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Module 2
Module 2
Prepared By:
1. Degefa Legesse (Msc.)
2. Ashebir Dingeto (Msc.)
3. Mohammed A/Kadir (Msc.)
4. Ephrem Asefa (Msc.)
5. Minwuyelet Chekol (Msc.)
Figure 4: The normal stress and shear stress at the surface of a fluid element.
Note: - For fluids at rest, the shear stress is zero and pressure is the only normal stress.
1.1 Application areas of fluid mechanics
Fluid mechanics is widely used both in everyday activities and in the design of modern engineering
systems from vacuum cleaners to supersonic aircraft. Mechanics of fluids is extremely important
in many areas of engineering and science and plays a vital role in the human body.
Mechanical Engineering
Design of pumps, Turbines, Air-conditioning equipment etc
Design and analysis of aircraft, boats, submarines, rockets, jet engines, wind Turbines, Biomedical
devices, the cooling of electronic components and the transportation of water, crude-oil and natural
gas.
Turbomachines: - fan, blower, propeller, turbine, pump etc.
Automobile:- IC engine, air-conditioning, fuel flow, external aerodynamics, etc
The heart is constantly pumping blood to all parts of the human body through the arteries and
veins, and the lungs are the sites of airflow in alternating directions. Needless to say, all artificial
hearts, breathing machines, and dialysis systems are designed using fluid dynamics.
1.2 Classification of Fluid Flows
There is a wide variety of fluid flow problems encountered in practice, and it is usually convenient
to classify them on the basis of some common characteristics to make it feasible to study them in
groups. There are many ways to classify fluid flow problems, and here we present some general
categories.
Internal versus External Flow
External flow: The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such as a plate, a wire, or a pipe.
Internal flow: The flow in a pipe or duct if the fluid is completely bounded by solid surfaces.
Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
Viscous flows: Flows in which the frictional effects are significant.
Inviscid flow regions: In many flows of practical interest, there are regions (typically regions not
close to solid surfaces) where viscous forces are negligibly small compared to inertial or pressure
forces.
Compressible versus Incompressible Flow
Incompressible flow: If the density of flowing fluid remains nearly constant throughout.
Compressible flow: If the density of fluid changes during flow.
In applications that involve high-speed gas flows, the flow speed is often expressed by Mach
number
Viscosity: The property that represents the internal resistance of a fluid to motion. In general, the
viscosity of a fluid mainly depends on temperature. For liquids, the viscosity decreases with
temperature and for gases, it increases with temperature.
Coefficient of compressibility/Bulk modulus: It is the property of fluid that represents the
variation of density with pressure at constant temperature. Mathematically, it is represented as,
Coefficient of Volume Expansion: It is a property that represents the variation of the density of
a fluid with temperature at constant pressure.
For ideal gas, β = 1/T where T is absolute temperature. In the study of natural convection currents,
the condition of the surrounding fluid body will affect that of the finite hot or cold regions it
surrounds. In such cases, the volume expansion coefficient can be expressed approximately as
Where 𝜌∞ the density and T∞ is is the temperature of the fluid away from the confined hot or cold
fluid region.
Surface Tension: Liquid droplets behave like small spherical balloons filled with the liquid, and
the surface of the liquid acts like a stretched elastic membrane under tension. The pulling force
that causes this tension acts parallel to the surface and is due to the attractive forces between the
molecules of the liquid. The magnitude of this force per unit length is called surface tension.
Capillary Effect: is the rise or fall of a liquid in a small-diameter tube inserted into the liquid.
Such narrow tubes or confined flow channels are called capillaries. The rise of kerosene througha
cotton wick inserted into the reservoir of a kerosene lamp is due to this effect. The capillary effect
is also partially responsible for the rise of water to the top of tall trees. The curved free surface of
a liquid in a capillary tube is called the meniscus.
Fig 2; The contact angle for a)Wetting and b)Nonwetting fluids, c) the capillary rise of water and
the capillary fall of mercury in a small-diameter glass tube and d) forces acting on a Liquid
Column.
Referring to Figure 2 d), the capillary rise is calculated by
Exercises
Choose the correct answer for the following questions.
1. Which one of the following is characterized by smooth and chaotic flow patterns respectively?
A. internal and external flow C. compressible and incompressible flow
B. Viscous and Inviscid Flow D. laminar and Turbulent Flow
2. What is the significance of Reynold’s Number?
A. It is the ratio of inertia force to viscous force
B. To identify whether the flow is compressible or incompressible
C. To identify whether the flow is Laminar, Transitional or Turbulent Flo
D. A and C
3. Which one of the following is most likely, incompressible?
A. Oil B. Water C. Fluid D. A and B
4. An ideal fluid is.
A) One which obeys Newton’s law of viscosity B) Frictionless and incompressible
C) Very viscous D) Frictionless and compressible
Fig:- When analyzing hydrostatic forces on submerged surfaces, the atmospheric pressure can be
subtracted for simplicity when it acts on both sides of the structure.
The point of intersection of the line of action of the resultant force and the surface is the center of
pressure. The vertical location of the line of action is determined by equating the moment of the
resultant force to the moment of the distributed pressure force about the x-axis. It gives
Finally yp
Fig:- A flat plate of uniform thickness h submerged in a liquid parallel to the free surface
2.5.1Archimedes’ principle
The buoyant force acting on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced
by the body, and it acts upward through the centroid of the displaced volume.
For floating bodies, the weight of the entire body must be equal to the buoyant force, which is the
weight of the fluid whose volume is equal to the volume of the submerged portion of the floating
body. That is,
Exercises
1. If the weight of a body immersed in a fluid exceeds the buoyant force, then the body will
A) Rise until its weight equals the buoyant force B) Tend to move downward and it may finally
sink
C) Float D) None of the above
2. The position of center of pressure on a plane surface immersed vertically in a static mass of fluid
is
a) At the centroid of the submerged area b) Always above the centroid of the area c) Always below
the centroid of the area d) None of the above
3. The normal stress in a fluid will be constant in all directions at a point only if.
A) It has uniform viscosity B) It is incompressible C) It is at rest D) It has zero
viscosity
Chapter 3. Integral Relations for a Control Volume
3.1 Basic Flow-Analysis Techniques
There are three basic ways to attack a fluid-flow problem. They are equally important for a student
learning the subject, and this module tries to give adequate coverage to each method:
1. Control-volume, or integral analysis
Working with a finite region, making a balance of flow in versus flow out, and determining gross
flow effects such as the force or torque on a body or the total energy exchange.
2. Infinitesimal system, or differential analysis
seeking to describe the detailed flow pattern at every point (x, y, z) in the field
3. Experimental study, or dimensional analysis
In all cases, the flow must satisfy the three basic laws of mechanics and plus a thermodynamic
state relation associated boundary conditions:
1. Conservation of mass (continuity)
The principle of conservation of mass states that mass can neither be created nor destroyed.
2. Linear momentum (Newton’s second law)
The principle of conservation of momentum or impulse momentum principle states that the
impulse of the resultant force, or the product of the force and time increment during which it acts,
is equal to the change in the momentum of the body
3. First law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy)
The principle of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed,
but can be transferred one form to another form.
4. A state relation like 𝜌 = 𝜌(p, T)
Figure. 3.2 The normal velocity Vn for a surface is the component of velocity perpendicular to the
surface.
̇ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴…………………………………………………………….……………………3.1
𝛿𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑉
The mass flow rate through the entire cross-sectional area of a pipe or duct is obtained by
integration:
𝑚̇ = ∫𝐴 𝛿𝑚̇ = ∫𝐴 𝜌𝑉𝑛 𝑑𝐴𝑐 𝑘𝑔/𝑠………………………….……………………………………….....3.2
𝑐 𝑐
1
Average Velocity 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐴 ∫𝐴 𝑉𝑛 𝑑𝐴𝑐 …………………………………………………………...3.3
𝑐 𝑐
The volume of the fluid flowing through a cross section per unit time is called the volume flow rate𝑽̇.
𝑉̇ = ∫𝐴 𝑉𝑛 d𝐴𝑐 = 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐴𝑐 = 𝑉𝐴𝐶 …………………………..……..………………………………….....3.4
𝑐
The mass and volume flow rates are related by
𝑉̇
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑉̇ = ………………………………………………..………………………………………..3.5
𝑣
Where v is the specific volume
3.3 Conservation of Mass
The system is a fixed quantity of mass, denoted by m. Thus the mass of the system is conserved
(remains constant during a process) and does not change. This is a law of mechanics and has a
very simple mathematical form, called conservation of mass.
𝑑𝑚𝑠𝑦𝑠
𝑚𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = constant or 𝑑𝑡
= 0……………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………3.6
The conservation of mass principle for a control volume can be expressed as: The net mass
transfer to or from a control volume during a time interval ∆t is equal to the net change (increase
or decrease) in the total mass within the control volume during ∆t. That is,
Total mass entering the CV during ∆𝑡 (𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) – Total mass leaving the CV during ∆𝑡 (𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) = Net
change in mass within the CV during ∆𝑡, (∆𝑚𝑐𝑣 ).
In the rate form the conservation of mass principle expressed as
𝒅𝒎𝒄𝒗
Conservation of mass 𝒎̇in - 𝒎̇out = 𝒅𝒕
……………………….…………..…………………….…..3.7
Where 𝑚̇in and 𝑚̇out are the totals rates of mass flow into and out of the control volume,
𝑑𝑚𝑐𝑣
respectively, and is the rate of change of mass within the control volume boundaries. In fluid
𝑑𝑡
mechanics, the conservation of mass relation written for a differential control volume is usually
called the continuity equation.
Consider a control volume of arbitrary shape, as shown in Fig. 3.1.
Fig. 3.1 the differential control volume dV and the differential control surface dA used in the derivation of the
conservation of mass relation.
The mass of a differential volume dV within the control volume is dm = 𝜌dV. The total mass
within the control volume at any instant in time t is determined by integration to be
Total mass within the CV:
𝑚𝑐𝑣 = ∫ 𝜌𝑑𝑉…………………………………………………………………………….….....3.8
Then the time rate of change of the amount of mass within the control volume can be expressed as
Rate of change of mass within the CV:
𝑑𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑑
= 𝑑𝑡 ∫ 𝜌𝑑𝑉…………………………………………………………….……………3.9
𝑑𝑡
From fig. 3.1. The mass flow rate through dA is proportional to the fluid densityρ, normal velocity
Vn, and the flow area dA, and can be expressed as
Differential mass flow rate:
𝛿𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑉𝑛 dA = 𝜌(𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 𝑑𝐴 =𝜌(𝑉 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑛⃗) dA ………………………………………………….3.10
The net flow rate into or out of the control volume through the entire control surface is obtained
by integrating 𝛿𝑚̇ over the entire control surface,
Net mass flow rate:
𝑚̇net = ∫𝐶𝑠 𝛿𝑚̇ = ∫𝐶𝑆 𝜌𝑉𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = ∫𝐶𝑆 𝜌 (𝑉 ⃗ . 𝑛⃗)𝑑𝐴 ………………………………….3.11
𝒄𝒗 𝒅𝒎
Rearranging Eq. 3.7 as 𝒅𝒕
+ 𝑚̇out - 𝑚̇in the conservation of mass relation for a fixed control
volume can then be expressed as
General conservation of mass:
𝑑
∫ 𝜌𝑑𝑉 + ∫𝐶𝑆 𝜌(𝑉 ⃗ . 𝑛⃗) 𝑑𝐴 = 0 ………………………………………………………..…3.12
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑉
The above equation 3.7, states that the time rate of change of mass within the control volume plus
the net mass flow rate through the control surface is equal to zero.
Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes
During a steady-flow process, the total amount of mass contained within a control volume does
not change with time (𝑚𝐶𝑉 = constant). Then the conservation of mass principle requires that the
total amount of mass entering a control volume equal the total amount of mass leaving it.
Steady flow:
∑ 𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 = ∑ 𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 (kg/s) …………………………………………………………….…..3.13
Where mass flow rates (𝑚̇) = 𝜌𝑉𝐴
3.4 Conservation of Momentum
The product of the mass and the velocity of a body is called the linear momentum or just the
momentum of the body, and the momentum of a rigid body of mass m moving with a velocity 𝑣
is m𝑉⃗ . Newton’s second law states that the acceleration of a body is proportional to the net force
acting on it and is inversely proportional to its mass, and that the rate of change of the momentum
of a body is equal to the net force acting on the body. Therefore, the momentum of a system
remains constant when the net force acting on it is zero, and thus the momentum of such systems
is conserved. This is known as the conservation of momentum principle. In fluid mechanics,
Newton’s second law is usually referred to as the linear momentum equation.
𝑑𝑉 𝑑
F = ma = m 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡 (𝑚𝑉)……………..………………………………………………………..3.14
If the surroundings exert a net moment M about the center of mass of the system, there will be a
rotation effect.
𝑑𝐻
M = 𝑑𝑡 ………………………………………………………………………………………….3.15
Where H = ∑(𝑟𝑋 𝑉) 𝜕𝑚 is the angular moment of the system about its center of mass.
3.5 Conservation of Energy
Energy can be transferred to or from a closed system by heat or work, and the conservation of
energy principle requires that the net energy transfer to or from a system during a process be equal
to the change in the energy content of the system.
𝑑𝐸
Conservation of energy principle:𝐸̇𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡𝐶𝑉 ……………………………………….3.16
Where 𝐸̇𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 are the total rates of energy transfer into and out of the control volume,
𝑑𝐸
respectively, and 𝑑𝑡𝐶𝑉 is the rate of change of energy within the control volume boundaries.
3. 6 The Reynolds Transport Theorem
Reynolds theorem is used in formulating the basic conservation laws of continuum mechanics,
particularly fluid dynamics and large-deformation solid mechanics.
An analytical tool to shift from describing the laws governing fluid motion using the system
concept to using the control volume concept
The link between the two is given by the Reynolds transport theorem.
Fig 3.3.The Reynolds transport theorem (RTT) provides a link between the system approach and
the control volume approach
Note: - Reynolds transport theorem can be simply stated as - What was already there plus what
goes in minus what comes out is equal to what is there.
Reynolds transport theorem states that the rate of change of an extensive property B, for the system
is equal to the time rate of change of B within the control volume and the net rate of flux of the
property B through the control surface.
Let B represent any extensive property (mass, energy, or momentum).
Let 𝛽 be the corresponding intensive property, i.e., 𝛽= B/m (property B per unit mass in any small
portion of the fluid.).
Our goal is to find a relationship between 𝐵𝑠𝑦𝑠 or 𝛽𝑠𝑦𝑠 (property of the system, for which we know
the conservation laws) and BCV or 𝛽𝐶𝑉 (property of the control volume, which we prefer to use in
our analysis).
Fig flow domain differential analysis, all the details of the flow are solved at every point within
the flow domain
In this approach, we apply our four basic conservation laws to an infinitesimally small control
volume.
4.1 Acceleration field of a fluid
The Cartesian vector form of a velocity filed can be written as:
⃗ 𝑤(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)…………………………….………….4.1
V (r, t) = 𝑖𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) + 𝑗𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) + 𝑘
The flow filed is the most important variable in the fluid mechanics, i.e., knowledge of the velocity
vector filed is equivalent to solving a fluid flow problem.
The acceleration vector field can be calculated:
\
Fig Elemental Cartesian fixed control volume showing the inlet and outlet mass flows on the x
faces
The mass-flow terms occur on all six faces, three inlets and three outlets.
