
The exergy change of a fluid stream as it undergoes a process from state 1 to state 2 is
𝟏 𝐠
∆𝛗 = (𝛗𝟐 − 𝛗𝟏 ) = (𝐡𝟐 − 𝐡𝟏 ) − 𝐓𝐎 (𝐬𝟐 − 𝐬𝟏 ) + (𝜵𝟐𝟐 − 𝜵𝟐𝟏 ) + (𝐳𝟐 − 𝐳𝟏 )
𝟐𝐠 𝐜 𝐠𝐜

Irreversibility
The difference between the reversible work Wrev and the useful work Wu is due to the irreversibilities present during the
process and is called the irreversibility I. It is equivalent to the exergy destroyed and is expressed as
I = X destroyed = T0 Sgen = Wrev, out − Wu, out = Wu, in − Wrev, in
where Sgenis the entropy generated during the process. For a totally reversible process, the useful and reversible work
terms are identical and thus irreversibility is zero.
Irreversibility can be viewed as the wasted work potential or the lost opportunity to do work. It represents the energy
that could have been converted to work but was not.
Exergy destroyed represents the lost work potential and is also called the wasted work or lost work.

Second-Law Efficiency
The second-law efficiency is a measure of the performance of a device relative to the performance under reversible
conditions for the same end states and is given by
In general, the second-law efficiency is expressed as
Exergy recovered Exergy destroyed
 II = = 1−
Exergy supplied Exergy supplied
For heat engines and other work-producing devices and
th W
II = = u
th , rev Wrev
For refrigerators, heat pumps, and other work-consuming devices.
COP Wrev
II = =
COPrev Wu
For adiabatic heat exchangers with two unmixed fluid streams (cold fluid 3 to 4 and hot fluid 1 to 2)
𝐦̇𝐜𝐨𝐥𝐝 (𝛙𝟒 − 𝛙𝟑 ) 𝐓𝐨 𝐒̇𝐠𝐞𝐧
𝛈𝐈𝐈 = =𝟏−
𝐦̇𝐡𝐨𝐭 (𝛙𝟏 − 𝛙𝟐 ) 𝐦̇𝐡𝐨𝐭 (𝛙𝟏 − 𝛙𝟐 )
For an adiabatic mixing chamber where a hot stream 1 is mixed with a cold stream 2, forming a mixture 3
𝐦̇𝟑 (𝛙𝟑 ) 𝐓𝐨 𝐒̇𝐠𝐞𝐧
𝛈𝐈𝐈 = =𝟏−
(𝐦̇𝟏 𝛙𝟏 + 𝐦̇𝟐 𝛙𝟐 ) (𝐦̇𝟏 𝛙𝟏 + 𝐦̇𝟐 𝛙𝟐 )
Exergy Transfer
Exergy can be transferred by heat, work, and mass flow, and exergy transfer accompanied by heat, work, and mass transfer
are given by the following.

Exergy transfer by heat transfer

By the second law we know that only a portion of heat transfer at a temperature above the environment temperature can
be converted into work. The maximum useful work is produced from it by passing this heat transfer through a reversible
heat engine. The exergy transfer by heat is
 T 
X heat = 1 − 0  Q
 T 
Note that exergy transfer by heat is zero for adiabatic systems.
Exergy transfer by work
Exergy is the useful work potential, and the exergy transfer by work can simply be expressed as
W − Wsurr (for boundary work)
X work = 
W (for other forms of work)
where
Wsurr = P0 (V2 − V1 )
P0 is atmospheric pressure, and V1 and V2 are the initial and final volumes of the system. The exergy transfer for shaft
work and electrical work is equal to the work W itself.
Note that exergy transfer by work is zero for systems that have no work.

Exergy transfer by mass

Mass flow is a mechanism to transport exergy, entropy, and energy into or out of a system. As mass in the amount m
enters or leaves a system the exergy transfer is given by
X mass = m
Note that exergy transfer by mass is zero for systems that involve no flow.
The Decrease of Exergy Principle and Exergy Destruction
The exergy of an isolated system during a process always decreases or, in the limiting case of a reversible process, remains
constant. This is known as the decrease of exergy principle and is expressed as
X isolated = ( X 2 − X 1 )isolated  0
Exergy Destruction
Irreversibilities such as friction, mixing, chemical reactions, heat transfer through finite temperature difference,
unrestrained expansion, non-quasi-equilibrium compression, or expansion always generate entropy, and anything that
generates entropy always destroys exergy. The exergy destroyed is proportional to the entropy generated as expressed as
X destroyed = T0 Sgen
The decrease of exergy principle does not imply that the exergy of a system cannot increase. The exergy change of a
system can be positive or negative during a process, but exergy destroyed cannot be negative. The decrease of exergy
principle can be summarized as follows:
 0 Irreversible proces

X destroyed = 0 Reversible process
 0
 Impossible process

Exergy Balances
Exergy balance for any system undergoing any process can be expressed as
 Total   Total   Total   Change in the 
       
 exergy  −  exergy  −  exergy  =  total exergy 
 entering   leaving   destroyed   of the system 
       
 X in − X out − X destroyed = X system
Net exergy transfer Exergy Change
by heat, work, and mass destruction in exergy

X in − X out − X destroyed = X system

Rate of net exergy transfer Rate of exergy Rate of change
by heat, work, and mass destruction of exergy
“Engineering is the science of economy, of conserving the energy, kinetic and potential, provided and stored up by nature
for the use of man. It is the business of engineering to utilize this energy to the best advantage, so that there may be the
least possible waste.”

Question and Answer

How does reversible work differ from useful work?
What final state will maximize the work output of a device?
Is the exergy of the system different in different environment?
Consider a process that involves no irreversibility. Will the actual useful work for that process be equal to the
reversible work?
What is the second law efficiency? How does it differ from the first law efficiency?
Consider an environment of zero absolute pressure (such as the space). How will the actual work and the useful
work compare in that environment?
Consider two systems that are at the same pressure as the environment. The first system is at the same
temperature as the environment, whereas the second system is at lower temperature than the environment.
How would you compare the exergies of these two systems?
Can a process for which the reversible work is zero be reversible? Can it be irreversible? Explain.
Consider two geothermal wells whose energy contents are estimated to be the same. Will the exergies of these
wells necessarily be the same? Explain.
Under what conditions does the reversible work equal irreversibility for a process?

Exercise

Refrigerant 134-a enters an adiabatic compressor at 160kPa superheated by 3C, and leaves at 1Mpa. If the
compressor has a second-law efficiency of 80%, determine a) the actual work input, b) the isentropic efficiency,
and c) the exergy destruction. Take the environment temperature to be 25C. Ans. A)49.8kJ/kg b) 0.78 c)
9.95kJ/kg
Steam is to be condensed in the condenser of a steam power plant at a temperature of 60C with cooling water
from a nearby lake that enters the tubes of the condenser at 15C at a rate of 140kg/s and leaves at 25C. Assuming
the condenser to be perfectly insulated, determine a) the rate of condensation of the steam and b) the rate of
exergy destruction in the condenser. Ans. A)2.48kg, b) 694kW.

An insulated vertical piston-cylinder device initially contains 15kg of water, 9kg of which is in the vapor phase.
The mass of the piston is such that it maintains a constant pressure of 200kPa inside the cylinder. Now steam
at 1 Mpa and 400C is allowed to enter the cylinder from a supply line until all the liquid in the cylinder is
vaporized. Assuming the surrounding to be at 25C and 100kPa, determine a) the amount of steam that has
entered and b) the exergy destroyed during the process. Ans. A) 23.66kg b) 7610kJ

A 0.6m3 rigid tank is filled with saturated liquid water at 170C. a valve at the bottom of the tank is now opened,
and one-half of the total mass is withdrawn from the tank in liquid form. Heat is transferred to water from a
source of 210C so that the temperature in the tank remains constant. Determine a) the amount of heat transfer
and b) the reversible work and exergy destruction for this process. Assume the surroundings to be at 25C and
100kPa.