The surface forces are due to the stresses on the sides of the control surface. These stresses are
the sum of hydrostatic pressure plus viscous stresses 𝜏𝑖𝑗 which arise from the motion of the fluid:
Fig: - The direction of a vector cross product is determined by the right-hand rule.
If the vorticity at a point in a flow field is nonzero, the fluid particle that happens to occupy that
point in space is rotating; the flow in that region is called rotational. Likewise, if the vorticity in
a region of the flow is zero (or negligibly small), fluid particles there are not rotating; the flow in
that region is called irrotational.
Note: - when 𝛁 𝐗 𝐕 ≠ 𝟎, the flow is said to rotational flow, but when, ∇ X V = 0, the flow said
to be irrotational flow.
Stream functions
The stream function ψ is defined such that ψ(x, y) = constant is the equation of a streamline, and
the difference in the stream function between two streamlines ∆ψ is equal to the mass flow between
the streamlines.
The stream function ψ is a clever device which allows us to wipe out the continuity equation and
solve the momentum equation directly for the single variableψ. The stream-function idea works
only if the continuity equationcan be reduced to two dimensional flow.
This equation is satisfied identically if a function ψ (x, y) is defined such that Equation above
becomes
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
Where 𝑢 = , 𝑣 = − 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑦
Velocity potential
The velocity potential is defined for irrotational flow
The symbol ϕ used for velocity potential
Irrotationality gives rise to a scalar function ϕ similar and complementary to the stream function.
Many flows have negligible or zero vorticity and are called irrotational (potential flow).
In this instance dimensional analysis has reduced the number of relevant variables from 5 to 2 and
the experimental data to a single graph of 𝑐𝐷 against Re.
DIMENSIONS
Dimensions and Units
Any physical situation can be described by certain familiar properties e.g. length, , area, volume,
etc. These are all known as dimensions
The expression for a derived quantity in terms of a basic quantities is called the dimension of the
physical quantity
Dimensions are properties which can be measured
Units are the standard elements we use to quantify these dimensions
In fluid mechanics the primary or fundamental dimensions, together with their SI units, are:
Dimensions Symbol SI units
Mass M kg(kilogram)
Length L m(meter)
Time T s(second)
Temperature θ K(kelvin)
Electric current I A(ampere)
Amount of light C cd(candela)
Amount of matter N mol(mole)
For example, force has the same dimensions as mass time’s acceleration (by Newton’s second
law). Thus, in terms of primary dimensions
length 𝐋
Force (F) = mass * acceleration = {mass Time2 } = {𝐦 𝐓𝟐 }
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐿
Velocity = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
={ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
} = {𝑇 }
Fig: - In the fully developed flow region of a pipe, the velocity profile does not change
downstream, and thus the wall shear stress remains constant as well.
The length of the hydrodynamic entry length Lh. It is given by
The time-averaged velocity profile remains unchanged when the flow is fully developed, and thus
The shear stress at the pipe wall 𝛕𝐰 is related to the slope of the velocity profile at the surface.
Noting that the velocity profile remains unchanged in the hydrodynamically fully developed
region, the wall shear stress also remains constant in that region as shown in fig above.
Fig: - The variation of wall shear stress in the flow direction for flow in a pipe from the entrance
region into the fully developed region.
6.1 Flow Past Immersed Bodies (external flows)
External flow is characterized by a freely growing boundary layer surrounded by an outer flow
region that involves small velocity and temperature gradients. Such a flow will have viscous (shear
and no-slip) effects near the body surfaces and in its wake, but will typically be nearly inviscid far
from the body.
The technique of boundary-layer (BL) analysis can be used to compute viscous effects near solid
walls and to “patch” these onto the outer inviscid motion. This patching is more successful as the
body Reynolds number becomes larger.
6.2 Drag and Lift
A fluid may exert forces and moments on a body in and about various directions. The force a
flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow direction is called drag.
The components of the pressure and wall shear forces in the direction normal to the flow tend to
move the body in that direction, and their sum is called lift.
The drag and lift forces depend on the density r of the fluid, the upstream velocity V, and the size,
shape, and orientation of the body, among other things, and it is not practical to list these forces
for a variety of situations. Instead, it is found convenient to work with appropriate dimensionless
numbers that represent the drag and lift characteristics of the body. These numbers are the drag
coefficient CD, and the lift coefficient CL, and they are defined as
A body is said to be streamlined if a conscious effort is made to align its shape with the anticipated
streamlines in the flow in order to reduce drag. Otherwise, a body (such as a building) tends to
block the flow and is said to be blunt or bluff. At sufficiently high velocities, the fluid stream
detaches itself from the surface of the body. This is called flow separation. When a fluid stream
separates from the body, it forms a separated region between the body and the fluid stream.
Separation may also occur on a streamlined body such as an airplane wing at a sufficiently large
angle of attack, which is the angle the incoming fluid stream makes with the chord (the line that
connects the nose and the end) of the body.
Fig:- The actual state, actual stagnation state, and isentropic stagnation state of a fluid on an h-s
diagram.
When dealing with compressible flow, it is convenient to combine the enthalpy and the kinetic
energy of the fluid into a single term called stagnation (or total) enthalpy ho, defined as
𝑉2 𝑘𝐽
ℎ𝑜 = ℎ + = ( ⁄𝑘𝑔)
2
The stagnation temperature of an ideal gas with constant specific heats is
𝑉2
𝑇𝑜 = 𝑇 +
2𝑐𝑝
The stagnation properties of an ideal gas are related to the static properties of the fluid by
𝑘⁄
𝑃𝑜 𝑇𝑜 𝑘−1
= ( )
𝑃 𝑇
1⁄
𝜌𝑜 𝑇𝑜 𝑘−1
= ( )
𝜌 𝑇
Property Relations for Isentropic Flow of Ideal Gases
Relations between the static properties and stagnation properties of an ideal gas in terms of the
specific heat ratio k and the Mach number Ma. We assume the flow is isentropic and the gas has
constant specific heats.
𝑇𝑜 𝑉2
=1+
𝑇 2𝑐𝑝 𝑇
𝑐𝑝
𝑘= = cp = kcv
𝑐𝑣
Converging nozzles
Converging–diverging nozzles
Fig: When Ma = 1, the properties at the nozzle throat become the critical properties.
The properties of a fluid at a location where the Mach number is unity (the throat) are called critical
properties, setting that Ma = 1
Normal Shocks
First we consider shock waves that occur in a plane normal to the direction of flow, called normal
shock waves. The flow process through the shock wave is highly irreversible and cannot be
approximated as being isentropic.
In some range of back pressure, the fluid that achieved a sonic velocity at the throat of a
converging–diverging nozzle and is accelerating to supersonic velocities in the diverging section
experiences a normal shock, which causes a sudden rise in pressure and temperature and a sudden
drop in velocity to subsonic levels. Flow through the shock is highly irreversible, and thus it cannot
be approximated as isentropic. The properties of an ideal gas with constant specific heats before
(subscript 1) and after (subscript 2) a shock are related by
These equations also hold across an oblique shock, provided that the component of the Mach
number normal to the oblique shock is used in place of the Mach number.
𝜕 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑣 𝜕 2𝜓 𝜕 2𝜓
( )= (− ) = + =0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 2
Thus, for a plane irrotational flow we can use either the velocity potential or the stream function—
both must satisfy Laplace's equation in two dimensions. It is apparent from these results that the
velocity potential and the stream function are somehow related. It can be shown that lines of
constant (called equipotential lines) are orthogonal to lines of constant ψ (streamlines) at all points
where they intersect. Recall that two lines are orthogonal if the product of their slopes is -1, as
illustrated by this figure
The flow around a half-body: (a) superposition of a source and a uniform flow; (b) replacement of
streamline ψ = πbU with solid boundary to form half-body.
References
1] Frank M. White, Fluid Mechanics, Fourth Edition
2] Yunus A. Cengel and John Cimbala, Fluid Mechanics, Jan 31, 2005.
3] Donald F. Young, Bruce R. Munson, Theodore H. Okiishi, and Wade W. Huebsch, A Brief
Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, Jan 22, 2007.
4] Robert L Mott, Applied Fluid Mechanics SI Version, May 31, 2006.
5] Iain G. Currie, Fundamental Mechanics of Fluids, Third Edition (Mechanical Engineering
(Marcell Dekker)), Dec 12, 2002.
6] Bruce R.Munson, et al, Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 2005
HEAT TRANSFER
Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1. Definition
Heat transfer, is defined as: the process of thermal energy transfer between systems or a system
and its surroundings due to temperature difference or
It is thermal energy in transit due to a spatial temperature difference.
Whenever a temperature difference exists in a medium or between media, heat transfer must occur.
There are three modes (ways or mechanisms) of heat transfer: Conduction, Convection and
Radiation.
Conduction:- Conduction can be defined as: the transfer of energy due to the collisions of more
energetic and less energetic molecules of a substance. Conduction can take place in solids, liquids
and gases.
The rate of energy transfer by conduction is given by Fourier’s law.
𝒅𝑻 𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 ∆𝑻
𝒒′′
𝒙 = −𝒌 𝒅𝒙 ≡𝒌 =𝒌
𝑳 𝑳
𝑊
Where, k – thermal conductivity (𝑚.𝐾)
𝑑𝑇
is temperature gradient
ansfer by conduction 𝑑𝑥
Example 1
The wall of an industrial furnace is constructed from 0.15-m-thick fireclay brick having a thermal conductivity
of 1.7 W/m .K. Measurements made during steady-state operation reveal temperatures of 1400 and 1150 K at
the inner and outer surfaces, respectively. What is the rate of heat loss through a wall that is 0.5 m x1.2 m on a
side?
SOLUTION
Known: Steady-state conditions with prescribed wall thickness, area, thermal conductivity, and surface
temperatures
Find: Wall heat loss.
Schematic:
Assumptions:
Steady-state conditions.
One-dimensional conduction through the wall.
Constant thermal conductivity.
Analysis: Since heat transfer through the wall is by conduction, the heat flux may be determined
from Fourier’s law.
∆𝑇 250𝐾
𝑞 ′′ 𝑥 = 𝑘 = 1.7 𝑊⁄𝑚. 𝐾 𝑥 = 𝟐𝟖𝟑𝟑 𝑾⁄ 𝟐
𝐿 0.15𝑚 𝒎
The heat flux represents the rate of heat transfer through a section of unit area, and it is uniform
(invariant) across the surface of the wall. The heat loss through the wall of area (𝐴 = 𝐻𝑥𝑊) is then
𝑞𝑥 = (𝐻𝑊)𝑞 ′′ 𝑥 = (0.5𝑚𝑥1.2𝑚)2833 𝑊⁄𝑚2 = 𝟏𝟕𝟎𝟎𝑾
Convection:- can be defined as: the transfer of energy that will occur between a surface and a moving
fluid when they are at different temperatures.
The convection heat transfer mode is comprised of two mechanisms: energy transfer due to
random molecular motion (diffusion) and energy transfer by the bulk, or macroscopic, motion of
the fluid. Such motion, in the presence of a temperature gradient, contributes to heat transfer.
The rate of energy transfer from the surface to the fluid (gas or liquid) is given by the Newton’s
W
law of cooling. where, h is the convection heat transfer coefficent in .
m2 K
A is the heat transfer area.
Tb or Ts is the surface temerature.
T f or T is the fluid temerature.
𝒒̇ 𝒄 = 𝒉𝑨(𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻∞ )
Example 2: An un-insulated steam pipe passes through a room in which the air and walls are at 25oC.
The outside diameter of the pipe is 70 mm, and its surface temperature and emissivity are 200oC and 0.8,
respectively. What are the surface emissive power and irradiation? If the coefficient associated with free
convection heat transfer from the surface to the air is 15 W/m2 .K, what is the rate of heat loss from the surface
per unit length of pipe?
SOLUTION
Known: Un-insulated pipe of prescribed diameter, emissivity, and surface temperature in a room with fixed
wall and air temperatures
Find:
a. Surface emissive power and irradiation
b. Pipe heat loss per unit length 𝑞′′
Assumptions:
Steady-state conditions
Radiation exchange between the pipe and the room is between a small surface and a much larger enclosure.
The surface emissivity and absorptivity are equal.
4
The surface emissive power may be evaluated as follows, while the irradiation corresponds to G = 𝜎𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 . Hence;
𝐸 = 𝜀𝜎𝑇𝑠4 = 0.8 (5.67𝑥10−8 𝑊⁄𝑚2 𝐾 4 ) 𝑥 (473𝐾)4 = 𝟐𝟐𝟕𝟎 𝑾⁄ 𝟐
𝒎
4
𝐺 = 𝜎𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟 = 5.67 𝑥 10−8 𝑊⁄𝑚2 . 𝐾 4 (298𝐾)4 = 𝟒𝟒𝟕 𝑾⁄ 𝟐
𝒎
Heat loss from the pipe is by convection to the room air and by radiation exchange with the walls. Hence,
𝑞 = 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + 𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑞 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) + 𝜀𝐴𝜎(𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
4
) When; A = 𝝅𝑫𝑳
= ℎ (𝜋𝐷𝐿)(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) + 𝜀(𝜋𝐷𝐿)𝜎(𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
4
)
The heat loss per unit length of pipe is then
𝑞
= 𝑞 ′ = ℎ (𝜋𝐷)(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) + 𝜀(𝜋𝐷)𝜎(𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
4
) (Substituting given values)
𝐿
SOLUTION
Heat flux can be calculated as follows
𝑑𝑇 𝑘
𝑞′ = −𝑘 = (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 )
𝑑𝑥 𝐿
0.6
𝑞′ = (16 − 6) = −𝟐𝟎𝑾/𝒎𝟐
0.3
Total heat loss through the wall can be calc. as follows
𝑄 = 𝑞′ 𝐴 = −20𝑥 (6𝑥7) = −𝟖𝟒𝟎𝑾/𝒎𝟐
The minus sign indicates heat dissipates from inside to outside
Therefore for all three modes of heat transfer, heat transfer rate can be expressed as follows in the
thermal resistance concept
Heat transfer by Conduction
T − T1 T1 − T2 T L
Q x = −k A 2 = L = R where, R =
L kA
kA
Heat transfer by Convection
Tb − T f Tb − T f 1
Q c = h A (Tb − T f ) = = where, R =
1 R hA
hA
Heat transfer by Radiation
Ts − Tsurr T −T Ts − Tsurr
Q rad = As (Ts4 − Tsurr
4
)= = b surr where, R =
Ts − Tsurr R A (T 4
− T 4
surr
)
s s
As (Ts
4
− T 4
surr
)
The combined modes of heat transfer
Heat may also be transferred by a combination of two or three of the heat transfer modes.
The combined Convection and Conduction heat transfer
(T − T )
Q = h1 A (TA − T1 ) + k A 1 2 + h2 A (T2 − TB )
L
(TA − T1 ) (T1 − T2 ) (T2 − TB )
= + +
1 L 1
h1 A kA h2 A
TA − TB
=
1 L 1
+ +
h1 A k A h2 A
A
= (T − T )
1 L 1 A B
+ +
Fig 2.2; The
h1 combined
k h2 convection and
conduction heat transfer A
= UA (TA − TB ) where, U =
1 L 1
+ +
h1 k h2
Q = UAon
‘U’ is called the overall heat transfer coefficient. It depends (T 1 −the
T 2) geometry and thermal
conductivity of the wall and also the convective coefficients of the fluids.