Oxygen gas is compressed in a piston-cylinder device from an initial state of 0.8 m3/kg and 25oC to a final state
of 0.1 m3/kg and 287oC. Determine the reversible work input and the increase in the exergy of the oxygen
during this process. Assume the surroundings to be at 25oC and 100 kPa.
We assume that oxygen is an ideal gas with constant specific heats. From Table A-2, R = 0.2598 kJ/kgK. The
specific heat is determined at the average temperature Cv, ave = 0.690 kJ/kgK.
Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 6 MPa, 600C, and 80 m/s and leaves at 50 kPa, 100C, and 140 m/s. The
surroundings to the turbine are at 25C. If the power output of the turbine is 5MW, determine
(a)the power potential of the steam at its inlet conditions, in MW.
(b) the reversible power, in MW.
(c)the second law efficiency.
We assume steady-flow and neglect changes in potential energy.
A 200m3 rigid tank initially contains atmospheric air at 100kPa and 300K and is to be used as a storage vessel
for compressed air at 1Mpa and 300K. Compressed air is to be supplied by a compressor that takes in
atmospheric air at 100kPa and 300K. Determine the minimum work requirement for this process.
 An insulated piston-cylinder contains 2L of saturated liquid water at a constant pressure of 150kPa. An electric
resistance heater inside the cylinder is turned on, and electrical work is done on the water in the amount of
2299kJ. Assuming the surroundings to be at 25C and 100kPa, determine a) the minimum work with which this
process could be accomplished and b) the exergy destroyed during this process.
Nitrogen gas enters a diffuser at 100kPa and 150C with a velocity of 180m/s, and leaves at 110kPa and 25m/s. it
is estimated that 4.5kJ/kg of heat is lost from the diffuser to the surroundings at 100kPa and 27C. the exit area
of the diffuser is 0.06m2. Accounting for the variation of the specific heats with temperature, determine a) the
exit temperature b) the rate of exergy destruction and c) the second law efficiency of the diffuser.

References
Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 6th Edition, Yunus Cengel and Michael Boles, McGraw Hill
Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics; 4th Edition, M. J. Moran and H. N. Shapiro, Wiley
Engineering Thermodynamics, Burghardt, McGraw Hill
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics, 7th Edition; Borgnakke C. and Sonntag R. E.; John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Thermodynamics for Engineers, 2nd Edition; Wong K. V.; CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group

Thermodynamics II

Chapter 1. Introduction mixture of ideal gases

In the analysis and application of the basic laws of thermodynamics, consideration is normally
given to systems involving constant and uniform chemical compositions. Many Engineering
applications, however, involve mixtures of gases whose properties are determined in the same way
as for a single gas.
An ideal gas is one which strictly obeys all the gas laws under given conditions of temperature and
pressure
The concept of the ideal gas represents a limiting state that can be approached but not achieved by
any real gas.
Analysis of many Mechanical Engineering processes are conducted at pressures and temperatures
that the ideal gas laws can be used as simple and reasonably close approximations to the behaviour
of the real gas.
The characteristic Gas Equation
The Physical properties of a gas are controlled by:
The pressure P exerted by the gas
The Volume V occupied by the gas and
The temperature T of the gas
The behavior of an ideal gas, undergoing any change in the above variables, is governed by such
laws as Boyle’s and Charle’s law.
Boyle’s law states that “the volume of a given mass of a gas varies inversely as its absolute pressure
provided the temperature remains constant

1
v
p
Charles’ law states that “the volume of a given mass varies directly as its absolute temperature
provided the pressure is kept constant”

vT
In Engineering practice, volume, pressure and temperature of a system varies simultaneously. When
both temperature T and Pressure p vary
T
v
p
The proportionality may be replaced by R
RT
v=
p
The constant R is known as the characteristic gas constant. For the mass m of a particular gas
pv = mRT
P=absolute pressure of gas in N/m2
T= absolute temperature of gas in K,
R=characteristic gas constant in Nm/kg.K
V= volume of gas in m3
m= mass pf gas in kg
The product of the characteristic gas constant R and the molecular weight M of an ideal gas is
constant known as the universal gas constant Ro
Ro = MR = 8314.3Nm / moleK
The discussions in this chapter are restricted to nonreactive ideal-gas mixtures.
Many thermodynamic applications involve mixtures of ideal gases. That is, each of the gases in the
mixture individually behaves as an ideal gas. In this section, we assume that the gases in the mixture
do not react with one another to any significant degree.
We restrict ourselves to a study of only ideal-gas mixtures. An ideal gas is one in which the equation
of state is given by
PV = mRT or PV = NRu T
Air is an example of an ideal gas mixture and has the following approximate composition.
Component % by Volume
N2 78.10
O2 20.95
Argon 0.92
CO2 + trace elements 0.03
Consider a container having a volume V that is filled with a mixture of k different gases at a pressure
P and a temperature T.
A mixture of two or more gases of fixed chemical composition is called a nonreacting gas mixture.
Consider k gases in a rigid container as shown here. The properties of the mixture may be based on
the mass of each component, called gravimetric analysis, or on the moles of each component, called
molar analysis.
k gases
T = TmV = Vm
P = Pmm = mm
The total mass of the mixture mm and the total moles of mixture Nm are defined as
k k
mm =  mi and N m =  Ni
i =1 i =1

The mass and mole number for a given component are related through the molar mass (or molecular
weight).

mi = N i M i
To find the average molar mass for the mixture Mm , note
k k
mm =  mi = Ni Mi = N m M m
i =1 i =1

Solving for the average or apparent molar mass Mm

k k
mm N
Mm = =  i Mi =  yi Mi ( kg / kmol )
N m i =1 N m i =1

The apparent (or average) gas constant of a mixture is expressed as

Ru
Rm = ( kJ / kg  K )
Mm
Can you show that Rm is given as
k
Rm =  mf i Ri
i =1

To change from a mole fraction analysis to a mass fraction analysis, we can show that
yi Mi
mf i = k

y Mi =1
i i

To change from a mass fraction analysis to a mole fraction analysis, we can show that
mf i / Mi
yi = k

 mf
i =1
i / Mi

Volume FRACTION (Amagat model)

Divide the container into k sub-containers, such that each sub-container has only one of the gases in
the mixture at the original mixture temperature and pressure.

Amagat's law of additive vol-umes states that the volume of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the
volumes each gas would occupy if it existed alone at the mixture temperature and pressure.
k
Vm = Vi (Tm , Pm )
i =1

The volume fraction of the vfi of any component is

k
V (T , P )
vf i = i m m
Vm
 vf
i =1
i =1

For an ideal gas mixture

Ni Ru Tm N m Ru Tm
Vi = and Vm =
Pm Pm
Taking the ratio of these two equations gives
Vi N
vf i = = i = yi
Vm N m
The volume fraction and the mole fraction of a component in an ideal gas mixture are the same.