Heat transfer from extended surfaces
The term extended surface is commonly used to depict an important special case involving heat transfer by
conduction within a solid and heat transfer by convection (and/or radiation) from the boundaries of the solid.
In extended surface, the direction of heat transfer from the boundaries is perpendicular to the principal direction
of heat transfer in the solid.
Extended surface/Fins are used to increase the convective heat transfer, by increasing the contact surface
area (A).
Figure 2.3; Use of fins to enhance heat transfer from a plane Figure 2.4; Schematic of typical finned-tube
wall heat exchangers
(a) Bare surface. (b) Finned surface.
Chapter 3. Two-Dimensional Steady State Conduction
To this point, we have restricted our attention to conduction problems in which the temperature
gradient is significant for only one coordinate direction.
However, in many cases such problems are grossly oversimplified if a one-dimensional treatment
is used, and it is necessary to account for multidimensional effects. In this chapter, we consider
several techniques for treating two-dimensional systems under steady-state conditions.
We begin our consideration of two-dimensional, steady-state conduction by briefly reviewing
alternative approaches to determining temperatures and heat rates.
Various methods of analysis are used in solving problems related to; two dimensional steady state
conduction. These approaches are:
Analytical Methods
Approximate methods -range from exact solutions, which may be obtained for idealized
conditions, to approximate methods of varying complexity and accuracy.
Mathematical methods
The method of separation of variables - mathematical issues associated with obtaining an exact
solution
The conduction shape factor and the dimensionless conduction heat rate- present compilations of
existing exact solutions for a variety of simple geometries
Numerical Methods
Finite difference or finite element methods- used to accurately predict temperatures and heat rates
within the medium and at its boundaries.
However, in this chapter we will see only Mathematical and Numerical Methods.
Finite-Difference Equations
As discussed above, analytical methods may be used, in certain cases, to effect exact mathematical
solutions to steady, two-dimensional conduction problems.
The Nodal Network
In contrast to an analytical solution, which allows for temperature determination at any point of
interest in a medium, a numerical solution enables determination of the temperature at only
discrete points.
The first step in any numerical analysis must therefore be
to select these points. Referring to Figure 3.1, this may
be done by subdividing the medium of interest into a
number of small regions and assigning to each a
reference point that is at its center.
Figure 3.1; Two-dimensional conduction; (a) Nodal network (b) Finite-difference approximation
The temperature gradients may in turn be expressed as a function of the nodal temperatures. That is,
𝜕𝑇⁄ | 𝑇𝑚+1,𝑛 − 𝑇𝑚,𝑛
𝜕𝑥 𝑚+1/2,𝑛 ≈ ∆𝑥
(3.3)
𝜕𝑇⁄ | 𝑇𝑚,𝑛 − 𝑇𝑚−1,𝑛
𝜕𝑥 𝑚−1/2,𝑛 ≈ ∆𝑥
(3.4)
Substituting Equations 3.2 and 3.3 into 4.4, we obtain
𝜕2 𝑇 𝑇𝑚+1,𝑛 + 𝑇𝑚−1,𝑛 − 2𝑇𝑚,𝑛
|
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑚,𝑛
≈ 2 (3.5)
(∆𝑥)
Using a network for which ∆𝑥 = ∆𝑦 and substituting Equations 3.5 and 3.6 into Equation 3.1, we obtain
With increasing distance from the leading edge, the effects of heat transfer penetrate farther into the free stream
and the thermal boundary layer grows.
Chapter 6. Heat Exchangers
T he process of heat exchange between two fluids that are at different temperatures and separated by a solid
wall occurs in many engineering applications. The device used to implement this exchange is termed a heat
exchanger.
The application areas of heat exchanger are space heating and air-conditioning, power production, waste heat
recovery, and chemical processing.
Heat Exchanger Types
Heat exchangers are typically classified according to flow arrangement and type of construction.
The simplest heat exchanger is one for which the hot and cold fluids move in the same or opposite directions in
a concentric tube (or double-pipe) construction.
Based on flow arrangement heat exchanger is classified in to two:-
Parallel flow Heat Exchanger- In the parallel-flow arrangement, the hot and cold fluids enter at the same
end, flow in the same direction, and leave at the same end.
Counter flow Heat Exchanger - In the counter-flow arrangement, the fluids enter at opposite ends, flow in
opposite directions, and leave at opposite ends.
Alternatively, the fluids may move in cross flow (perpendicular to each other), as shown by the finned and un-
finned tubular heat exchangers
Another common configuration is the shell-and-tube heat exchanger. It differ according to the number of shell-
and-tube passes, and the simplest form, which involves single tube and shell passes, is shown in Figure 6.3.
FIGURE 6.1 Concentric tube heat exchangers. (a) Parallel flow. (b) Counter flow.
FIGURE 6.2 Cross-flow heat exchangers. (a) Finned with both fluids unmixed. (b) Un-finned with one fluid mixed and the
other unmixed.
FIGURE 6.3 Shell-and-tube heat exchanger with one shell pass and one tube pass (cross-counter flow mode of operation)
Example 4
1. A heat exchanger consists of numerous rectangular channels, each 18mm wide and 2.25mm high. In an
adjacent pair of channels, there are two streams: water k=0.625W/m.K and air k = 0.0371W/m.K,
separated by a 18mm wide and 0.5mm thick stainless steel plate of k = 16W/m.K. The fouling
resistances for air and water are 2 x 10-4 m2K/W and 5 x 10-4 m2K/W, respectively and the Nusselt
number given by NUDh = 5.95 where the subscript ‘Dh’ refers to the hydraulic diameter. Calculate the
overall heat transfer coefficient ignoring both the thermal resistance of the separating wall and the two
fouling resistances.
FIGURE 6.4 Special heat exchanger conditions. (a). Ch ≫ Cc or a condensing vapor. (b). An evaporating liquid or Ch ≪ Cc.
(c). A counter flow heat exchanger with equivalent fluid heat capacities (Ch = Cc).
If we want to compare the output of heat engine against the input, we introduce Thermal Efficiency
for the cycle.
The thermal efficiency is the index of performance of a work producing device or a heat engine
and is defined by the ratio of the network output (the desired result) to the heat input (the costs to
obtain the desired result).
The thermal efficiency is always less than 1 or less than 100 percent.
The heat pumps
Another device that transfers heat from a low-temperature medium to a high-temperature one is
the heat-pump. Refrigerators and heat pumps operate on the same cycle but differ in their
objectives. The objective of a refrigerator is to maintain the refrigerated space at a low
temperature by removing heat from it. The objective of a heat pump, however, is to maintain a
heated space at a high temperature.
Refrigerators: move heat from colder space
Heat pump: move heat to warmer space
Both require work input
The refrigerator keeps the temperature of cold refrigerated space below that of the environment by
continuously removing heat QL from it.
Heat Pump is used in cold environments to keep the house warm by absorbing heat from cold
environment and pumping it into the house.
The index of performance of a refrigerator or heat pump is expressed in terms of the coefficient of
performance, COP, the ratio of desired result to required input.
Under the same operating conditions the COPHP and COPR are related by (substitute
QH=Win+QL, in COPHP equation)
This indicates that C.O.P of heat pump is greater than that of a refrigerator working on reversed
Carnot cycle between the same temperature limits T1 and T2 by unity.
• A refrigerator or heat pump that operates on the reversed Carnot cycle is called a Carnot
refrigerator or a Carnot heat pump.
• Coefficients of performance for Carnot cycles can be expressed in terms of temperature.
Schematic and T-s diagram for the ideal vapor- compression refrigeration cycle.
In an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant enters the compressor at state 1
as saturated vapor and is compressed is entropically to the condenser pressure.
The temperature of the refrigerant increases during this isentropic compression process to
well above the temperature of the surrounding medium.
The refrigerant then enters the condenser as superheated vapor at state 2 and leaves
as saturated liquid at state 3 as a result of heat rejection to the surroundings. The temperature of
the refrigerant at this state is still above the temperature of the surroundings.
The saturated liquid refrigerant at state 3 is throttled to the evaporator pressure by passing it
through an expansion valve or capillary tube. The temperature of the refrigerant drops below the
temperature of the refrigerated space during this process.
•The refrigerant enters the evaporator at state 4 as a low-quality saturated mixture, and it
completely evaporates by absorbing heat from the refrigerated space. The refrigerant leaves the
evaporator as saturated vapor and re-enters the compressor, completing the cycle.
The throttling process (3-4) of ideal vapor compression cycle is an internally irreversible process.
If throttling valve is replaced by isentropic turbine we would have process 3-4' as indicated in T-
S diagram above but this is not done in ideal vapor compression refrigeration cycle. To make the
ideal vapor• compression refrigeration cycle more closely approximate the actual cycle.
In a household refrigerator, the tubes in the freezer compartment where heat is absorbed by
the refrigerant serves as the evaporator. The coils behind the refrigerator, where heat is dissipated
to the kitchen air, serve as the condenser
•Remember that the area under the process curve on a T-s diagram represents the heat transfer for
internally reversible processes. The area under the process curve 4-1 represents the heat
absorbed by the refrigerant in the evaporator, and the area under the process curve 2-3
represents the heat rejected in the condenser.
• A rule of thumb is that the COP improves by 2 to 4 percent for each °C the evaporating
temperature is raised or the condensing temperature is lowered.
Another diagram frequently used in the analysis of vapor-compression refrigeration cycles is the
P-h diagram, as shown in Fig. below. On this diagram, three of the four processes appear as
straight lines, and the heat transfer in the condenser and the evaporator is proportional to the
lengths of the corresponding process curves.
All four components associated with thevapour compression refrigeration cycle are steady-flow
devices, Then the steady flow energy equation on a unit-mass basis neglecting changes in ke and
pe becomes:
(Qin-Qout)+( Win-Wout)=he-hi
The condenser and the evaporator do not involve anywork, and the compressor can be
approximated as adiabatic.
•The energy balance of each of the components of vapor-compression refrigeration isgiven as
below:
Evaporator
Considering a control volume enclosing the refrigerant side of the evaporator, conservation of
mass and energy applied to this control volume together give the rate of heat transfer per unit mass
of refrigerant flow in the evaporator as:
𝑄
qe = 𝑚𝑒 = h1 – h4
Compressor
It is usually adequate to assume that there is no heat transfer to or from the compressor.
Conservation of mass and energy rate applied to a control volume enclosing the compressor then
give:
Condenser:
For a control volume enclosing the refrigerant side of the condenser, the rate of heat transfer from
the refrigerant per unit mass of refrigerant.
𝑄
qe = 𝑚𝑒 = h1 – h4
Control valve
Finally, the refrigerant at state 3 enters the expansion valve and expands to the evaporator pressure.
This process is usually modeled as a throttling process in which there is no heat transfer, i.e., for
which
In the vapor-compression system, the net power input is equal to the compressor power, the
expansion valve involving no power input or output.
Using the quantities and expressions introduced above, the coefficient of performance (COP), of
the vapor compression refrigeration system for heat pump and refrigerator is given by:
If a system aims at the heat, the system is called as Heat pump, it requires work to move thermal
energy from a cold source to a warmer heat sink.
Since the heat pump uses a certain amount of work to move the heat, the amount of energy
deposited at the hot side is greater than the energy taken from the cold side by an amount equal to
the work required.
The term coefficient of performance (COP) is also used to describe the ratio of useful heat
movement to work input.
Heat pumps are more effective for heating than for cooling if the temperature difference is held
equal.
Example
A refrigerator uses refrigerant-134a as the working fluid and operates on an ideal vapor-
compression refrigeration cycle between 0.14 and 0.8 Mpa. If the mass flow rate of the refrigerant
is 0.05 kg/s, determine
(a) The rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space and the power input to the compressor,
(b) The rate of heat rejection to the environment, and
(c) The COP of the refrigerator.
Solution
We note that this is an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, and thus the compressor is
isentropic and the refrigerant leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid and enters the compressor
as saturated vapor.
From the refrigerant-134a tables, the enthalpies of the refrigerant at all four states are determined
as follows:
The rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space and the power input to the compressor are
determined from their definitions:
Effect of various parameters on VCR Cycle:
Introducing of regenerative heat exchanger increases COP of the system (Refer P K Nag).
Chapter 3. Refrigerants
The working agent in a refrigerating system that absorbs heat from the place to be cooled or
refrigerated and dissipates it to the environment can be termed as a refrigerant. This heat transfer
generally takes place through a phase change of the refrigerant. A more complete definition of a
refrigerant could be given as follows:
Refrigerant is the fluid used for heat transfer in a refrigerating system that absorbs heat during
evaporation from the region of low temperature and pressure, and releases heat during
condensation at a region of higher temperature and pressure."
Classification of Refrigerants
Based on Working Principle: we have the primary or common refrigerants and the secondary
refrigerants
The primary refrigerants are those that pass through the processes of compression, cooling or
condensation, expansion and evaporation or warming up during cyclic processes. Ammonia, R12,
R22, carbon dioxide come under this class of refrigerants.
The secondary refrigerants: On the other hand, the medium which does not go through the cyclic
processes in a refrigeration system and is only used as a medium for heat transfer are referred to
as secondary refrigerants. Water, brine solutions of sodium chloride and calcium chloride come
under this category.
•Based on Safety Considerations: Under this heading, we have the following three sub-divisions.
Safe refrigerants: These are the non-toxic, non• flammable refrigerants such as Rll, R12, R13,
R14, R21, R22, R113, R114, methyl chloride, carbon dioxide, water etc.
Toxic and moderately flammable: Dichloroethylene methyl format, ethylchloride, sulphur
dioxide, ammonia etc. come under this category.
Highly flammable refrigerants: The refrigerants under this category are butane, isobutene,
propane, ethane, methane, ethylene etc.
•Based on Chemical Compositions: They are further sub-divided as
Halocarbon compounds: These are obtained by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms in ethane
or methane with halogens.
Azeotropes: These are the mixtures of two or more refrigerants and behave as a compound.
Oxygen and Nitrogen Compounds: Refrigerants having either oxygen or nitrogen molecules in
their structure, such as ammonia, are grouped separately and have a separate nomenclature from
the halogenated refrigerants.
Cyclic organic Compounds: The compounds coming under this class are R316, R317 and R318.
Inorganic Compounds: These are further divided into two categories: Cryogenic and Non-
cryogenic.
Cryogenic fluids are those which are applied for achieving temperatures as low as - 160 0C to -
273 0C. Above this temperature range, we can use a multi-stage refrigeration system to realize the
desired temperature. But below - 160 0C, this is not possible since the COP of the cycle becomes
very low. To attain temperatures below - 160 0C, we use refrigerants such as nitrogen, oxygen,
helium, hydrogen etc. and for temperatures close to - 2730C, magnetic cooling is employed. The
inorganic compounds which are employed above the cryogenic temperature ranges come under
the remaining sub-division of inorganic refrigerants.
Unsaturated Compounds: Compounds such as ethylene, propylene etc. are grouped under this
head and grouped under the 1000 series for convenience.