Partial pressure (Dalton model)

The partial pressure of component i is defined as the product of the mole fraction and the mixture
pressure according to Dalton’s law. For the component i
k
Pm =  Pi (Tm ,Vm )
Pi = yi Pm i =1

law of additive pressures. Also, the h, u, cv , and cp of an ideal gas depend on temperature only and
are independent of the pressure or the volume of the ideal-gas mixture.
The partial pressure of a component in an ideal-gas mixture is simply Pi = yi Pm, where Pm is the
mixture pressure.
Evaluation of ∆u or ∆h of the components of an ideal-gas mixture during a process is relatively easy
since it requires only a knowledge of the initial and final temperatures. Care should be exercised,
however, in evaluating the ∆s of the components since the entropy of an ideal gas depends on the
pressure or volume of the component as well as on its temperature. The entropy change of individual
gases in an ideal-gas mixture during a process can be determined from

where Pi,2 = yi,2Pm,2 and Pi,1 = yi,1Pm,1. Notice that the partial pressure Pi of each component is used
in the evaluation of the entropy change, not the mixture pressure Pm

Chapter 2: Gas-Vapor Mixtures And Air-Conditioning Processes

INTRODUCTION
At temperatures below the critical temperature, the gas phase of a substance is frequently referred
to as a vapor. The term vapor implies a gaseous state that is close to the saturation region of the
substance, raising the possibility of condensation during a process.
When we are dealing with a gas–vapor mixture, however, the vapor may condense out of the mixture
during a process, forming a two-phase mixture. This may complicate the analysis considerably.
Therefore, a gas–vapor mixture needs to be treated differently from an ordinary gas mixture.
Several gas–vapor mixtures are encountered in engineering. In this chapter, we consider the air–
water vapor mixture, which is the most commonly encountered gas–vapor mixture in practice. We
also discuss air-conditioning, which is the primary application area of air–water vapor mixtures.
Dry and atmospheric air
We will be concerned with the mixture of dry air and water vapor. This mixture is often called
atmospheric air.
The temperature of the atmospheric air in air-conditioning applications ranges from about –10 to
about 50°C. Under these conditions, we treat air as an ideal gas with constant specific heats. Taking
Cpa = 1.005 kJ/kg.K, the enthalpy of the dry air is given by (assuming the reference state to be 0°C
where the reference enthalpy is taken to be 0 kJ/kg.k)

The assumption that the water vapor is an ideal gas is valid when the mixture temperature is below
50oC. This means that the saturation pressure of the water vapor in the air-vapor mixture is below
12.3 kPa. For these conditions, the enthalpy of the water vapor is approximated by hv(T) = hg at
mixture temperature T. The following T-s diagram for water illustrates the ideal-gas behavior at
low vapor pressures.

The saturated vapor value of the enthalpy is a function of temperature and can be expressed as

Dew Point, Tdp

The dew-point temperature Tdp is defined as the temperature at which condensation begins when
the air is cooled at constant pressure.
Consider cooling an air-water vapor mixture while the mixture total pressure is held constant. When
the mixture is cooled to a temperature equal to the saturation temperature for the water-vapor partial
pressure, condensation begins.
𝑇𝑑𝑝 = 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 @𝑃𝑣
Relative Humidity, ϕ
Mass of vapor in air m
= = v
Mass of in saturated air mg
Pv
=
Pg
Pv and Pg are shown on the following T-s diagram for the water-vapor alone.
Steam
125

75
T [C]

Tm 25 Pg = 3.169 kPa o Vapor State

Tdp Pv = 1.491 kPa

-25
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

s [kJ/kg-K]

Absolute humidity or specific humidity (sometimes called humidity ratio), 

Mass of water vapor in air mv
= =
Mass of dry air ma
PVM / ( Ru T ) Pv M v
= v v =
PVM
a a / ( Ru T ) Pa M a
P Pv
= 0.622 v = 0.622
Pa P − Pv
Using the definition of the specific humidity, the relative humidity may be expressed as

P 0.622Pg
= and  =
(0.622 +  ) Pg P − Pg
Volume of mixture per mass of dry air, v
V m R T /P
v= = m m m m
ma ma
After several steps, we can show (you should try this)
V RT
v= = va = a m
ma Pa
So the volume of the mixture per unit mass of dry air is the specific volume of the dry air calculated
at the mixture temperature and the partial pressure of the dry air.
Mass of mixture
mv
m = ma + mv = ma (1 + ) = ma (1 +  )
ma
Based on the volume flow rate of mixture at a given state, the mass flow rate of dry air is

V m3 / s kga
a =
m 3
=
v m / kga s
Enthalpy of mixture per mass dry air, h
Hm Ha + Hv ma ha + mv hv
h= = =
ma ma ma
= ha + hv
The Adiabatic Saturation Process
Air having a relative humidity less than 100 percent flows over water contained in a well-insulated
duct. Since the air has RH < 100 percent, some of the water will evaporate and the temperature of
the air-vapor mixture will decrease.
If the mixture leaving the duct is saturated and if the process is adiabatic, the temperature of the
mixture leaving the device is known as the adiabatic saturation temperature.
Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures
In normal practice, the state of atmospheric air is specified by determining the wet-bulb and dry-
bulb temperatures. These temperatures are measured by using a device called a psychrometer. The
psychrometer is composed of two thermometers mounted on a sling. One thermometer is fitted with
wet gauze and reads the wet-bulb temperature. The other thermometer reads the dry-bulb, or
ordinary, temperature. As the psychrometer is slung through the air, water vaporizes from the wet
gauze, resulting in a lower temperature to be registered by the thermometer. The dryer the
atmospheric air, the lower the wet-bulb temperature will be. When the relative humidity of the air
is near 100 percent, there will be little difference between the wet-bulb and dry-bulb temperatures.
The wet-bulb temperature is approximately equal to the adiabatic saturation temperature. The wet-
bulb and dry-bulb temperatures and the atmospheric pressure uniquely determine the state of the
atmospheric air.
The Psychrometric Chart
For a given, fixed, total air-vapor pressure, the properties of the mixture are given in graphical form
on a psychrometric chart. The air-conditioning processes are shown in the figure.

Chapter 3: Fuels and Combustion

The combustion process is a chemical reaction whereby fuel is oxidized and energy is released.
Fuels are usually composed of some compound or mixture containing carbon, C, and hydrogen, H2.
Examples of hydrocarbon fuels are
CH4 Methane
C8H18 Octane
Coal Mixture of C, H2, S, O2, N2 and non-combustibles
Classification of fuels:
Solid fuels Ex. Coal, baggase, wood barks, biomass, coke
Liquid fuels Ex. Gasoline, distillate fuel oil, blended fuel oil, alcohols, kerosene
Gaseous fuels Ex. Natural gas, coke, blast furnace gas, producer gas, biogas
Nuclear fuel Ex. Natural uranium, prepared uranium
Basic Desired Fuel Properties
It must have a high heating or calorific value.
Easy to handle.
Four Basic conditions that must be considered to burn a fuel completely:
Maintain a high flame temperature enough to ignite incoming air-fuel ratio mixture
Sufficient time to complete the burning process of the combustible elements in the fuel.
Correct air-fuel ratio
Thorough mixing of air and fuel.
Initially, we shall consider only those reactions that go to completion. The components prior to the
reaction are called reactants and the components after the reaction are called products.
Reactants → Products
For complete or stoichiometric combustion, all carbon is burned to carbon dioxide (CO2) and all
hydrogen is converted into water (H2O). These two complete combustion reactions are as follows:
C + O2 → CO2
1
H2 + O2 → H2 O
2

The complete combustion process is also called the stoichiometric combustion, and all coefficients
are called the stoichiometric coefficients.
In most combustion processes, oxygen is supplied in the form of air rather than pure oxygen.
Air data: volumetric analysis; XN=79%, XO=21%
Gravimetric analysis; fm N=76.9%, fm O=23.1%
Standard air: 60% RH, at 26.7C (80F) humidity ratio= 0.013kgv/kgda or lbv/lbda
Air-Fuel Ratio
Since the total moles of a mixture are equal to the sum of moles of each component, there are 12.5(1
+ 3.76) = 59.5 moles of air required for each mole of fuel for the complete combustion process.
Often complete combustion of the fuel will not occur unless there is an excess of air present greater
than just the theoretical air required for complete combustion.
To determine the amount of excess air supplied for a combustion process, let us define the air-fuel
ratio AF as
Mole basis
kmol air
AF =
kmol fuel

Mass basis
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝐴𝐹 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
Theoretical Air requirements when gravimetric analysis of C,H,O,S are known;
 O
A / F = 11.56C + 34.63 H −  + 4.33S
 8
Percent Theoretical and Percent Excess Air
In most cases, more than theoretical air is supplied to ensure complete combustion and to reduce or
eliminate carbon monoxide (CO) from the products of combustion. The amount of excess air is
usually expressed as percent theoretical air and percent excess air.
AFactual
Percent theoreticalair = 100%
AFth
AFactual − AFth
Percentexcessair = 100%
AFth
Dew Point Temperature
The dew point temperature for the product gases is the temperature at which the water in the product
gases would begin to condense when the products are cooled at constant pressure. The dew point
temperature is equal to the saturation temperature of the water at its partial pressure in the products.
Enthalpy of Formation
When a compound is formed from its elements (e.g., methane, CH4, from C and H2), heat transfer
occurs. When heat is given off, the reaction is called exothermic. When heat is required, the
reaction is called endothermic. Consider the following.
The reaction equation is
C + 2 H2 → CH4

The conservation of energy for a steady-flow combustion process is

Ein = Eout
Qnet + HReactants = HProducts

Qnet = HProducts − HReactants

Qnet = N h
Products
e e − Nh
Reactants
i i

Qnet = 1hCH4 − (1hC + 2hH2 )

A common reference state for the enthalpies of all reacting components is established asThe enthalpy
of the elements or their stable compounds is defined to be ZERO at 25oC (298 K) and 1 atm (or 0.1
MPa).

Qnet = 1hCH4 − (1(0) + 2(0))

= hCH4
This heat transfer is called the enthalpy of formation for methane, hof . The superscript (o) implies
the 1 atm pressure value and the subscript (f) implies 25oC data, hof is given in Table A-26.
During the formation of methane from the elements at 298 K, 0.1 MPa, heat is given off (an
exothermic reaction) such that
kJ
Qnet = h fo CH = −74,850
4 kmolCH4

The enthalpy of formation h̅of is tabulated for typical compounds. The enthalpy of formation of
the elements in their stable form is taken as zero. The enthalpy of formation of the elements found
naturally as diatomic elements, such as nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen, is defined to be zero.
Adiabatic Flame Temperature
The temperature the products have when a combustion process takes place adiabatically is called the
adiabatic flame temperature.
Enthalpy of Reaction and Enthalpy of Combustion
When the products and reactants are at the same temperature, the enthalpy of reaction hR, is the
difference in their enthalpies. When the combustion is assumed to be complete with theoretical air
supplied the enthalpy of reaction is called the enthalpy of combustion hC. The enthalpy of
combustion can be calculated at any value of the temperature, but it is usually determined at 25 oC
or 298 K.
hC = H P − H R when TP = TR = 25o C = 298 K
= N h
Products
e
o
f e − Nh
Reactants
i
o
f i

Heating Value
The heating value, HV, of a fuel is the absolute value of the enthalpy of combustion or just the
negative of the enthalpy of combustion.

HV = hC

The lower heating value, LHV, is the heating value when water appears as a gas in the products.

LHV = hC = −hC with H2 Ogas in products

The lower heating value is often used as the amount of energy per kmol of fuel supplied to the gas
turbine engine.
The higher heating value, HHV, is the heating value when water appears as a liquid in the products.

HHV = hC = −hC with H2 Oliquid in products

The higher heating value is often used as the amount of energy per kmol of fuel supplied to the steam
power cycle.
The higher and lower heating values are related by the amount of water formed during the
combustion process and the enthalpy of vaporization of water at the temperature.

HHV = LHV + N H2O h fg H2O

HHV − LHV = 9H 2 (2442) KJ / kg = 9H 2 (1050.1) Btu / lb

Where, H2 is the ultimate analysis of hydrogen in the fuel.

Chapter 4: Vapor and Combined Power Cycles

We consider power cycles where the working fluid undergoes a phase change. The best example of
this cycle is the steam power cycle where water (steam) is the working fluid.
Carnot Vapor Cycle

The heat engine may be composed of the following components.

The working fluid, steam (water), undergoes a thermodynamic cycle from 1-2-3-4-1. The cycle is
shown on the following T-s diagram
 Carnot Vapor Cycle Using Steam
700

600

500

6000 kPa
400
T [C]

300 2 100 kPa

3
200

100 1 4
0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0

s [kJ/kg-K]

The thermal efficiency of this cycle is given as

Wnet Q
 th , Carnot = = 1 − out
Qin Qin
T
= 1− L
TH
Note the effect of TH and TL on th, Carnot.
The larger the TH the larger the th, Carnot
The smaller the TL the larger the th, Carnot
To increase the thermal efficiency in any power cycle, we try to increase the maximum temperature
at which heat is added.
Reasons why the Carnot cycle is not used:
Pumping process 1-2 requires the pumping of a mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapor at
state 1 and the delivery of a saturated liquid at state 2.
To superheat the steam to take advantage of a higher temperature, elaborate controls are required to
keep TH constant while the steam expands and does work.
To resolve the difficulties associated with the Carnot cycle, the Rankine cycle was devised.
Rankine Cycle
The simple Rankine cycle has the same component layout as the Carnot cycle shown above. The
simple Rankine cycle continues the condensation process 4-1 until the saturated liquid line is
reached.
Ideal Rankine Cycle Processes
Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression in pump
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition in boiler
3-4 Isentropic expansion in turbine
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection in condenser

Energy Analysis of the Rankine Cycle:

On a per unit mass basis, the energy quantities are as follows:

Alternatively, pump work can also solve by

Where:
The thermal efficiency can be interpreted as the ratio of the area enclosed by the cycle on a T-s
diagram to the area under the heat-addition process.
The Actual Rankine Cycle
The figure below shows the actual process diagram of Rankine Cycle.

How to increase the thermal efficiency of a Rankine Cycle?

Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers TL,avg)
Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures (Increases TH,avg)
Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases TH,avg)
Ideal Reheat Cycle
The figure below shows a single stage of reheating in a Rankine Cycle together with its Ts diagram.
The single reheat in a modern power plant improves the cycle efficiency by 4 to 5% by increasing
the average temperature at which heat is transferred to the steam.
The average temperature during the reheat process can be increased by increasing the number of
expansion and reheat stages. As the number of stages is increased, the expansion and reheat
processes approach an isothermal process at the maximum temperature. The use of more than two
reheat stages is not practical. The theoretical improvement in efficiency from the second reheat is
about half of that which results from a single reheat. The reheat temperatures are very close or equal
to the turbine inlet temperature. The optimum reheat pressure is about one-fourth of the maximum
cycle pressure.
Ideal Regenerative Cycle
In steam power plants, steam is extracted from the turbine at various points. This steam, which could
have produced more work by expanding further in the turbine, is used to heat the feedwater instead.
The device where the feedwater is heated by regeneration is called a regenerator, or a feedwater
heater (FWH).
A feedwater heater is basically a heat exchanger where heat is transferred from the steam to the
feedwater either by mixing the two fluid streams (open feedwater heaters) or without mixing them
(closed feedwater heaters).
An open (or direct-contact) feedwater heater is basically a mixing chamber, where the steam
extracted from the turbine mixes with the feedwater exiting the pump. Ideally, the mixture leaves
the heater as a saturated liquid at the heater pressure.
Another type of feedwater heater frequently used in steam power plants is the closed feedwater
heater, in which heat is transferred from the extracted steam to the feedwater without any mixing
taking place. The two streams now can be at different pressures, since they do not mix.
The closed feedwater heaters are more complex because of the internal tubing network, and thus
they are more expensive. Heat transfer in closed feedwater heaters is less effective since the two
streams are not allowed to be in direct contact. However, closed feedwater heaters do not require a
separate pump for each heater since the extracted steam and the feedwater can be at different
pressures.
Open feedwater heaters are simple and inexpensive and have good heat transfer characteristics. For
each heater, however, a pump is required to handle the feedwater. Most steam power plants use a
combination of open and closed feedwater heaters.
Cogeneration
Many industries require energy input in the form of heat, called process heat. Process heat in these
industries is usually supplied by steam at 5 to 7 atm and 150 to 200°C. Energy is usually transferred
to the steam by burning coal, oil, natural gas, or another fuel in a furnace.
Industries that use large amounts of process heat also consume a large amount of electricpower. It
makes sense to use the already-existing work potential to produce power instead of letting it go to
waste. The result is a plant that produces electricity while meeting the process-heat requirements of
certain industrial processes (cogeneration plant).
Cogeneration: The production of more than one useful form of energy (such as process heat and
electric power) from the same energy source.
The utilization factor of the ideal steam-turbine cogeneration plant is 100%. Actual cogeneration
plants have utilization factors as high as 80%. Some recent cogeneration plants have even higher
utilization factors.
At times of high demand for process heat, all the steam is routed to the process-heating units and
none to the condenser. The waste heat is zero in this mode.
If this is not sufficient, some steam leaving the boiler is throttled by an expansion or pressure-
reducing valve to the extraction pressure P6 and is directed to the process-heating unit.
Maximum process heating is realized when all the steam leaving the boiler passes through the PRV
(m5= m4). No power is produced in this mode.
When there is no demand for process heat, all the steam passes through the turbine and the condenser
(m5=m6=0), and the cogeneration plant operates as an ordinary steam power plant.
Combined Gas-Vapor and Binary Cycle
The continued quest for higher thermal efficiencies has resulted in rather innovative modifications
to conventional power plants. A popular modification involves a gas power cycle topping a vapor
power cycle, which is called the combined gas–vapor cycle, or just the combined cycle.
The combined cycle of greatest interest is the gas-turbine (Brayton) cycle topping a steam-turbine
(Rankine) cycle, which has a higher thermal efficiency than either of the cycles executed
individually. It makes engineering sense to take advantage of the very desirable characteristics of
the gas-turbine cycle at high temperatures and to use the high-temperature exhaust gases as the
energy source for the bottoming cycle such as a steam power cycle. The result is a combined gas–
steam cycle. Recent developments in gas-turbine technology have made the combined gas–steam
cycle economically very attractive.
The combined cycle increases the efficiency without increasing the initial cost greatly.
Consequently, many new power plants operate on combined cycles, and many more existing steam-
or gas-turbine plants are being converted to combined-cycle power plants. Thermal efficiencies over
50% are reported.