DESIGNATION OF REFRIGERANTS
The American Society of Refrigerating Engineers (ASRE) has developed certain conventions for
use in naming different types of refrigerants. These naming conventions differ according to the
type of refrigerant. Each refrigerant type is denoted by a different series. Thus, we have separate
series for halogenated refrigerants and other types. The naming conventions are simple and easy
to follow. These conventions are now accepted worldwide and help to name the large variety
of refrigerants available commercially nowadays.
Halocarbon Compounds: These are represented by a three-digit nomenclature. Here, the first
digit represents the number of carbon atoms in the compound minus one, the second digit stands
for the number of hydrogen atoms plus one while the third digit stands for the number of fluorine
atoms. The remaining atoms are chlorine.
As an example, let us consider the refrigerant having R22 as its three-digit nomenclature.
According to the above-mentioned convention,
• No. of C atoms in R22: C - 1 = 0 => C = 1
• No. of H atoms in R22: H + 1 = 2 => H = 1
• No. of F atoms in R22: F = 2
Since there is only one carbon atom in the compound, this compound has originated from the
methane series {CH4). From the calculation, we can see there is one hydrogen atom and two
fluorine atoms. The remaining valence bond of carbon will be balanced by chlorine. Thus, the
substance is Mono-chloro-Difluoro- Methane represented graphically as
Therefore, chemical formula of R22 is CHCIF2 and has the name Mono-chloro-difluoro-
methane
Taking again the example of R134, we can calculate its chemical formula as above which
gives us
• No. of C atoms: C - 1 = 1 => C = 2
• No. of H atoms: H + 1 = 3 =>H = 2
• No. of F atoms: F = 4
• Therefore, no. of Cl atoms: Cl = 0
• The compound is C2H2F2 and its name is Tetrafluoro-ethane
The non-halogenated refrigerants follow a different naming convention which is depend upon the
series of the refrigerant.
Chapter 4. Condensers
The condenser is a heat exchanger that rejects heat from the refrigerant to air, water, or some other
fluid. The three common types of condensers are air-cooled, water-cooled, and evaporative
Air-Cooled Condensers: A typical air-cooled condenser uses propeller-type fans to draw outdoor air
over a finned tube heat transfer surface. The temperature difference between the hot refrigerant
vapor that is flowing through the tubes and the cooler outdoor air induces heat transfer. The
resulting reduction in the heat content of the refrigerant vapor causes it to condense into liquid.
Within the final few lengths of condenser tubing (the sub-cooler), the liquid refrigerant is further
cooled below the temperature at which it was condensed. The air-cooled condenser is very popular
in both residential and commercial applications because of its convenience. It requires very
little maintenance and does not require the freeze protection and water treatment that is necessary
with a water- cooled condenser. Additionally, it is favored in areas that have an inadequate or
costly water supply, or where the use of water for air conditioning is restricted.
Evaporative Condenser: A modification of the air-cooled condenser is the evaporative
condenser. Within this device, the refrigerant flows through tubes and air is drawn or blown over
the tubes by a fan. The difference is that water is sprayed on the tube surfaces. As the air
passes over the coil, it causes a small portion of the water to evaporate. This evaporation process
absorbs heat from the coil, causing the refrigerant vapor within the tubes to condense. The
remaining water then falls to the sump to be re-circulated and used again.
Sub cooling of the refrigerant can be accomplished by piping the condensed liquid back through
another few rows of coil tubing, located either in the condenser airstream or in the water sump,
where additional heat transfer reduces the temperature of the liquid refrigerant.
Water-cooled Condenser: The shell-and-tube is the most common type of water-cooled condenser.
With this design, water is pumped through the tubes while the refrigerant vapor fills the shell space
surrounding the tubes. As heat is transferred from the refrigerant to the water, the refrigerant
vapor condenses on the tube surfaces. The condensed liquid refrigerant then falls to the bottom of
the shell, where it flows through an enclosure that contains additional tubes (the sub cooler). More
heat is transferred from the liquid refrigerant to the water inside these tubes, sub cooling the
refrigerant. After the warm water leaves the condenser, it must either be disposed of (as in the case
of using water from a well) or it must be cooled before it can be reused by the condenser. In this
example, the condenser brings in 85°F [29°C] water and warms it up to 95°F [35°C]. Before this
water can be used again, it must be cooled backdown to 85F [29°C].
Cooling tower A cooling tower is a device commonly used to cool condensing water. In this design,
warm water is sprayed over fill in the cooling tower while a propeller fan draws outdoor air
upward through the fill. The movement of air through the spray causes some of the water to
evaporate, a process that cools the remaining water. This cooled water then falls to the tower
sump to be returned to the condenser.
Chapter 5. Evaporators
The evaporator is a heat exchanger that transfers heat from air, water, or some other fluid to the
cool liquid refrigerant. Two common types of evaporators are the finned-tube and the shell-and-
tube.
Finned-Tube Evaporators: A finned-tube evaporator includes rows of tubes passing through sheets of
formed fins. Cool, liquid refrigerant flows through the tubes, cooling the tube and fin surfaces. As
air passes through the coil and comes into contact with the cold fin surfaces, heat is transferred
from the air to the refrigerant. This heat transfer causes the refrigerant to boil and leave the
evaporator as vapor. The fins of the coil are formed to produce turbulence as the air passes through
them. This turbulence enhances heat transfer, preventing stratification within the coil-leaving
airstream. To provide uniform heat transfer throughout the coil, the liquid refrigerant is distributed
to the coil tubes in several parallel circuits. A distributor is used to ensure uniform refrigerant
distribution through these multiple coil circuits. It distributes the liquid/vapor refrigerant mixture
to the coil through several tubes of equal length and diameter. As the refrigerant passes
through the tubes of the coil, the liquid refrigerant absorbs heat from the air, causing it to boil
off into vapor. The refrigerant vapor leaves the coil tubes and collects in a suction
header.
Shell-and-Tube Evaporators: Instead of producing cooled air, a shell-and-tube evaporator is
used to produce chilled water. In this type of evaporator, the cool liquid refrigerant flows through
the tubes and water fills the shell space surrounding the tubes.
As heat is transferred from the water to the refrigerant, the refrigerant boils inside the tubes and
the resulting vapor is drawn to the compressor. Water enters the shell at one end and leaves at the
opposite end. This chilled water is pumped to one or more heat exchangers to handle the
system cooling load. These heat exchangers could be coils used to cool air or they could be some
other load that requires chilled water.
Chapter 7. Compressors
The compressor is the active element of the refrigerating circuit. It has two functions: a) to
maintain the pressure by drawing off the vapor produced through evaporation of the liquid
refrigerant and b) to compress the vapor by raising its temperature and pressure to the point at
which the vapor can be condensed at the normal temperature of the condensing media.
The only way the vaporized refrigerant can be made to give up the latent heat of vaporization that
it absorbed in the evaporator is by cooling and condensing it. Because of the relatively high
temperature of the available cooling medium, the only way to make the vapor condense is to
compress it. When we raise the pressure, we also raise the temperature. This enables the vapor to
be condensed back into liquid by some convenient low-cost source of cooling, such as ambient air
or water.
Compressor Principle
A compressor has two major openings (ports) through which it connects to the system by copper
tubing. The inlet to the compressor is called the “Suction Line" which brings the low-pressure
refrigerant vapor from the evaporator into the compressor. The other is the discharge port where
the compressed refrigerant vapor, now at high pressure, is discharged into the condenser for
cooling. During compression the pressure of the refrigerant increases and the volume decreases.
This is explained by Boyle’s law which states that at a constant temperature, a volume of gas (or
vapor) is inversely proportional to the applied pressure acting on it. That is, as the pressure
increases, the volume of gas decreases. Also, during compression, the temperature of the
refrigerant increases, the effect of a physical phenomenon known as the heat of compression. This
is explained by Charles’s law which states that at a constant volume, the temperature varies directly
with the pressure i.e. as the pressure of a gas increases, so does its temperature.
Types of Compressors
Compressors can be reciprocating piston, scroll, screw or centrifugal. The first three are
positive displacement machines and the last is a dynamic compressor.
1) Reciprocating compressor: Reciprocating compressors are the positive displacement machines,
usually provided with two to 16 cylinders. This design minimizes their poor adaptation to large
volume rates, which is one of their disadvantages. The Single stage reciprocating machines have
an ability to operate at compression ratios of 10 to 12.The Reciprocating compressors are available
in two basic types: hermetic sealed units and units of open construction. In hermetic sealed units,
the motor and the compressor are direct-coupled and housed in a single casing that is sealed to the
atmosphere. In open construction units, the motor and the compressor are in separate housings.
In general, open construction units have a longer service life, lower maintenance requirements and
higher operating efficiencies. The hermetic sealed units are most common particularly in small
capacities. The Reciprocating machines are manufactured in capacities from 0.5 to 200
TR. The main factors favoring reciprocating machine is low cost. The other advantage is that
multiple reciprocating machines can be installed to closely match the building loads. Multiple
units allow flexibility to operate machines per the need. If properly managed this could attribute
to significant energy savings during low loads. A major drawback is a high level of maintenance
requirements, noise and vibration. Since the capacity is limited to 200TR, multiple units costmore
than other options. Multiple chiller configurations require large space and consume more energy
per ton of refrigeration.
2) Centrifugal Compressors: The Centrifugal compressors are categorized as variable volume
displacement units. Like reciprocating machines these are also available in both hermetic and
open construction. Commercially the hermetic sealed units are more widely used, despite its lower
operating efficiency. Centrifugal compressors for refrigeration applications are generally designed
for a fixed compression ratio of 18. The centrifugal compressors are manufactured in capacities
from 90 to 2000 tons. The main factor favoring centrifugal machine is their high operational
efficiency at full load, compact size and availability in large sizes. The biggest drawback of
centrifugal machine is a very poor part load performance and inability to operate at low cooling
loads. At extreme low loads, these chillers are prone to a condition known as surging. The main
limitation is that these are not suitablefor air-cooled condenser options and require water and
cooling tower.
3) Screw Compressors: Rotary or screw compressors, like reciprocating machines are positive
displacement compressors. Rotary is a wider term that may include vane, eccentric, gear orscrew
types. The commercial refrigeration installation relies more on screw machines. Screw
compressors are available in several designs, both single screw and twin screw, with oil free and
oil-injected designs in both types. Twin-screw oil• injected compressors are slightly more energy
efficient at mode rate compression ratios. Twin• screw compressors have an ability to operate at
compression ratio of 30. Units are available in both hermetic sealed and open construction.
Screw compressors are available in capacities ranging from 20 to 1000 tons and even higher from
few manufacturers. The Screw compressors have an ability to operate at compression ratios of as
high as 30 which can be varied for optimum load adjustment.The factors favoring screw
compressors is their compact size, lightweight, quite &vibration free operation and high energy
efficiency both in full and part load operation.The major drawback is their high cost. For smaller
loads, reciprocating machines are less expensive to purchase and for large loads centrifugal
machines cost less.
EXERCISES
1. A steady-flow Carnot refrigeration cycle uses refrigerant134a as the working fluid. The
refrigerant changes from saturated vapor to saturated liquid at 30°C in the condenser as it rejects
heat. The evaporator pressure is160 kPa. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram relative to saturation
lines, and determine (a) the coefficient of performance, (b) the amount of heat absorbed from the
refrigerated space, and (c) the network input.
2. A refrigerator uses refrigerant-134a as the working fluid and operates onan ideal vapor-
compression refrigeration cycle between 0. 12 and 0. 7MPa. The mass flow rate of the refrigerant
is 0.05 kg/s. Show the cycleon a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines.Determine
( a) the rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space and the power input
3. Refrigerant-I34a enters the compressor of a refrigerator as superheated vapor at 0.14 MPa and
I0°C at a rate of 0.12 kg/s, and it leaves at 0.7MPa and 50°C. The refrigerant is cooled in the
condenser to 24°C and0.65 MPa, and it is throttled to 0.1 5 MPa. Disregarding any heat transfer
and pressure drops in the connecting lines between the components, show the cycle on a T-s
diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determine (a) the rate of heat removal from the
refrigerated space and the power input to the compressor, (b) the isentropic efficiency of the
compressor, and (c) the COP of the refrigerator.
4. Refrigerant-I 34a enters the compressor of a refrigerator at I 40 kPa and I0°C at a rate of 0.3
m33/min and leaves at1 MPa. The isentropic efficiency of the compressor is 78 percent. The
refrigerant enters the throttling valve at 0.95 Mpa and 30°C and leaves the evaporator as saturated
vapor at 18.5°C. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determine
(a) the power input to the compressor, (b) the rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space, and
(c) the pressure drop and rate of heat gain in the line between the evaporator and the compressor.
5. A refrigerator uses refrigerant-134a as the working fluid and operates on the ideal vapor-
compression refrigeration cycle. The refrigerant enters the evaporator at 120 kPa with a quality of
30 percent and leavesthe compressor at 60°C. If the compressor consumes 450 W of power,
determine (a) the mass flow rate ofthe refrigerant, (b) the condenser pressure, and (c) the COP of
the refrigerator.
6. Refrigerant-134a enters the compressor of a refrigerator at 140 kPa and 10°C at a rate of 0.3
m3/min and leaves at 1 MPa. The isentropic efficiency of the compressor is 78 percent. The
refrigerant enters the throttling valve at 0.95 MPa and 30°C and leaves the evaporator as saturated
vapor at 18.5°C. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determine
(a) the power input to the compressor, (b) the rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space, and
(c) the pressure drop and rate of heat gain in the line between the evaporator and the compressor.
7. A refrigerator that operates on the ideal vapor compression cycle with refrigerant-134a is to
maintain the refrigerated space at 10°C while rejecting heat to the environment at 25°C. Select
reasonable pressures for the evaporator and the condenser, and explain why you chose those
values.
8.A heat pump that operates on the ideal vapor compression cycle with refrigerant-134a is used to
heat a house and maintain it at 22°C by using underground water at 10°C as the heat source. Select
reasonable pressures for the evaporator and the condenser, and explain why you chose those
values.
9. A heat pump that operates on the ideal vapor compression cycle with refrigerant-134a is used
to heat water from 15 to 45 °C at a rate of 0.12 kg/s. The condenser and evaporator pressures are
1.4 and 0.32 MPa, respectively. Determine the power input to the heat pump.
10.A heat pump using refrigerant-134a heats a house by using underground water at 8°C as the
heat source. The house is losing heat at a rate of 60,000 kJ/h. The refrigerant enters the compressor
at 280 kPa and 0°C, and it leaves at1 MPa
11. Refrigerant-134a enters the condenser of a residential heat pump at 800 kPa and 55°C at rate
of 0.018 kg/s and leaves at 750 kPa sub-cooled by 3°C. The refrigerant enters the compressor at
200 kPa superheated by 4 °C. Determine (a) the isentropic efficiency of the compressor, (b) the
rate of heat supplied to the heated room, and (c) the COP of the heat pump. Also, determine (d)
the COP and the rate of heat supplied to the heated room if this heat pump operated on the ideal
vapor• compression cycle between the pressure limits of 200 and 800 kPa.
12. Consider a two-stage cascade refrigeration system operating between the pressure
limits of 0.8 and 0.14 MPa. Each stage operates on the ideal vapor-compression refrigeration
cycle with refrigerant-134a as the working fluid. Heat rejection from the lower cycle to the upper
cycle takes place in an adiabatic counter-flow heat exchanger where both streams enter at about
0.4 MPa. If the mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the upper cycle is 0.24 kg/s, determine
(a) the mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the lower cycle, (b) the rate of heat removal from
the refrigerated space and the power input to the compressor, and (c) the coefficient of performance
of this cascade refrigerator.