Chapter 5: Gas Power Cycles

Introduction
Our study of gas power cycles will involve the study of those heat engines in which the working
fluid remains in the gaseous state throughout the cycle. We often study the ideal cycle in which
internal irreversibilities and complexities (the actual intake of air and fuel, the actual combustion
process, and the exhaust of products of combustion among others) are removed.
We will be concerned with how the major parameters of the cycle affect the performance of heat
engines. The performance is often measured in terms of the cycle efficiency.

Wnet
 th =
Qin
Carnot Cycle
The Carnot cycle was introduced in Chapter 5 as the most efficient heat engine that can operate
between two fixed temperatures TH and TL. The Carnot cycle is described by the following four
processes.
Carnot Cycle
Process Description
1-2 Isothermal heat addition
2-3 Isentropic expansion
3-4 Isothermal heat rejection
4-1 Isentropic compression

Note the processes on both the P-v and T-s diagrams. The areas under the process curves on the P-
v diagram represent the work done for closed systems. The net cycle work done is the area enclosed
by the cycle on the P-v diagram. The areas under the process curves on the T-s diagram represent
the heat transfer for the processes. The net heat added to the cycle is the area that is enclosed by the
cycle on the T-s diagram. For a cycle we know Wnet = Qnet; therefore, the areas enclosed on the P-
v and T-s diagrams are equal.
TL
 th , Carnot = 1 −
TH
Thermal efficiency increases with an increase in the average temperature at which heat is supplied
to the system or with a decrease in the average temperature at which heat is rejected from the system.
Air-Standard Assumptions
In our study of gas power cycles, we assume that the working fluid is air, and the air undergoes a
thermodynamic cycle even though the working fluid in the actual power system does not undergo a
cycle.
To simplify the analysis, we approximate the cycles with the following assumptions:
The air continuously circulates in a closed loop and always behaves as an ideal gas.
All the processes that make up the cycle are internally reversible.
The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition process from an external source.
A heat rejection process that restores the working fluid to its initial state replaces the exhaust process.
The cold-air-standard assumptions apply when the working fluid is air and has constant specific heat
evaluated at room temperature (25oC or 77oF).
Terminology and Parts of Reciprocating Devices
The following is some terminology we need to understand for reciprocating engines—typically
piston-cylinder devices. Let’s look at the following figures for the definitions of top dead center
(TDC), bottom dead center (BDC), stroke, bore, intake valve, exhaust valve, clearance volume,
displacement volume, compression ratio, and mean effective pressure.
Otto Cycle
-The Ideal Cycle for Spark-Ignition Engines
Processes
Intake stroke
Compression stroke
Power (expansion) stroke
Exhaust stroke
The air-standard Otto cycle is the ideal cycle that approximates the spark-ignition combustion
engine.
Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant volume heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant volume heat rejection
The P-v and T-s diagrams are

We see that increasing the compression ratio increases the thermal efficiency. However, there is a
limit on r depending upon the fuel. Fuels under high temperature resulting from high compression
ratios will prematurely ignite, causing knock.
Diesel Cycle
The air-standard Diesel cycle is the ideal cycle that approximates the Diesel combustion engine
Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant volume heat rejection
Air Standard Dual Cycle
The PV and Ts diagram of a Dual Cycle

Stirling Cycle
The PV and Ts Diagram of an Stirling Cycle:

Erricson Cycle
Brayton Cycle
The Brayton cycle is the air-standard ideal cycle approximation for the gas-turbine engine. This
cycle differs from the Otto and Diesel cycles in that the processes making the cycle occur in open
systems or control volumes. Therefore, an open system, steady-flow analysis is used to determine
the heat transfer and work for the cycle.
We assume the working fluid is air and the specific heats are constant and will consider the cold-air-
standard cycle. The open and closed cycle are as follows:

Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection
The T-s diagrams for closed cycle are
What happens to th, win /wout, and wnet as the pressure ratio rp is increased? Consider the T-s diagram
for the cycle and note that the area enclosed by the cycle is the net heat added to the cycle. By the
first law applied to the cycle, the net heat added to the cycle is equal to the net work done by the
cycle. Thus, the area enclosed by the cycle on the T-s diagram also represents the net work done by
the cycle.
Regenerative Brayton Cycle
For the Brayton cycle, the turbine exhaust temperature is greater than the compressor exit
temperature. Therefore, a heat exchanger can be placed between the hot gases leaving the turbine
and the cooler gases leaving the compressor. This heat exchanger is called a regenerator or
recuperator.
Brayton Cycle with Regeneration, Reheating and Intercooling
Inter-cooling and reheating are two important ways to improve the performance of the Brayton cycle
with regeneration.

Reheating
When using multistage expansion through two or more turbines, reheating between stages will
increase the net work done (it also increases the required heat input). The regenerative Brayton
cycle with reheating was shown above.
The optimum intermediate pressure for reheating is the one that maximizes the turbine work.
Following the development given above for intercooling and assuming reheating to the high-
pressure turbine inlet temperature in a constant pressure steady-flow process, we can show the
optimum reheat pressure to be

P7 = P6 P9
or the pressure ratios across the two turbines are equal
P6 P7 P8
= =
P7 P9 P9

Chapter 6: Refrigeration Cycles

The vapor compression refrigeration cycle is a common method for transferring heat from a low
temperature to a high temperature.

The above figure shows the objectives of refrigerators and heat pumps. The purpose of a refrigerator
is the removal of heat, called the cooling load, from a low-temperature medium. The purpose of a
heat pump is the transfer of heat to a high-temperature medium, called the heating load. When we
are interested in the heat energy removed from a low-temperature space, the device is called a
refrigerator. When we are interested in the heat energy supplied to the high-temperature space, the
device is called a heat pump. In general, the term heat pump is used to describe the cycle as heat
energy is removed from the low-temperature space and rejected to the high-temperature space.
The performance of refrigerators and heat pumps is expressed in terms of coefficient of performance
(COP), defined as
Desired output Cooling effect QL
COPR = = =
Required input Work input Wnet ,in
Desired output Heating effect Q
COPHP = = = H
Required input Work input Wnet ,in

Both COPR and COPHP can be larger than 1. Under the same operating conditions, the COPs are
related by
COPHP = COPR + 1
Refrigerators, air conditioners, and heat pumps are rated with a SEER number or seasonal adjusted
energy efficiency ratio. The SEER is defined as the Btu/hr of heat transferred per watt of work
energy input. The Btu is the British thermal unit and is equivalent to 778 ft-lbf of work (1 W =
3.4122 Btu/hr). An EER of 10 yields a COP of 2.9.
Refrigeration systems are also rated in terms of tons of refrigeration. One ton of refrigeration is
equivalent to 12,000 Btu/hr or 211 kJ/min. How did the term “ton of cooling” originate?
Reversed Carnot Refrigerator and Heat Pump
Shown below are the cyclic refrigeration devices operating between two constant temperature
reservoirs and the T-s diagram for the working fluid when the reversed Carnot cycle is used. Recall
that in the Carnot cycle heat transfers take place at constant temperature. If our interest is the cooling
load, the cycle is called the Carnot refrigerator. If our interest is the heat load, the cycle is called the
Carnot heat pump.
The standard of comparison for refrigeration cycles is the reversed Carnot cycle. A refrigerator or
heat pump that operates on the reversed Carnot cycle is called a Carnot refrigerator or a Carnot heat
pump, and their COPs are
1 TL
COPR , Carnot = =
TH / TL − 1 TH − TL
1 TH
COPHP , Carnot = =
1 − TL / TH TH − TL
Notice that a turbine is used for the expansion process between the high and low-temperatures.
While the work interactions for the cycle are not indicated on the figure, the work produced by the
turbine helps supply some of the work required by the compressor from external sources.
The Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle has four components: evaporator, compressor,
condenser, and expansion (or throttle) valve. The most widely used refrigeration cycle is the vapor-
compression refriger-ation cycle. In an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant
enters the compressor as a saturated vapor and is cooled to the saturated liquid state in the condenser.
It is then throttled to the evaporator pressure and vaporizes as it absorbs heat from the refrigerated
space.
The ideal vapor-compression cycle consists of four processes.
Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant pressure heat rejection in the condenser
3-4 Throttling in an expansion valve
4-1 Constant pressure heat addition in the evaporator
Gas Refrigeration Systems
The power cycles can be used as refrigeration cycles by simply reversing them. Of these, the reversed
Brayton cycle, which is also known as the gas refrigeration cycle, is used to cool aircraft and to
obtain very low (cryogenic) temperatures after it is modified with regeneration. The work output of
the turbine can be used to reduce the work input requirements to the compressor. Thus, the COP of
a gas refrigeration cycle is
qL qL
COPR = =
wnet , in wcomp , in − wturb , out

Absorption Refrigeration Systems

Another form of refrigeration that becomes economically attractive when there is a source of
inexpensive heat energy at a temperature of 100 to 200oC is absorption refrigeration, where the
refrigerant is absorbed by a transport medium and compressed in liquid form. The most widely used
absorption refrigeration system is the ammonia-water system, where ammonia serves as the
refrigerant and water as the transport medium. The work input to the pump is usually very small,
and the COP of absorption refrigeration systems is defined as
Desired output Cooling effect QL Q
COPR = = =  L
Required input Work input Qgen + Wpump,in Qgen

Chapter 7: Thermodynamic Properties Relations

Some thermodynamic properties can be measured directly, but many others cannot. Therefore, it is
necessary to develop some relations between these two groups so that the properties that cannot be
measured directly can be evaluated. The derivations are based on the fact that properties are point
functions, and the state of a simple, compressible system is completely spec-ified by any two
independent, intensive properties.
Some Mathematical Preliminaries
Thermodynamic properties are continuous point functions and have exact differentials. A property
of a single component system may be written as general mathematical function z = z(x,y). For
instance, this function may be the pressure P = P(T,v). The total differential of z is written as

Where:

Taking the partial derivative of M with respect to y and of N with respect to x yields

Since properties are continuous point functions and have exact differentials, the following is true

The equations that relate the partial derivatives of properties P, v, T, and s of a simple compressible
substance to each other are called the Maxwell relations. They are obtained from the four Gibbs
equations. The first two of the Gibbs equations are those resulting from the internal energy u and
the enthalpy h.
du = T ds − P dv
dh = T ds + v dP
The second two Gibbs equations result from the definitions of the Helmholtz functiona and the
Gibbs function g defined as
a = u − Ts
da = du − T ds − s dT
da = − s dT − P dv

g = h − Ts
dg = dh − T ds − s dT
dg = − s dT + v dP
Setting the second mixed partial derivatives equal for these four functions yields the Maxwell
relations

General Relations for du, dh, ds, Cv, and Cp

The changes in internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy of a simple, compress-ible substance can be
expressed in terms of pressure, specific volume, tem-perature, and specific heats alone.
Consider internal energy expressed as a function of T and v.

Recall the definition of the specific heat at constant volume

Then du becomes
Using the third Maxwell’s relation
 s   P 
  = 
 v T  T v
 u   P 
  =T   −P
 v T  T v
Thus the total differential for u = u(T,v) is written as

Specific Heats
For specific heats, we have the following general relations:

Let Cp0 be the ideal-gas, low-pressure value of the specific heat at constant pressure. Integrating
the above relation for Cp along an isothermal (T = constant) path yields

Given the equation of state, we can evaluate the right-hand side and determine the actual specific
heat as Cp = Cp(T,P).
Other relations for the specific heats are given below.

Multiple Choice questions

Fluid Mechanics

Choose the correct answer for the following questions.