The method of creating the pressure difference and circulating the refrigerant is the primary
difference between the two cycles.
The mechanical vapor compression cycle employs a mechanical compressor to create the pressure
difference necessary to circulate the refrigerant.
In the absorption system, another liquid, which is called absorbent, is used to circulate the
refrigerant.
To understand the basic principles involved in absorption refrigeration, we examine the
NH3--H2O system shown in the figure below.
Notice from the figure that this system looks very much like the vapor-compression system, except
that the compressor has been replaced by a complex absorption mechanism consisting of an
absorber, a pump, a generator, a regenerator, a valve, and a rectifier.
Once the pressure of NH3 is raised by the components in the box (this is the only thing they are
set up to do), it is cooled and condensed in the condenser by rejecting heat to the surroundings, is
throttled to the evaporator pressure, and absorbs heat from the refrigerated space as it flows through
the evaporator. So, there is nothing new there.
Here is what happens in the box:
Ammonia vapor leaves the evaporator and enters the absorber, where it dissolves and reacts
with water to form NH3 · H20. This is an exothermic reaction; thus, heat is released during
this process.
The amount of NH3 that can be dissolved in H20 is inversely proportional to the temperature.
Therefore, it is necessary to cool the absorber to maintain its temperature as low as possible, hence
to maximize the amount of NH3 dissolved in water.
The liquid NH3 H20 solution, which is rich in NH3, is then pumped to the generator. Heat is
transferred to the solution from a source to vaporize some of the solution. The vapor, which is
rich in NH3, passes through a rectifier, which separates the water and returns it to the generator.
The high-pressure pure NH3 vapor then continues its journey through the rest of the cycle.
The hot NH3 H20 solution, which is weak in NH3, then passes through are generator, where it
transfers some heat to the rich solution leaving the pump, and is throttled to the absorber
pressure.
Compared with vapor-compression systems, absorption refrigeration systems have one major
advantage: A liquid is compressed instead of a vapor.
The steady-flow work is proportional to the specific volume, and thus the work
input for absorption refrigeration systems is very small (on the order of one percent of the heat
supplied to the generator) and often neglected in the cycle analysis. The operation of these systems
is based on heat transfer from an external source.
Therefore, absorption refrigeration systems are often classified as heat-driven systems.
The solubility of ammonia in water at low temperatures and pressures is higher than it
is at higher temperatures and pressures. The ammonia vapor leaving the evaporator at point 2 is
readily absorbed in the low temperature hot solution in the absorber. This process is
accompanied by the rejection of heat. The ammonia in water solution is pumped to the higher
pressure and is heated in the generator.
Due to reduced solubility of ammonia in water at the higher pressure and temperature, the vapor
is removed from the solution. The vapor then passes to the condenser and the weakened ammonia
in water solution is returned to the absorber.
The absorption refrigeration systems are much more expensive than the vapor compression
refrigeration systems. They are more complex and occupy more space, they are much less efficient
thus requiring much larger cooling towers to reject the waste heat, and they are more difficult
to service since they are less common.
Therefore, absorption refrigeration systems should be considered only when the unit cost
of thermal energy is low and is projected to remain low relative to electricity.
Absorption refrigeration systems are primarily used in large commercial and
industrial installations.
Thermodynamic analysis and performance of the ideal vapor absorption cycle
The COP of absorption refrigeration systems is defined as
The maximum COP of an absorption refrigeration system is determined by assuming that the entire
cycle is totally reversible (i.e., the cycle involves no irreversibilities and any heat transfer is
through a differential temperature difference). The refrigeration system would be reversible if the
heat from the of this heat engine (W = Th. .~) is supplied to a Carnot refrigerator to source (Q~)
were transferred to a Carnot heat engine, and the work output remove heat from the refrigerated
space. Note that Q, = W X COP, nh.«s•.~COP, Then the overall COP of an absorption
refrigeration system under reversible conditions becomes
Where T, Tk and T, are the thermodynamic temperatures of the refrigerated space, the
environment, and the heat source, respectively
Any absorption refrigeration system that receives heat from a source at Ts and removes heat from
the refrigerated space at Ti while operating in an environment at To has a lower COP than the
one determined from the above equation (Actual VARC• HAS LOWER COP THAN THAT OF
REVERSIBLE VARC BECAUSE OF I RREVERSI BLITI ES)
For example, when the source is at 120°C, the refrigerated space is at 10°C, and the
environment is at 25°C, the maximum COP that an absorption refrigeration system can have is
1.8. The COP ofactual absorption refrigeration systems are usually less than 1.
Absorption Chillers
► Absorption systems offer at least three advantages over conventional electric vapor
compression systems.
► First, they do not use CFC or HCFC refrigerants. The solutions used in absorption
systems are not refrigerants that could someday be limited because of ozone depletion or
global warming concerns.
► Second, absorption systems can utilize a variety of heat sources, including natural gas, steam,
solar-heated water, and waste heat from a turbine or industrial process. If the source of heat is
from waste heat, such as from a co-generation system, absorption systems may provide the lowest
cost alternative for providing chilled water for air conditioning. Because sources of energy besides
electricity are used, installation of an absorption system can be used to reduce peak electrical
demand in situations where electrical demand charges are high.
► Third, because of the absence of heavy rotating parts, absorption systems produce much less
vibration and noise compared to large centrifugal systems
Water-lithium bromide absorption machines can be classified by the method of heat input
and whether the cycle is single or multiple effects. Indirect fired chillers use steam or hot liquids
as a heat source. Direct fired chillers use the heat energy from the firing of fossil fuels. Heat-
recovery chillers use waste gases as the heat source. Single effect and double effect chillers
are described below.
Sterling cycle
In Sterling cycle, Carnot cycle's isentropic compression and expansion processes are
replaced by two constant-volume regeneration processes.
During the regeneration process heat is transferred to a thermal storage device
(regenerator) during one part and is transferred back to the working fluid in another part of the
cycle.
The regenerator can be a wire or a ceramic mesh or any kind of porous plug with a high
thermal mass (mass times specific heat). The regenerator is assumed to be reversible heat transfer
device.
• 1-2 isothermal expansion- heat addition from external source
• 2-3 const. vol. heat transfer- internal heat transfer from the gas to the regenerator
• 3-4 isothermal compression- heat rejection to the external sink
• 4-1 const. vol. heat transfer- internal heat transfer from the regenerator to the gas
Referring to the basic ejector refrigeration cycle in Figure above, the system
consists of two loops, the power loop and the refrigeration loop.
In the power loop, low-grade heat, Qb, is used in a boiler or generator to
evaporate high pressure liquid refrigerant (process 1-2). The high pressure vapor
generated, known as the primary fluid, flows through the ejector where it accelerates through the
nozzle.
The reduction in pressure that occurs induces vapor from the evaporator, known as the secondary
fluid, at point 3.
The two fluids mix in the mixing chamber before entering the diffuser section where the
flow decelerates and pressure recovery occurs. The mixed fluid then flows to the condenser where
it is condensed rejecting heat to the environment, Qc. A portion of the liquid exiting the condenser
at point 5 is then pumped to the boiler for the completion of the power cycle.
The remainder of the liquid is expanded through an expansion device and enters the
evaporator of the refrigeration loop at point 6 as a mixture of liquid and vapor.
The refrigerant evaporates in the evaporator producing a refrigeration effect, Qe, and the resulting
vapor is then drawn into the ejector at point 3. The refrigerant (secondary fluid) mixes
with the primary fluid in the ejector and is compressed in the diffuser section before entering
the condenser at point 4.
The mixed fluid condenses in the condenser and exits at point 5 for the repetition of the
refrigeration cycle.
Ejector refrigeration system (ERS) powered by low-grade energy has been studied since the
mid-1950s. Compared with other refrigeration systems, ERS has some special advantages such
as the simplicity in construction, high reliability and low cost.
However, the coefficient of performance for the conventional ERS is significantly lower
than that for others. This has restricted its wide applications.
In recent years, people have tried to find wider application for ejector refrigeration systems
in refrigeration and air conditioning field by directly utilizing low-grade thermal energy,
such as solar energy and waste heat.
Despite extensive development effort the COP of Ejector refrigeration system the system,
which can be defined as the ratio of the refrigeration effect to the heat input to the
boiler, if one neglects the pump work which is relatively small, is still relatively low, less
than0.2.
Ejector refrigeration systems are not presently commercially available off the shelf but a
number of companies specialize in the design and application of bespoke steam ejector systems
that use water as a refrigerant for cooling applications above 0°C.
To improve the efficiency of the simple ejector cycle more complex cycles have been investigated
as well as the integration of ejectors with vapor compression and absorption systems.
Significant effort has also been devoted to the development of solar driven ejector refrigeration
systems
The main barrier to uptake of ejector refrigeration technology is Lower COP,
0.20.3, compared to vapor compression systems and other thermally driven
technologies.
Air-conditioning (AC)
Enthalpy of Atmospheric Air • Note that since air is considered as an ideal-gas, the enthalpy of air
(both water-vapor and dry air) is only a function of temperature, at the temperature range of
interest, i.e., -10 to 50°C. • Taking 0°C as the reference temperature; with the constant-pressure
specific for dry-air (in the range of interest) cp = 1.005 kJ/kg.°C; one obtains:
The enthalpy of water vapor at 0°C is 2500.9 kJ/kg. The average cp value of water vapor in the
temperature range -10 to 50°C can be taken to be 1.82 kJ/kg.°C. Then the enthalpy of water vapor
can be determined from:
The study of properties of air is called Psychrometrics or Psychrometry
The comfort of human body depends on three factors:
Temperature: most important index of comfort, most people feel comfortable when temperature is
between 22 and 27°C
Relative humidity: it affects the amount of heat that body can dissipate through evaporation.
Relative humidity is a measure of air’s ability to absorb moisture. Most people prefer relative
humidity of 40 to 60%.
Air motion: it removes the warm, moist air that builds up around body and replaces it with fresh
air. Most people feel comfortable at an airspeed of 15 m/min. • Other important factors in air-
conditioning include: noise, filtration, air-distribution, fresh air supply, supply air temperature, etc.
Psychometric Chart
Simple Heating: During simple cooling, specific humidity remains constant, but relative humidity
increases. During simple heating, specific humidity remains constant, but relative humidity
decreases.
Heating with Humidification:
Cooling with Dehumidification:
Selection of suitable inside design conditions:
For a person to feel comfortable it appears that the following conditions are desirable:
The air temperature should be higher than the mean radiant temperature in summer, but lower in
winter. (22-27oC in summer and 20-25oC in winter)
The average air velocity in the room should probably not exceed 0.15 m/ s in an air conditioned
room but higher velocities may be acceptable with air temperatures greater than 26oC
Relative humidity should desirably lie between about 45 per cent and 60 per cent.
Relative humidity should never exceed 70 per cent.
The dew point should never be less than 2 oC
The temperature difference between the feet and the head should be as small as possible, normally
not exceeding 1.5 oC and never more than 3 oC
Floor temperatures should not be greater than 26oC when people are standing and probably not
less than 17oC
The radiant temperature asymmetry should not be more than 5 oC vertically or 10oC horizontally.
The carbon dioxide content should not exceed about 0.1 per cent.
Heating and Cooling load calculations:
Classification of air conditioning systems:
➢ Based on the fluid media used in the thermal distribution system, air conditioning
systems can be classified as:
4. All air systems
5. All water systems
6. Air- water systems
7. 4. Unitary refrigerant based systems (Room AC)
Thermodynamics I
Unity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and are unitless, and thus such ratios (or their inverses) can be
inserted conveniently into any calculation to properly convert units.
Properties of a System
Property: Any characteristic of a system. Some familiar properties are pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass
m. Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive.
Intensive properties: Those those are independent of the mass of a system, such as temperature, pressure, and density.
Extensive properties: Those whose values depend on the size—or extent—of the system.
Specific properties: Extensive properties per unit mass.
Continuum
Matter is made up of atoms that are widely spaced in the gas phase. Yet it is very convenient to disregard the atomic
nature of a substance and view it as a continuous, homogeneous matter with no holes, that is, a continuum.
The continuum idealization allows us to treat properties as point functions and to assume the properties vary
continually in space with no jump discontinuities.
This idealization is valid as long as the size of the system we deal with is large relative to the space between the
molecules.
This is the case in practically all problems.
In this text we will limit our consideration to substances that can be modeled as a continuum.
STATE & EQUILIBRIUM
Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states.
Equilibrium: A state of balance.
In an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced potentials (or driving forces) within the system.
Thermal equilibrium: If the temperature is the same throughout the entire system.
Mechanical equilibrium: If there is no change in pressure at any point of the system with time.
Phase equilibrium: If a system involves two phases and when the mass of each phase reaches an equilibrium level and
stays there.
Chemical equilibrium: If the chemical composition of a system does not change with time, that is, no chemical reactions
occur.
State Postulate:
The number of properties required to fix the state of a system is given by the state postulate:
The state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent, intensive properties.
Simple compressible system: If a system involves no electrical, magnetic, gravitational, motion, and surface tension
effects.
Processes and Cycles
Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another.
Path: The series of states through which a system passes during a process.
To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states, as well as the path it follows, and the
interactions with the surroundings.
Quasistatic or quasi-equilibrium process: When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains
infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all times.
Process diagrams plotted by employing thermodynamic properties as coordinates are very useful in visualizing the
processes.
Some common properties that are used as coordinates are temperature T, pressure P, and volume V (or specific volume
v).
The prefix iso- is often used to designate a process for which a particular property remains constant.
Isothermal process: A process during which the temperature T remains constant.
Isobaric process: A process during which the pressure P remains constant.
Isochoric (or isometric) process: A process during which the specific volume v remains constant.
Cycle: A process during which the initial and final states are identical.
Volume, V
It is the space occupied by the substance.
Density, 𝛒
𝐦
It is the ratio of mass and volume. 𝛒 = 𝐕
Specific volume, 𝐯
𝐕
It is define as the ratio of volume and mass. 𝐯 = 𝐦
Weight, W
𝐦𝐠
It is a gravitational force that tends to pull the body towards the center of the earth. 𝐖 = wher g local
𝐠𝐜
acceleration due to gravity, gc the proportionality constant.
Specific weight, 𝛄
𝐖 𝐦𝐠 𝛒𝐠 𝐠
It is the ratio of weight and volume of a substance. 𝛄 = = = =
𝐕 𝐕𝐠 𝐜 𝐠𝐜 𝐯𝐠 𝐜
Specific Gravity, SG
The ratio of the density of a substance to the density of some standard substance at a specified temperature (usually
𝛒 𝛄
water at 4°C). 𝐒𝐆 = =
𝛒𝐫𝐞𝐟 𝛄𝐫𝐞𝐟
Temperature, T
Temperature Scales:
❖ All temperature scales are based on some easily reproducible states such as the freezing and boiling points of
water: the ice point and the steam point.
➢ Ice point: A mixture of ice and water that is in equilibrium with air saturated with vapor at 1 atm pressure
(0°C or 32°F).
➢ Steam point: A mixture of liquid water and water vapor (with no air) in equilibrium at 1 atm pressure (100°C
or 212°F).
➢ Celsius scale: in SI unit system
➢ Fahrenheit scale: in English unit system
❖ Thermodynamic temperature scale: A temperature scale that is independent of the properties of any substance.
➢ Kelvin scale (SI) Rankine scale (E)
A temperature scale nearly identical to the Kelvin scale is the ideal-gas temperature scale. The temperatures on this
scale are measured using a constant-volume gas thermometer.
The reference temperature in the original Kelvin scale was the ice point, 273.15 K, which is the temperature at which
water freezes (or ice melts).
The reference point was changed to a much more precisely reproducible point, the triple point of water (the state at
which all three phases of water coexist in equilibrium), which is assigned the value 273.16 K.
ZEROTH LAW
The zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can be restated as two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium if both have the same temperature reading even if they are not in contact.
Pressure, p
Pressure: A normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area
Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero
pressure).
Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure. Most pressure-
measuring devices are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate gage pressure.
Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.
Variation of Pressure with Elevation
The general equation for pressure variation with elevation is 𝐝𝐏 = −𝛄𝐝𝐳
For a fluid system that has constant specific weight 𝛄, the equation becomes ∆𝐏 = −𝛄∆𝐳
Pascal’s law: The pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure throughout by the same amount.
Manometers:
It is commonly used to measure small and moderate pressure differences. A manometer contains one or more fluids
such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil.
Barometer and Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the atmospheric pressure is often referred to as
the barometric pressure.
A frequently used pressure unit is the standard atmosphere, which is defined as the pressure produced by a column of
mercury 760 mm in height at 0°C (Hg = 13,595 kg/m3) under standard gravitational acceleration (g = 9.807 m/s2).
ARCHIMENDES PRINCIPLE
The basic principle of buoyancy and floatation was first discovered and stated by Archimedes over 2200 years ago.
Archimedes principle maybe stated as follows: A body floating or submerged in a fluid is buoyed (lifted) upward by a
force equal to the weight of the fluid that would be in the volume displaced by the fluid. This force is known as the
buoyant force. The point through which the buoyant force acts is called the center of buoyancy; it is located at the
center of gravity of the displaced fluid.
FB = Weight of displaced fluid
where FB is the bouyant force
Illustrative Problems
1. Determine the mass and the weight of the air contained in a room whose dimensions are 6mx6mx8m. Assume
the density of the air is 1.16kg/m3.
2. Determine the pressure exerted on a diver at 30m below the free surface of the sea. Assume a barometric
pressure of 101kPa and a specific gravity of 1.03 for seawater.
3. A manometer containing oil ( density =850kg/m3) is attached to a tank filled with air. If the oil-level difference
between the two columns is 45cm and the atmospheric pressure is 98kPa, determine the absolute pressure of
the air in the tank.
4. The average temperature of the atmosphere in the world is approximated as function of altitude by the relation
Tatm = 288.15 − 6.5z where Tatm is the temperature of the atmosphere in K and z is the altitude in km with
z =0 at sea level. Determine the average temperature of the atmosphere outside an airplane that is cruising at
an altitude of 12,000m.
5. An air-conditioning system requires a 20m long section of 15-cm diameter duct work to be laid underwater.
Determine the upward force the water will exert on the duct. Take the densities of air and water to be 1.3kg/m 3
and 1000kg/m3, respectively.
6. The lower half of a 10m high cylindrical container is filled with water (density = 1000kg/m 3) and the upper half
with oil that has a specific gravity of 0.85. Determine the pressure difference between the top and bottom of
the cylinder.
7. A vertical, frictionless piston-cylinder device contains a gas at 500kPa. The atmospheric pressure outside is
100kPa and the piston area is 30cm2. Determine the mass of the piston.
8. What fraction of the volume of a solid piece of metal of specific gravity 7.25 floats above the surface of a
container of mercury?
9. The weight of a certain crown in air was found to be 14N and its weight in water is 12.7N. Compute its specific
gravity.
10. A balloon weighs 122kg and has a volume of 423m3. It is filled with helium, which weighs 1.76kN/m3 at the
temperature and pressure of the air, which weighs 0.013 kN/m3. What load will the balloon support
Exercise
The pressure in a steam boiler is given by 75kg/cm2. Express the pressure in psi, kPa, atm and bars.
The average atmospheric pressure on earth is approximated as a function of altitude by the relation R =
101.325(1 − 0.02256z)5.256 where Patm is the atmospheric pressure in kPa and z is the altitude in km with
z = 0 at sea level. Determine the approximate atmospheric pressure in Atlanta (z=306m), Denver (z=1620m)
and the top of mount Everest ( z=8848m).
The boiling temperature of water decreases by about 3C for each 1000m rise in altitude. What is the decrease
in the boiling temperature in a)K b) F and c) R for each 1000m ris in altitude?
Hyperhtrmia of 5C (5C rise above the normal body temperature) is considered fatal. Express this fatal level of
hyperthermia in a) K and b) R.
The range of healthy weight for adults is usually expressed in terms of the body index (BMI), defined in SI
W(kg)
Units, as BMI = where W is the weight in kg of a person and H is the height in meters. The range
H2 (m2 )
of a healthy person is 19 ≤ BMI ≤ 25 . What is your BMI? How many kg you need to gain or loose to be
fit.
The hydraulic lift in a car repair shop has an output diameter of 30cm, and is to lift cars up to 2000kg.
determine the fluid gage pressure that must be maintained in the reservoir.
A vacuum gage connected to a tank reads 30kPa at a location where the barometric reading is 755mmHg.
Determine the absolute pressure in the tank. Take density of mercury as 13,590kg/m3.
At 450 latitude, the gravitational acceleration as a function of elevation z above sea level is given by g=a – bz,
where a=9.807m/s2 and b=3.32x10-6/s2. Determine the height above sea level where the weight of an object
will decrease by 1percent.
Latent Heat
A heat absorbed or released during a phase change process.
Latent Heat of fusion – the amount of energy absorbed during melting process or the amount of energy released during
freezing process.
For ice water at 1 atm , latent heat of fusion is 333.7kJ/kg
Latent heat of vaporization – the energy absorbed during vaporization process or the energy released during
condensation process.
For saturated water at 1 atm, latent heat of vaporization is 2257.1kJ/kg.
P-v Diangram
P-T Diagram
PVT Diagram
Other property diagrams of Interest
Ts Diagram
hs Diagram
Ph Diagram
Critical Point:
The temperature, pressure, and specific volume of a substance at the critical point are called, respectively, the critical
temperature Tcr, critical pressure Pcr, and critical specific volume vcr.
The critical-point properties of water are Pcr =22.06 MPa, Tcr =373.95°C, and vcr =0.003106 m3/kg.
For helium, they are 0.23 MPa,267.85°C, and 0.01444 m3/kg.
The critical properties for various substances are given in Table A–1 in the appendix.
Triple Point:
It is a point where the three phases (solid, liquid, vapor) coexist for a given
substance.
For water it occurs at a pressure of 0.61kPa and a temperature of 273.16K.
Property Tables and Charts:
Sub cooled/compressed Liquid Table for water (table A-7)
Illustrative Problems
A mass of 200g of saturated liquid water is completely vaporized at a constant pressure of 100kpa. Determine a) the
volume change and b) the amount of energy added to the water.
Exercise
Complete the table below for water:
T, C P, Kpa h, kJ/kg x Phase description
200 0.7
140 1800
950 0.0
80 500
800 3161.7
The average atmospheric pressure in Denver Colorado (elevation=1610m) is 83.4kPa. Determine the temperature
at which water in an uncovered pan will boil in Denver.
A rigid vessel contains 2kg of refrigerant 134a at 900kPa and 80C. Determine the volume of the vessel and the
total internal energy.
A piston-cylinder device initially contains 50L of liquid water at 25C and 300kPa. Heat is added to the water at
constant pressure until the entire liquid is vaporized. A) what is the mass of the water? B) what is the final
temperature? C) determine the total enthalpy change. D) show the process on Tv Diagram.
A 0.5m3 rigid vessel initially contains saturated liquid-vapor mixture of water at 100C. the water is now heated
until it reaches he critical state. Determine the mass of the liquid water and the volume occupied by the liquid
at the initial state.
A piston-cylinder device contains 0.8kg of steam at 300C and 1Mpa. Steam is cooled at constant pressure until
one-half of the mass condenses. A) show the process on the Tv Diagram b) find the final temperature c)
determine the volume change.
Topic No.: 3
Topic Title: Ideal and Real Gases
Topic Objectives: Describe the hypothetical substance “ideal gas” and the ideal-gas equation of state.
Apply the ideal-gas equation of state in the solution of typical problems.
Introduce the compressibility factor, which accounts for the deviation of real gases from ideal-gas
behavior.
Present some of the best-known equations of state.
Determine the value of specific heats for ideal gases.
𝐤𝐉
𝟖. 𝟑𝟏𝟒 𝐤𝐠𝐦𝐨𝐥−𝐊
𝐛𝐚𝐫−𝐦𝟑
𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟑𝟏𝟒 𝐤𝐠𝐦𝐨𝐥−𝐊
𝟏.𝟗𝟖𝟔𝐁𝐭𝐮
̅=
Where 𝐑 and MW – Molecular weight of the gas
𝐩𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞−𝐑
𝐩𝐬𝐢𝐚−𝐟𝐭 𝟑
𝟏𝟎. 𝟕𝟑 𝐩𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞−𝐑
𝐟𝐭−𝐥𝐛
[ 𝟏𝟓𝟒𝟓 𝐩𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞−𝐑
Real Gases
Compressibility Factor
𝐏𝐕 𝐏𝐯
The compressibility factor Z is given by 𝐳 = 𝐦𝐑𝐓 = 𝐑𝐓 where the value of Z can be taken from Charts below.
Please see also appendix 1 of the textbook; figure A-30a, 30b , and 30c.
Beattie-Bridgeman
Benedict-Webb-Rubin
Illustrative Problems
1. A Steel company plans on using 17 cubic meters of O2 in processing 1 metric ton of steel. If this volume is
measured at 101.325kPa and 21C, what mass of O2 is needed for a 20,000 metric ton/month furnace?
2. A spherical balloon with a diameter of 6m is filled with helium at 20C and 200kPaa. Determine the number of
moles and the mass of helium in the balloon.
3. The pressure in an automobile tire depends on the temperature of the air in the tire. When the air
temperature is 25C, the pressure gage reads 210kPa. If the volume of the tire is 0.025m 3, determine the
pressure rise in the tire when the air temperature in the tire rises to 50C, also, determine the amount of air
that must be bleed to restore pressure to its original value at this temperature. Assume the atmospheric
pressure is 100kPa.
4. Determine the specific volume of refrigerant 134a at 1MPa and 50C, using a) the ideal gas equation of state b)
the generalized compressibility chart.c) using the refrigerant table. Determine the error involved in each case.
Exercise
Determine the specific volume of nitrogen gas at 10Mpa and 150K based on a) ideal gas equation b) the
generalized compressibility chart.
Determine the specific volume of superheated water vapor at 10Mpa and 400C using a) the ideal gas equation
b) the generalized compressibility chart c) the steam tables. Also determine the error involved in the first two
cases.
A 1m3 tank contains 2.841kg of steam at 0.6Mpa. Determine the temperature of the steam, using a) the ideal
gas equation b) the Van der waals equation c) the steam tables.
Somebody claims that oxygen gas at 160K and 3Mpa can be treated as an ideal gas with an error of less than
10%. Is this valid?
What is the percentage of error involved in treating carbon dioxide at 5Mpa and 350K as an ideal gas?
A 1m3 tank containing air at 25C and 500kPa is connected through a valve to another tank containing 5kg of
air at 35C and 200kPa. Now the valve is opened, and the entire system is allowed to reach thermal equilibrium
with the surroundings, which are at 20C. Determine the volume of the second tank and the final equilibrium
pressure of air.
A 20m3 tank contains nitrogen at 23C and 600kPa. Some nitrogen is allowed to escape until the pressure in
the tank drops to 400kPa. If the temperature at this point is 20c, determine the amount of nitrogen that has
escaped.
A tank contains argon at 600C AND 200kPa gage. The argon is cooled in a process by heat transfer to the
surroundings such that the argon reaches a final equilibrium state at 300C. Determine the final gage pressure
of the argon. Assume atmospheric pressure is 100kPa.
Determine the pressure of water vapor at 315C and 0.032m3/kg, using a) the steam table b) the ideal gas
equation c) the generalized compressibility chart.
Topic No.: 4
Topic Title: Work, Heat and Energy Transfer
Topic Objectives: Introduce the concept of energy transfer by heat.
Discuss the various forms of work with emphasis on the moving boundary work.
Discuss the flow work, the work associated with forcing a fluid into or out of a control volume.
Discuss the combination of the internal energy and the flow work (i.e. Enthalpy).
Discuss the conservation of mass principle and apply it to various systems.
Types of Energy
Stored Energy: A type of energy that is dependent on the mass of the substance/body that crosses the boundary of the
system.
1. Potential Energy (PE)
This is a form of energy that depends on the elevation of the mass of a substance/body. In equation form:
𝐦𝐠𝐳
𝐏𝐄 = = 𝐖𝐳
𝐠𝐜
And the change in PE is
𝐦𝐠 ∆𝐳
∆𝐏𝐄 = = 𝐖∆𝐳
𝐠𝐜
2. Kinetic Energy (KE)
This is a form of energy that depends on the velocity of the mass of a substance/body. In equation form:
Convection
The transfer of energy in a liquid or gas.
When part of a gas or liquid is heated, the particles it is made up of move faster and spread out more.
The moving particles bump into other particles, causing them to move faster and spread out more.
Convection currents:
When particles in the air spread out, they become less dense and generally rise above the unheated, denser particles
around them.
The denser masses of the gas or liquid move in to fill the space left by the heated particles.
The particles that move away from the source of heat become cooler and denser.
The rate of heat transfer by convection is given by:
Q conv = h A (Ts − Tf )
Radiation
Energy transferred in the form of rays or waves or particles.
We will concentrate on the type of radiation that travels as electromagnetic waves.
Include visible light, microwaves and infrared light
Can travel through space.
The sun is our major source of heat energy.
Radiative heat transfer is energy in transition from the surface of one body to the surface of another due to electromagnetic
radiation. The radiative energy transferred is proportional to the difference in the fourth power of the absolute
temperatures of the bodies exchanging energy.
(
Q rad = A Ts4 − Tsurr
4
)
𝐐̇= heat transfer per unit time (W)
A= surface area for heat transfer (m2)
σ= Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.67x10-8 W/m2K4 and 0.1713x10-8 BTU/h ft2 R4
= emissivity
Ts= absolute temperature of surface (K)
Tsurr= absolute temperature of surroundings (K)
Work
Work is defined as the energy transfer associated with force acting through a distance.
Work is a Mechanical form of Energy.
𝐖𝐨𝐫𝐤 = 𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 𝐱 𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 or 𝐝𝐖 = 𝐅𝐝𝐬 𝐨𝐫 𝐝𝐖 = 𝐬𝐝𝐅 𝐨𝐫 𝐝𝐖 = 𝐝𝐅 𝐝𝐬
If the force is constant all throughout the path then
𝐖 = 𝐅∆𝐱
Sign Convention:
Work done on a system by external force acting in the direction of motion is negative.