1. What is fluid mechanics?
A) Study of fluid behavior at rest
 B) Study of fluid behavior in motion
C) Study of fluid behavior at rest and in motion
D) None of the Above
2. Which one of the following is characterized by smooth and chaotic flow patterns respectively?
A. internal and external flow C. compressible and incompressible flow
B. Viscous and Inviscid Flow D. laminar and Turbulent Flow
3. An ideal fluid is.
A. One which obeys Newton’s law of viscosity B) Frictionless and incompressible
C. Very viscous D) Frictionless and compressible
4. If the weight of a body immersed in a fluid exceeds the buoyant force, then the body will.
A) Rise until its weight equals the buoyant force B) Tend to move downward and
it may finally sink C) Float D) None of the above
5. The normal stress in a fluid will be constant in all directions at a point only if.
A) It has uniform viscosity B) It is incompressible
C) It is at rest D) It has zero viscosity
6. Refers to the pressure at a point in a fluid has the same magnitude in all directions.
A) Reynold Transport Theorem C) Pascal’s Law
B) Bernoulli’s Equation D) Meta Center
7. The air craft fly in the atmosphere due to which of the following principle?
A) Archimedes principle B) Bernoulli’s principle
C) Gravitational Force D) Reynold’s number
8. The viscosity of a gas.
A) Decreases with increase in temperature B) Increases with increase in temperature
C) is independent of temperature D) is independent of pressure for very high pressure intensities
9. Centre of buoyancy always.
A) Coincides with the center of gravity B) Coincides with the centroid of the volume of fluid displaced
C) Remains above the center of gravity D) Remains below the center of gravity
10. Which one of the following properties of fluid represents the internal resistance of a fluid to
motion?
A) Surface Tension B) Pressure C) Viscosity D) Bulk Modules
11. Oblique shock waves are to the local flow.
A) Parallel B) Perpendicular C) Inclined and perpendicular D) Inclined
12. Which one of the following sub-classification of fluid mechanics depends on variations of
density?
A) Compressible B) Laminar C) Steady D) Incompressible
13) For two dimensional flow defined as a scalar function of space and time such that its partial
derivative with respect to any direction gives the velocity component at right angles to that
directions.
A) Velocity Potential B) Stream function C) vorticity D) Dimensions
14) The mass and the volume of fluid passing through a cross-sectional area per unit time respectively
known as.
A) Mass and Volume B) Mass and Discharge
C) mass flow rate and volume flow rate D) discharge and mass flow rate
15) Which of the following principle expresses ‘the buoyant force acting on a body immersed in a fluid is
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body, and it acts upward through the centroid of the
displaced volume.’
A) Bernoulli’s principle B) buoyant force
C) Reynold Transport Theorem D) Archimedes principle
16) Which one of the following approach is working with a finite region making a balance of flow in versus
flow out and determining gross flow effects on a body?
A) Integral Analysis B) Differential Analysis C) Experimental study D) Dimensional analysis
17) Provides a link between the system approach and the control volume approach.
A) Control volume B)Reynold Transport Theorem C) Infinitesimal system D) Prandtl Number
18) In compressible flow analysis of a Nozzle, the pressure outside exit plane of a nozzle is.
A) Critical point B) stagnation State C) Back Pressure D) Shock Wave
19) In applications that involve high-speed gas flows, the flow speed is governed by.
A) Prandtl Number B) Mach number C) Reynold Number D) all of the above
20) Which one of the following dimensionless number determines the flow as laminar, transition and
turbulent?
A) Reynold Number B) Reynold transport Theorem C) Prandtl Number D) Froude Number
21) Which one of the following instrument is notused to measure fluid systems?
A) Piezometer B) Thermocouple C) Venturimeter D) None of the above
22) Assume if you build a campfire, you start with a big of wood. As the fire burns, the woods slowly
shrink. By the end of the evening, all that’s left is a small wood of ashes. What happened to the matter that
you started with and which fundamental Laws of Fluid Mechanic it refers respectively?
A) It just changes matter into different substances and conservation of energy
B) Burning does not destroy matter and conservation of energy
C) It just changes matter into different substances and conservation of momentum
D) Burning does not destroy matter and conservation of mass
23) The laminar boundary layer is a _________
A) Smooth flowB) Rough flow C) Uniform Flow D) Random flow
24) With the boundary layer separation, displacement thickness.
A) Increases B) decreases C) remain the same D) independent
25) What happens to velocity in the converging duct?
A) Increases B) Decreases C) Same D) Independent
26) For hydro-dynamically smooth boundary, the friction coefficient for turbulent flow is
A) Constant B) dependent only on Reynolds number
C) function of Reynolds number and relative roughness D) dependent on relative roughness only
27) Equation of continuity is based on the principle of.
A) Conservation of Momentum B) Conservation of Mass \
C) Conservation of energy D) Equation of state
28. Assume an engineer is studying how some insects are able to walk on water. A fluid property of
importance in this problem is surface tension, which is expressed by force per unit length. What is the
dimension of surface tension in terms of primary dimensions?
𝐿 𝑚𝐿 𝐿
A) 𝑚 𝐿 B) 𝑚⁄ 2 C) 𝑡 2 D) 𝑡 2
⁄𝑡 2 𝑡
29. Which one of the following is true about Dimensional analysis?
A) To obtain scaling laws so that prototype performance can be predicted from model performance
 B) To generate no-dimensional parameters that help in the design of experiments (physical and/or numerical)
and in the reporting of experimental results
C) To predict trends in the relationship between parameters
D) All of the Above
30) A real fluid, in which the shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain or velocity
gradient is known as.
A) Ideal fluid B) Newtonian Fluid C) Non Newtonian fluid D) Real fluid

Heat Transfer

1. A mild steel tank of wall thickness 10mm contains water at 90oC. The thermal conductivity of mild
steel is 50 W/m oC and the heat transfer coefficient for inside and outside of the tank area are 2800 and
11W/m2oC, respectively. If the atmospheric temperature is 20oC, which of the following is correct for
rate of heat loss per m2 of the tank surface area?
A. 1500 W/m2 C. 950.5 W/m2
2
B. 765.3 W/m D. 840.3 W/m2
2. A spherical shaped vessel of 1.2 m diameter is 100 mm thick. What is the rate of heat leakage,
if the temperature difference between the inner and outer surfaces is 200o C. Thermal conductivity
of material is 0.0833 W/moC?
A. 879.1 W/m2 C. 698.4 W/m2
2
B. 978.2 W/m D. 840.3 W/m2
3. ________is the process of energy transfer between systems or a system and its surroundings
due to temperature difference.
A. Mass transfer C. Heat transfer
B. Thermodynamics D. Condensation
4. From the following which one is caused due to diffusion of energy due to random molecular motion
plus energy transfer due to bulk motion (advection)
A. Conduction heat transfer C. Convection heat transfer
B. Condensation heat transfer D. Radiation heat transfer
5. A piece of metal will feel colder than a piece of wood at the same temperature. Why?
A. Metals, in general, have a higher specific heat capacity than wood.
B. Metals, in general, are good heat conductors.
C. Metals are colder than wood.
D. Wood, in general, is a poor insulator.
E. Metal atoms are moving more slowly, on the average, than wood atoms
6. Temperature is related mostly to the _____.
 A. Average molecular kinetic energy in a substance
B. Total potential energy of an object
C. Specific heat of a substance
D. Total energy of an object
E. Average kinetic energy of an object
7. Heat transfer take place as per ________
A. Zeroth law of thermodynamics C. Second law of thermodynamics
B. First law of thermodynamics D. Kirchhoff’s law
8. The rate equation for convective heat transfer between surface and an adjacent fluid is governed by
__________
A. Fourier’s Law C. Kirchhoff’s law
B. Newton’s Law of cooling D. Steffen Boltzmann law
9. _____________is commonly used to depict an important special case involving heat transfer by
conduction within a solid and heat transfer by convection/radiation from the boundaries of the solid.
A. Condensation C. Fins
B. Extended surface D. B & C
10. ___________are devices which facilitate the exchange of heat between two fluids at different
temperatures.
A. Heat Exchanger C. Evaporator
B. Condenser D. ALL
Thermodynamics

1. Solid and liquid have……

A. One value of specific heat
B. Two value of specific heat
C. Three value of specific heat
D. No value of specific heat
2. According to kinetic theory of gasses, the absolute zero temperature is attained when……
A. Volume of gas is zero
B. Pressure of gas is zero
C. Kinetic energy of the molecule is zero
D. specific heat of gas is zero
3. Which of the following laws is applicable for the behavior of perfect gas…
A. Boyle’s law C. Gas-lussac law
B. Charle’s law D. All of the above
4. Gas laws are applicable to….
A. Gasses as well as vapours
B. Gasses alone and not to vapours
C. Gasses and steam
D. Gasses and vapours under certain conditions
5. In a throttling process, which one of the following parameters remain constant?
A. Temperature C. Enthalpy
B. Pressure D. Entropy
6. Which of the following is not a major component of steam power cycle?
A. Turbine
B. Boiler
C. Pump
D. Compressor
7. Which of the following cycles has maximum efficiency
 A. Rankine
B. Stirling
C. Carnot
D. Brayton
8. Bryton cycle consists of following four processes
A. Two isothermals and two isentropics
B. Two isentropics and two constant volumes
C. Two isentropics, one constant volume and one constant pressure
D. Two isentropics and two constant pressures
9. The door of a running refrigerator inside a room was left open. Which of the following
statements is correct?
A. The room will be cooled to the temperature inside the refrigerator
B. The room will be cooled very slightly
C. The room will be gradually warmed up
D. The temperature of the air in room will remain unaffected
10. In a carnot cycle, heat is transferred at
A. Constant pressure
B. Constant volume
C. Constant temperature
D. Constant enthalpy
11. If a system after undergoing a series of processes, returns to the initial state then
A. Process is thermodynamically in equilibrium
B. Process is executed in closed system cycle
C. Its entropy will change due to irreversibility
D. Sum of heat and work transfer will be zero
12. For which of the following substances, the internal energy and enthalpy are the functions of
temperature only
A. Any gas
B. Saturated steam
C. superheated steam
D. Perfect gas
13. If a gas is heated against a pressure, keeping the volume constant, then work done will be equal
to
A. positive
B. Negative
C. Zero
D. Anywhere between zero and infinity
14. The condition of perfect vacuum, i.e., absolute zero pressure can be attained at
A. a temperature of -273.16°c
B. a temperature of 0°c
C. temperature of 273.16°K
D. a negative pressure and 0°c
15. Temperature of a gas is produced due to
A. Its heating value
B. Kinetic energy of molecules
C. Repulsion of molecules
D. Attraction of molecules
16. According to Dalton’s law, the total pressure of the mixture of gases is equal to
A. greater of the partial pressures of all
B. average of the partial pressure of all
 C. sum of the partial pressure of all
D. sum of the partial pressure of all divided by average molecular weight
17. Efficiency of a carnot engine is 75%. If the cycle direction is reverse, COP of the heat pump
working on reversed carnot cycle will be
A. 1.33
B. 0.75
C. 0.33
D. 1.75
18. 2 kg of steam sample contains 0.8 kg of dry steam; it’s dryness fraction is
A. 0.8
B. 0.4
C. 0.2
D. 0.6
19. A scientist says that the efficiency of his heat engine which operates at source temperature
127°c and sink temperature 27°c is 26%, then
A. it is impossible
B. it is possible but less probable
C. it is quite probable
D. data are incomplete
20. A process in which no heat is supplied or rejected from the system and entropy is not constant
is known as
A. isothermal
B. isentropic
C. Polytropic
D. hyperbolic
21. Which of the following can be regarded as gas so that gas laws could be applicable, within the
commonly encountered temperature limits.
A. O2 , N2 , steam, CO2
B. Oz, N2 , water vapour
C. O2 , H2 , CO2 , moisture
D. O2 , N2 , H2 , air