Work done by a system against external force acting in the opposite direction of the motion is positive.
Work Category
➢ Mechanical Work
➢ Moving boundary work
➢ Shaft work
➢ Spring work
➢ Electrical Work
Ex. An electric wire crossing the system boundaries, (We=V I Δt)
V =voltage
I=current
Δt =time
The area under the process curve on a P-V diagram represents the boundary work. By equation:
𝟐
𝐖𝐍 = ∫ 𝐏𝐝𝐕
𝟏
Boundary is path dependent. Thus the equation for boundary depends on the process involve in the fluid. Work for the
processes Isobaric, Isothermal, Isentropic and Special polytropic can be handled easily.
Open system
𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦 = 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐥𝐞𝐚𝐯𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦 + 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐬𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦
If the system does not store mass then the equation becomes:
𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐢𝐧 = 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐨𝐫 𝐦𝐢𝐧 = 𝐦𝐨𝐮𝐭 = ∑ 𝛒𝐢𝐧 𝐕̇𝐢𝐧 = ∑ 𝛒𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐕̇𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐚𝐥𝐬𝐨 𝐦 = 𝛒𝐀𝜵
The amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one degree is called the specific
heat at constant volume cv for a constant volume process and the specific heat at constant pressure c p for a constant
pressure process. They are defined as
𝛛𝐮 𝛛𝐡
𝐜𝐯 = (𝛛𝐓) and 𝐜𝐩 = (𝛛𝐓)
𝐯 𝐩
For ideal gases u, h, cv, and cp are functions of temperature alone. The Δu and Δh of ideal gases are expressed as
𝟐 𝟐
∆𝐮 = 𝐮𝟐 − 𝐮𝟏 = ∫𝟏 𝐜𝐯 (𝐓)𝐝𝐓 ≅ 𝐜𝐯,𝐚𝐯𝐠 (𝐓𝟐 − 𝐓𝟏 ) and ∆𝐡 = 𝐡𝟐 − 𝐡𝟏 = ∫𝟏 𝐜𝐩 (𝐓)𝐝𝐓 ≅ 𝐜𝐩,𝐚𝐯𝐠 (𝐓𝟐 − 𝐓𝟏 )
For ideal gases, cv, and cp are related by 𝐜𝐩 = 𝐜𝐯 + 𝐑 kJ/kg-K where R is the gas constant. The specific heat ratio k
𝐜𝐩
is defined as 𝐤 = 𝐜 .
𝐯
For incompressible substances (liquids and solids), both the constant-pressure and constant-volume specific heats are
identical and denoted by c: 𝐜 = 𝐜𝐩 = 𝐜𝐯
1. A mass of 5kg of saturated water vapor at 200kPa is heated at constant pressure until the temperature reaches
300C. Calculate the work done by the steam during this process.
2. A mass of 2.4kg of air at 150kPa and 12C is contained in gas-tight, frictionless piston-cylinder device. The air is
now compresses to a final pressure of 600kPa. During the process, heat is transferred from the air such that
the temperature inside the cylinder remains constant. Calculate the work input during this process.
3. Determine the energy required to accelerate an 800kg car from rest to 100km/hr on a level road.
4. Water is pumped from a lake to a storage tank 20m above at a rate of 70L/s while consuming 20.4kW of
electric power. Disregarding any frictional losses in the pipes and any changes in kinetic energy, determine a)
the overall efficiency of the pump motor unit and b) the pressure difference between the inlet and the exit of
the pump.
5. A hollow spherical iron (k=80.2W/m-K) container whose outer diameter is 20cm and thickness is 0.4cm is filled
with iced water at 0C. if the outer surface temperature is 5C,determine the approximate rate of heat loss from
the sphere, and the rate at which ice melts in the container.
6. Consider a vertical elevator whose cabin has a total mass of 800kg when fully loaded and 150 kg when empty.
The weight of the elevator cabin is partially balanced by a 400-kg counterweight that is connected to the top
of the cabin by cables that pass through a pulley located on top of the cabin by cables that pass through a
pulley located on top of the cabin by cables pass through a pulley located on top of the elevator well.
Neglecting the weight of the cables and assuming the guide rails and the pulleys to be frictionless, determine a)
the power required while the fully loaded cabin is rising at a constant speed of 1.2m/s and b) the power
required while the empty cabin is descending at a constant speed of 1.2m/s.
7. A 1000W iron is left on the ironing board with its base exposed to the air at 20C. The convection coefficient
between the base and the surrounding air is 35W/m2-C. If the base has an emissivity of 0.6 and a surface area
of 0.02m2, determine the temperature of the base of the iron.
8. For a certain ideal gas, R=0.277kJ/kg-K and k=1.384. What are the values of cp and cv?
9. What mass of this gas would occupy a volume of 0.425cubic meters at 517.11kPaa and 26.7C?
10. If 31.65kJ are transferred to this gas at constant volume in (b), what are the resulting pressure and
temperature?
11. The increase of enthalpy of an ideal gas is 141.7kJ when the pressure increases from 103.4kPaa to 1034kPaa and
the volume decreases from 477L to 74.5L. Determine a) the change of internal energy b) the final temperature
of the gas if the initial temperature is 28.3C.
Question and Answer
Portable electric heaters are commonly used to heat small rooms. Explain the enrgy transformation involved
during this heating process.
What is the difference between the macroscopic and microscopic forms of energy?
What is total energy? Identify the different forms of energy that constitute the total energy.
List the forms of energy that contribute to the internal energy of a system.
What is mechanical energy? How does it differ from thermal energy? What are the forms of mechanical energy
of a fluid stream?
How are heat, internal energy and thermal energy related to each other?
In what forms that an energy crosses its boundary?
What are point and path functions? Give some examples.
A gas in a piston-cylinder device is compressed and as a result its temperature rises. Is this a heat or work
interaction?
What is an adiabatic process? What is an adiabatic system?
What are the mechanisms of heat transfer?
How does forced convection differ from free convection?
Exercise
1. A damaged car 1200kg car is being towed by a truck. Neglecting the friction, air drag, and rolling resistance,
determine the extra power required a) for constant velocity on a level road, b) for constant velocity of 50kph
on a 300 uphill road, b) to accelerate on a level road from stop to 90kph in 12 s.
2. A person gets into an elevator at the lobby level of a hotel together with his 30kg suitcase, and gets out at the
10th floor 35m above. Determine the amount of energy consumed by the motor of the elevator that is now
stored in the suitcase.
3. A river flowing steadily at a rate of 240m/s is considered for hydroelectric power generation. It is determined
that a dam can be built to collect water and release it from an elevation difference of 50m to generate power.
Determine how much power can be generated from this river water after the dam is constructed.
4. A fan is to accelerate quiescent air to a velocity of 10m/s at a rate of 4m3/s. determine the minimum power
that must be supplied to the fan. Take density of air to be 1.18kg/m3.
5. Consider a 1400kg car cruising at constant speed of 70km/h. now the car starts to ass another car, by
accelerating to 110km/h in 5s. Determine the additional power needed to achieve this acceleration.
6. Hot air at 80C is blown over a 2mx4m flat surface at 30C. If the convection heat transfer coefficient is 55
W/m2-C, determine the rate of heat transfer from the air to the plate, in kW.
7. A 5cm diameter spherical ball whose surface is maintained at a temperature of 70C is suspended in the middle
of a room at 20C. if the convection heat transfer coefficient is 15W/m2-C and the emissivity of the surface is
0.8. Determine the total rate of heat transfer from the ball.
8. A 2kW pump is used to pump kerosene (density = 0.82kg/L) from a tank on the ground to a tank at a higher
elevation. Both tanks are open to the atmosphere, and the elevation difference between the free surfaces of the
tanks is 30m. the maximum volume flow rate of kerosene is what?
Chapter 5. First Law of Thermodynamics
Topic No.: 5
Topic Title: First Law of Thermodynamics
Topic Objectives: Completely define Thermodynamic Systems.
State the First Law of Thermodynamics
Apply energy analysis on thermodynamic systems.
Solve specific problems regarding the applications of First Law of Thermodynamics
Illustrative Problems
An insulated piston-cylinder device contains 5L of saturated liquid water at a constant pressure of 150kPa. Water
is stirred by a paddle wheel while a current of 8A flows for 45min through a resistor placed in the water. If
one-half of the liquid is evaporated during this constant-pressure process and the paddle-wheel work amounts
to 300kJ, determine the voltage of the source. Show the process on the Pv and Ts diagram. Ans. 230.9V
Air enters an adiabatic nozzle steadily at 300kPa, 200C, and 30m/s and leaves at 100kPa and 180m/s. The inlet
area of the nozzle is 80cm2. Determine a) the mass flowrate of air through the nozzle b) the exit temperature
of the air and c) the exit area of the nozzle. ANS. 0.53kg/s, 184.6C, 38.7cm2
Refrigerant 134A enters a diffuser steadily as saturated vapor at 700kPa with a velocity of 140m/s and it leaves
at 800kPa and 40C. The refrigerant is gaining heat at a rate of 3kJ/s as it passes through the diffuser. If the exit
area is 80% greater than the inlet area, determine a) the exit velocity and b) the mass flowrate of the refrigerant.
Ans. 71.7m/s, 0.655kg/s
Steam flows steadily through an adiabatic turbine. The inlet conditions of the steam are 10Mpa, 450C and
80m/s; and the exit conditions are 10kPa, 92% quality and 50m/s. The mass flowrate of steam is 12kg/s.
Determine a) the change in kinetic energy, b) the power output and c) the turbine inlet area. Ans. -1.95kJ/kg,
10.2MW, 0.00446m2
Helium is to be compressed from 120kPa, 5m/s and 310K to 700kPa, 10m/s and 430K. A heat loss of 20kJ/kg
occurs during the compression process. Neglecting potential energy changes, determine the power input
required for a mass flowrate of 90kg/min.
Refrigerant 134a is throttled from the saturated liquid state at 800kPa to a pressure of 140kPa. Determine the
temperature drop during this process and the final specific volume of the refrigerant. Ans. 50.1C , 0.0454m3/kg
A hot water stream at 80C enters a mixing chamber with a mass flowrate of 0.5kg/s where it is mixed with a
stream of cold water at 20C. If it is desired that the mixture leave the chamber at 42C, determine the mass
flowrate of the cold water stream. Assume all the streams are at a pressure of 250kPa.
Steam enters the condenser of a steam power plant at 20kPa and a quality of 95% with a mass flow rate of
20,000kg/h. it is to be cooled by water from a nearby river by circulating the water through the tubes within
the condenser. To prevent thermal pollution, the river water is not allowed to experience a temperature rise
above 10C. If the steam is to leave the condenser as saturated liquid at 20kPa, determine the mass flow rate of
the cooling water required. Ans. 17866kg/min
Question and Answer
For a cycle, is the network necessarily be zero? For what kind of a system will this be the case?
What are the different mechanisms for transferring energy to or from a control volume?
Consider two identical rooms, one with a refrigerator in it and on the other without one. If all the doors and
windows are closed, will the room that contains the refrigerator be cooler or warmer than the other room?
Why?
On a hot summer day, a student turns his fan on when he leaves his room in the morning. When he returns in
the evening, will the room be warmer or cooler than the neighboring rooms? Assume all the doors and windows
are kept closed.
Is it possible to compress an ideal gas isothermally in an adiabatic piston-cylinder device? Explain.
How is steady-flow system characterized?
Can a steady flow system involve boundary work?
The kinetic energy of a fluid increases as it is accelerating in an adiabatic nozzle. Where does this energy come
from?
A diffuser is an adiabatic device that decreases the kinetic energy of the fluid by slowing it down. What happen
to this lost kinetic energy?
Will the temperature of air rise as it is compressed by an adiabatic compressor? Why?
Exercise
Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 10Mpa and 400C and leaves at 20kPa with a quality of 90%. Neglecting
the change in kinetic and potential energy, determine the mass flowrate required for a power output of 5MW.
Carbon dioxide enters an adiabatic compressor at 100kPa and 300K at a rate of 0.5kg/s and leaves at 600kPa
and 450K. Neglecting kinetic energy changes, determine a) the volume flowrate of the carbon dioxide at the
compressor inlet and b) the power input to the compressor.
Refrigerant 134a is throttled from the saturated liquid state at 800kPa to a pressure of 140kPa. Determine the
temperature drop during this process and the final specific volume of the refrigerant.
Air at 80kpa, 27C, and 220m/s enters a diffuser at a rate of 2.5kg/s and leaves at 42C. the exit area of the
diffuser is 400cm2. The air is estimated to lose heat at a rate of 18kJ/s during this process. Determine the exit
velocity and exit pressure of the air.
A piston-cylinder device whose piston is resting on top of a set of stops initially contains 0.5kg of helium gas
at 100kPa and 25C. the mass of the piston is such that 500kPa of pressure is required to raise it. How much
heat must be transferred to the helium before the piston starts rising.
A piston-cylinder device contains 5kg of refrigerant134a at 800kPa and 60C. the refrigerant is now cooled at
constant pressure until it exists as a liquid at 20C. Determine the amount of heat loss and show the process on
a Tv diagram with respect to saturation lines.
A rigid tank contains a hot fluid that is cooled while being stirred by a paddle wheel. Initially, the internal
energy of the fluid is 800kj. During the cooling process, the fluid loses 500kj of heat, and the paddle wheel does
100 kJ of work on the fluid. Determine the final internal energy of the fluid.
A piston-cylinder device contains 25 g of saturated water vapor that is maintained at a constant pressure of
300 kPa. A resistance heater within the cylinder is turned on and passes a current of 0.2 A for 5 min from a
120-V source. At the same time, a heat loss of 3.7 kJ occurs.
Show that for a closed system the boundary work Wb and the change in internal energy U in the first-law
relation can be combined into one term, H, for a constant pressure process.
Determine the final temperature of the steam.
A piston-cylinder device initially contains air at 150 kPa and 27oC. At this state, the piston is resting on a pair
of stops, as shown in the figure above, and the enclosed volume is 400 L. The mass of the piston is such that
a 350-kPa pressure is required to move it. The air now heated until its volume has doubled. Determine(a) the
finaltemperature, (b) the work done by the air, and c) the total heat transferred to the air. <Answers: a) 1400
K, b) 140 kJ, c) 766.9 kJ>
Air at 10oC and 80 kpa enters the diffuser of a jet engine steadily with a velocity of 200 m/s. The inlet area of
the diffuser is 0.4 m2. The air leaves the diffuser with a velocity that is very small compare to the inlet velocity.
Determine
(1) The mass flow rate of the air and
(2) The temperature of the air leaving the diffuser.
Steam at 1.72 Mpa (250 psia) and 371C (700 F) steadily enters a nozzle whose inlet area is 0.019 m2 (0.2 ft2.)
The mass flow rate of the steam through thenozzle is 4.54 kg/s (10 lbm/s) . Steam leaves the nozzle at 1.38
Mpa (200 psia) with a velocity of 274.3 m/s (900 ft/s). The heat losses from the nozzle per unit mass of the
steam are estimated to be 2.8 KJ/kg (1.2 Btu/lbm).
Determine:
(a) the inlet velocity and
(b) the exit temperature of the steam.
Answers: a) 41.0 m/s or 134.4 ft/s, b) 350 C or 661.9 F
The power output of an adiabatic steam turbine is 5 MW, and the inlet and the exit conditions of the steam
are as indicated in the figure on the right.