Refrigeration

1. Which of the following is not a component of a typical air handling unit (AHU)?
A. Blower fan
B. Heating coil
C. Cooling coil
D. Compressor
2. What type of compressor is commonly used in small refrigeration systems?
A. Reciprocating
B. Screw
C. Centrifugal
D. Scroll
3. Which of the following is not a common air conditioning system component?
A. Evaporator
B. Condenser
C. Compressor
 D. Boiler
4. What is the function of an expansion valve in a refrigeration system?
A. To reduce the pressure of the refrigerant and cause it to expand
B. To increase the pressure of the refrigerant and cause it to contract
C. To regulate the temperature of the refrigerant
D. To filter impurities from the refrigerant
5. What is the function of a refrigerant in a refrigeration system?
A. To transfer heat from one location to another
B. To compress and expand air
C. To generate electricity
D. To filter impurities from the air
6. Which of the following is a component of a typical air conditioning system that removes moisture
from the air?
A. Compressor
B. Condenser
C. Evaporator
D. Dehumidifier
7. Which of the following refrigerants is a natural refrigerant?
A. R22
B. R32
C. R404a
D. Ammonia
8. Which of the following is not a type of air conditioning system?
A. Window unit
B. Central air
C. Split system
D. Steam boiler system
9. What is the function of a fan in an air conditioning system?
A. To compress the refrigerant
B. To regulate the flow of refrigerant
C. To circulate air over the evaporator or condenser coils
D. To remove moisture from the air
10. What is the function of a filter drier in a refrigeration system?
A. To regulate the flow of refrigerant
B. To remove moisture and contaminants from the refrigerant
C. To increase the pressure of the refrigerant
D. To cool the refrigerant
11. What is the primary difference between an air conditioning system and a refrigeration system?
A. The type of refrigerant used
B. The operating temperature range
C. The size of the system
D. The amount of moisture removed from the air
12. What is the function of a thermostatic expansion valve (TXV) in a refrigeration system?
A. To regulate the temperature of the refrigerant
B. To increase the pressure of the refrigerant
C. To reduce the pressure of the refrigerant and cause it to expand
D. To filter impurities from the refrigerant
13. What is the primary purpose of an air conditioning system?
 A. To cool and dehumidify the air
B. To heat and humidify the air
C. To filter impurities from the air
D. To increase the pressure of the air
14. What is the function of a heat exchanger in an air conditioning system?
A. To cool the air
B. To heat the air
C. To transfer heat between the refrigerant and the air
D. To filter impurities from the air
15. What is the function of an accumulator in a refrigeration system?
A. To regulate the flow of refrigerant
B. To remove moisture from the refrigerant
C. To increase the pressure of the refrigerant
D. To store excess refrigerant and prevent liquid slugging
16. Which of the following is not a component of a typical air conditioning system?
A. Compressor
B. Condenser
C. Refrigerant metering device
D. Humidifier
17. What is the purpose of the evaporator in a refrigeration system?
A. To compress the refrigerant
B. To cool the refrigerant
C. To remove heat from the refrigerated space
D. To filter impurities from the refrigerant
18. Which of the following is not a common type of compressor used in refrigeration and air conditioning
systems?
A. Piston compressor
B. Rotary compressor
C. Screw compressor
D. Expansion compressor
19. What is the function of a liquid line filter drier in a refrigeration system?
A. To remove moisture and contaminants from the refrigerant
B. To regulate the flow of refrigerant
C. To increase the pressure of the refrigerant
D. To cool the refrigerant
20. What is the function of a heat pump?
A. To cool the air
B. To heat the air
C. To filter impurities from the air
D. To humidify the air
21. What is the function of a defrost timer in a refrigeration system?
A. To regulate the temperature of the refrigerant
B. To remove moisture from the refrigerant
C. To prevent frost buildup on the evaporator coils
D. To filter impurities from the refrigerant
22. Which of the following is a type of air conditioning system that does not require ductwork?
A. Window unit
B. Central air
 C. Split system
D. Packaged terminal air conditioner (PTAC)
23. What is the function of a suction line accumulator in a refrigeration system?
A. To store excess refrigerant and prevent liquid slugging
B. To remove moisture from the refrigerant
C. To increase the pressure of the refrigerant
D. To filter impurities from the refrigerant
24. Which of the following is not a method of heat transfer in refrigeration and air conditioning systems?
A. Conduction
B. Convection
C. Radiation
D. Hydrolysis
25. What is the function of a thermal expansion valve in a refrigeration system?
A. To compress the refrigerant
B. To regulate the flow of refrigerant
C. To remove heat from the refrigerated space
D. To filter impurities from the refrigerant

26. Which of the following is not a factor that affects the performance of an air conditioning system?
A. Outdoor temperature
B. Indoor temperature
C. Humidity level
D. Wind speed
27. What is the function of an evaporator fan in an air conditioning system?
A. To compress the refrigerant
B. To cool the refrigerant
C. To circulate air over the evaporator coils
D. To regulate the flow of refrigerant
28. Which of the following is not a component of a typical refrigeration system?
A. Compressor
B. Condenser
C. Evaporator fan
D. Humidifier
29. What is the function of a filter drier in a refrigeration system?
A. To remove moisture from the refrigerant
B. To store excess refrigerant
C. To filter impurities from the refrigerant
D. To regulate the flow of refrigerant
30. Which of the following is a type of air conditioning system that uses ducts to distribute cooled air
throughout a building?
A. Window unit
B. Central air
C. Split system
D. Packaged terminal air conditioner (PTAC)

-Answers Key-
Fluid Mechanics
1. C 2. D 3. B 4. B 5. C 6. C 7. B 8. B 9. B 10. C

11. D 12. A 13. B 14. C 15. D 16. A 17. B 18. C 19. C 20. A

21. D 22. D 23. A 24. A 25. A 26. B 27. B 28. B 29. D 30. B

Heat Transfer
1. B 2. A 3. C 4. C 5. B 6. A 7. C 8. B 9. D 10. D

Thermodynamics
1. A 2. C 3. _ 4. B 5. C 6. D 7. C 8. D 9. C 10. C

11. D 12. D 13. C 14. A 15. B 16. C 17. A 18. B 19. A 20. C

21. D

Refrigeration
1. D 2. A 3. D 4. A 5. A 6. D 7. D 8. D 9. C 10. B

11. B 12. C 13. A 14. C 15. D 16. D 17. C 18. D 19. A 20. B

21. C 22. D 23. A 24. D 25. B 26. D 27. C 28. D 29. C 30. B