Compare the magnitude of h, ke, and pe.
Determine the work done per unit mass of the steam flowing through the turbine.
Calculate the mass flow rate of the steam.
Answers: a) h = -885.9 kJ/kg, ke = 14.95 kJ/kg, pe = -0.04 kJ/kg, b) 871.0 kJ/kg, and c) 5.74 kg/s
Refrigerant-134a enters the capillary tube of a refrigerator as saturated liquid at 0.8 MPa and is throttled to a
pressure of 0.12 MPa. Determine the quality of the refrigerant at the final state and the temperature drop during
this process. <Answers: 0.339, -53.69oC>
Consider an ordinary shower where hot water at 140oF is mixed with cold water at 50oF. If it is desired that a
steady stream of warm water at 110oF be supplied, determine the ratio of the mass flow rates of the hot to cold
water. Assume the heat losses from the mixing chamber to be negligible and the mixing to take place at a
pressure of 20 psia.
<Answer: 2.0>
Refrigerant-134a is to be cooled by water in a condenser. The refrigerant enters the condenser with a mass flow
rate of 6 kg/min at 1 MPa and 70oC and leaves at 35oC. The cooling water enters at 300 kPa and 15oC and leaves
at 25oC. Neglecting any pressure drop, determine
the mass flow rate of the cooling water required and (b) the heat transfer rate from the refrigerant to water.
The second law of thermodynamics states that processes occur in a certain direction, not in just any direction.
Physical processes in nature can proceed toward equilibrium spontaneously. Examples
Water flows down a waterfall.
Gases expand from a high pressure to a low pressure.
Heat flows from a high temperature to a low temperature.
Once it has taken place, a spontaneous process can be reversed, but it will not reverse itself
spontaneously. Some external inputs, energy, must be expended to reverse the process. As it falls down the
waterfall, water can be collected in a water wheel, cause a shaft to rotate, coil a rope onto the shaft, and lift a
weight. So the energy of the falling water is captured as potential energy increase in the weight, and the first
law of thermodynamics is satisfied. However, there are losses associated with this process (friction). Allowing
the weight to fall, causing the shaft to rotate in the opposite direction, will not pump all of the water back up
the waterfall.
Spontaneous processes can proceed only in a particular direction. The first law of thermodynamics
gives no information about direction; it states only that when one form of energy is converted into another,
identical quantities of energy are involved regardless of the feasibility of the process. We know by experience
that heat flows spontaneously from a high temperature to a low temperature. But heat flowing from a low
temperature to a higher temperature with no expenditure of energy to cause the process to take place would
not violate the first law.
Heat (thermal) reservoir
A heat reservoir is a sufficiently large system in stable equilibrium to which and from which finite amounts of
heat can be transferred without any change in its temperature.
A high temperature heat reservoir from which heat is transferred is sometimes called a heat source. A low
temperature heat reservoir to which heat is transferred is sometimes called a heat sink.
Work Reservoir
A work reservoir is a sufficiently large system in stable equilibrium to which and from which finite amounts of
work can be transferred adiabatically without any change in its pressure.
Thermodynamic Cycle
A system has completed a thermodynamic cycle when the system undergoes a series of processes and then
returns to its original state, so that the properties of the system at the end of the cycle are the same as at its
beginning.
Thus, for whole numbers of cycles
Pf = Pi , Tf = Ti , u f = ui , v f = vi , etc.
Heat Engine
A heat engine is a thermodynamic system operating in a thermodynamic cycle to which net heat is transferred
and from which net work is delivered.
The system, or working fluid, undergoes a series of processes that constitute the heat engine cycle.
The following figure illustrates a steam power plant as a heat engine operating in a thermodynamic cycle.
Thermal Efficiency,
The thermal efficiency is the index of performance of a work-producing device or a heat engine and is defined
by the ratio of the net work output (the desired result) to the heat input (the costs to obtain the desired result).
Desired Result
th =
Required Input
For a heat engine the desired result is the net work done and the input is the heat supplied to make the cycle
operate. The thermal efficiency is always less than 1 or less than 100 percent.
Wnet , out Wnet , out = Wout − Win
th =
Qin Qin Qnet
Here the use of the in and out subscripts means to use the magnitude (take the positive value) of either the
work or heat transfer and let the minus sign in the net expression take care of the direction.
Wnet , out
th =
Qin
Qin − Qout
Qnet , in − Wnet , out = U =
Qin
Wnet , out = Qnet , in Q
= 1 − out
Wnet , out = Qin − Qout Qin
Cyclic devices such as heat engines, refrigerators, and heat pumps often operate between a high-temperature
reservoir at temperature TH and a low-temperature reservoir at temperature TL.
QL
th = 1 −
QH
Heat Pump
A heat pump is a thermodynamic system operating in a thermodynamic cycle that removes heat from a low-
temperature body and delivers heat to a high-temperature body. To accomplish this energy transfer, the heat
pump receives external energy in the form of work or heat from the surroundings.
While the name “heat pump” is the thermodynamic term used to describe a cyclic device that allows the transfer
of heat energy from a low temperature to a higher temperature, we use the terms “refrigerator” and “heat
pump” to apply to particular devices. Here a refrigerator is a device that operates on a thermodynamic cycle
and extracts heat from a low-temperature medium. The heat pump also operates on a thermodynamic cycle
but rejects heat to the high-temperature medium.
The index of performance of a refrigerator or heat pump is expressed in terms of the coefficient of performance,
COP, the ratio of desired result to input. This measure of performance may be larger than 1, and we want the
COP to be as large as possible.
Desired Result
COP =
Required Input
The following figure illustrates a refrigerator as a heat pump operating in a thermodynamic cycle.
For the heat pump acting like a refrigerator or an air conditioner, the primary function of the device is the
transfer of heat from the low- temperature system.
For the refrigerator the desired result is the heat supplied at the low temperature and the input is
the net work into the device to make the cycle operate.
QL QL
COPR = COPR =
Wnet , in QH − QL
For the device acting like a “heat pump,” the primary function of the device is the transfer of heat to the high-
temperature system. The coefficient of performance for a heat pump is
QH QH
COPHP = =
Wnet , in QH − QL
Note, under the same operating conditions the COPHP and COPR are related by
COPHP = COPR + 1
Heat Pump and Air Conditioner Ratings
Heat pumps and air conditioners are rated using the SEER system. SEER is the seasonal adjusted energy
efficiency (bad term for HP and A/C devices) rating. The SEER rating is the amount of heating (cooling) on a
seasonal basis in Btu/hr per unit rate of power expended in watts, W.
The heat transfer rate is often given in terms of tons of heating or cooling. One ton of refrigeration equals
12,000 Btu/hr = 211 kJ/min.
Second Law Statements
The following two statements of the second law of thermodynamics are based on the definitions of
the heat engines and heat pumps.
Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law
It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a single reservoir and produce a
net amount of work.
The Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law of thermodynamics states that no heat engine can produce a net
amount of work while exchanging heat with a single reservoir only. In other words, the maximum possible
efficiency is less than 100 percent.
Heat engine that violates the Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law
Heat pump that violates the Clausius statement of the second law
Or energy from the surroundings in the form of work or heat has to be expended to force heat to flow from a
low-temperature medium to a high-temperature medium.
Thus, the COP of a refrigerator or heat pump must be less than infinity.
COP
A violation of either the Kelvin-Planck or Clausius statements of the second law implies a violation of
the other. Assume that the heat engine shown below is violating the Kelvin-Planck statement by absorbing heat
from a single reservoir and producing an equal amount of work W. The output of the engine drives a heat
pump that transfers an amount of heat QL from the low-temperature thermal reservoir and an amount of heat
QH + QL to the high-temperature thermal reservoir. The combination of the heat engine and refrigerator in
the left figure acts like a heat pump that transfers heat QL from the low-temperature reservoir without any
external energy input. This is a violation of the Clausius statement of the second law.
Perpetual-Motion Machines
Any device that violates the first or second law of thermodynamics is called a perpetual-motion machine. If the
device violates the first law, it is a perpetual-motion machine of the first kind. If the device violates the second
law, it is a perpetual-motion machine of the second kind.
Reversible Processes
A reversible process is a quasi-equilibrium, or quasi-static, process with a more restrictive requirement.
Internally reversible process
The internally reversible process is a quasi-equilibrium process, which, once having taken place, can be reversed
and in so doing leave no change in the system. This says nothing about what happens to the surroundings
about the system.
Totally or externally reversible process
The externally reversible process is a quasi-equilibrium process, which, once having taken place, can be reversed
and in so doing leave no change in the system or surroundings.
Irreversible Process
An irreversible process is a process that is not reversible.
All real processes are irreversible. Irreversible processes occur because of the following:
Friction
Unrestrained expansion of gases
Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference
Mixing of two different substances
Hysteresis effects
I2R losses in electrical circuits
Any deviation from a quasi-static process
The Carnot Cycle
French military engineer Nicolas Sadi Carnot (1769-1832) was among the first to study the principles of the
second law of thermodynamics. Carnot was the first to introduce the concept of cyclic operation and devised
a reversible cycle that is composed of four reversible processes, two isothermal and two adiabatic.
The Carnot Cycle
Process 1-2: Reversible isothermal heat addition at high temperature, TH>TL, to the working fluid in a piston-
cylinder device that does some boundary work.
Process 2-3: Reversible adiabatic expansion during which the system does work as the working fluid
temperature decreases from TH to TL.
Process 3-4: The system is brought in contact with a heat reservoir at TL<TH and a reversible isothermal heat
exchange takes place while work of compression is done on the system.
Process 4-1:A reversible adiabatic compression process increases the working fluid temperature from TL to TH
You may have observed that power cycles operate in the clockwise direction when plotted on a process diagram.
The Carnot cycle may be reversed, in which it operates as a refrigerator. The refrigeration cycle operates in
the counterclockwise direction.
Carnot Principles
The second law of thermodynamics puts limits on the operation of cyclic devices as expressed by the Kelvin-
Planck and Clausius statements. A heat engine cannot operate by exchanging heat with a single heat reservoir,
and a refrigerator cannot operate without net work input from an external source.
Consider heat engines operating between two fixed temperature reservoirs at TH> TL. We draw two conclusions
about the thermal efficiency of reversible and irreversible heat engines, known as the Carnot principles.
The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the efficiency of a reversible one operating
between the same two reservoirs.
th th , Carnot
The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between the same two constant-temperature heat
reservoirs have the same efficiency.
The thermal efficiencies of actual and reversible heat engines operating between the same temperature limits
compare as follows:
Again, these are the maximum possible COPs for a refrigerator or a heat pump operating between the
temperature limits of TH and TL.
The coefficients of performance of actual and reversible (such as Carnot) refrigerators operating between the
same temperature limits compare as follows:
Illustrative Problems
A Carnot heat engine receives 500 kJ of heat per cycle from a high-temperature heat reservoir at 652oC and
rejects heat to a low-temperature heat reservoir at 30oC. Determine
(a) The thermal efficiency of this Carnot engine.
(b) The amount of heat rejected to the low-temperature heat reservoir.
An inventor claims to have invented a heat engine that develops a thermal efficiency of 80 percent when
operating between two heat reservoirs at 1000 K and 300 K. Evaluate his claim.
A steam power plant receives heat from a furnace at a rate of 280GJ/h. Heat losses to the surrounding air from
the steam as it passes through the pipes and other components are estimated to be about 8GJ/h. If the waste
heat is transferred to the cooling water at a rate of 145GJ/h, determine a) the net power output b) the thermal
efficiency of this power plant.
An innovative way of power generation involves the utilization of geothermal energy – the energy of hot water
that exists naturally underground – as the heat source. If a supply of hot water at 140C is discovered at a
location where the environmental temperature is 20C, determine the maximum thermal efficiency of a
geothermal power plant built at that location can have.
An inventor claims to have developed a refrigerator that maintains the refrigerated space at 2oC while operating
in a room where the temperature is 25oC and has a COP of 13.5. Is there any truth to his claim?
A heat pump is to be used to heat a building during the winter. The building is to be maintained at 21oC at all
times. The building is estimated to be losing heat at a rate of 135,000 kJ/h when the outside temperature drops
to -5oC. Determine the minimum power required to drive the heat pump unit for this outside temperature.
Exercise
1. A household refrigerator with a cop of 1.5 removes heat from the refrigerated space at a rate of 60kJ/min.
determine a) the electric power consumed by the refrigerator and b) the rate of heat transfer to the kitchen air.
2. An air-conditioner removes heat steadily from a house at a rate 750kJ/min while drawing electric power at a rate of
6kW. Determine a) the COP of this air conditioner and b) the rate of heat transfer to the outside air.
3. A carnot heat engines operates between a source at 1000K and a sink at 300K. if the heat engine is supplied with
heat at a rate of 800kJ/min. determine a) the thermal efficiency and b) the power output of this heat engine.
4. A carnot refrigerator operates in a room in which the temperature is 25C. the refrigerator consumes 500W of
power when operating and has a COP of 4.5. Determine a) the rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space
and b) the temperature of the refrigerated space.
5. A carnot heat pump is to be used to heat a house and maintain it at 20C in winter. On a day when the average
outdoor temperature remains at about 2C, the house is estimated to lose heat at a rate of 82,000kJ/h. If the heat
pump consumes 8kW of power while operating, determine a) how long the heat pump ran on that day; b) the total
heating costs, assuming an average price of 5cents/Kw-hr for electricity; and c) the heating cost for the same day if
resistance heating is used instead of a heat pump.
Chapter 7. Entropy
Topic No.: 7
Topic Title: Entropy
Topic Objectives: Define entropy as a thermodynamic property.
Explain the increase in entropy principle.
Calculate change in entropy for pure substance and ideal gases.
Describe the isentropic process and its applications.
Quantify isentropic efficiencies for common systems.
Perform entropy balance for thermodynamic systems.
The second law of thermodynamics leads to the definition of a new property called entropy, a quantitative
measure of microscopic disorder for a system.
Entropy is a measure of energy that is no longer available to perform useful work within the current
environment.
Clausius Inequality
Consider a heat reservoir giving up heat to a reversible heat engine, which in turn gives up heat to a piston-
cylinder device as shown.
We apply the first law on an incremental basis to the combined system composed of the heat engine and the
system.
Ein − Eout = Ec
QR − (Wrev + Wsys ) = dEc
where Ec is the energy of the combined system. Let Wc be the work done by the combined system. Then the
first law becomes
QR Q
=
Wc = Wrev + Wsys TR T
Q
QR − Wc = dEc QR = TR
T
The total net work done by the combined system becomes
Q
Wc = TR − dEc
T
Now the total work done is found by taking the cyclic integral of the incremental work.
If the system, as well as the heat engine, is required to undergo a cycle, then
If Wc is positive, we have a cyclic device exchanging energy with a single heat reservoir and producing an
equivalent amount of work; thus, the Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law is violated. But Wc can be zero
(no work done) or negative (work is done on the combined system) and not violate the Kelvin-Planck statement
of the second law. Therefore, since TR> 0 (absolute temperature), we conclude
This equation is called the Clausius inequality. The equality holds for the reversible process and the inequality
holds for the irreversible process.
Entropy
If no irreversibilities occur within the system as well as the reversible cyclic device, then the cycle undergone
by the combined system will be internally reversible. As such, it can be reversed. In the reversed cycle case, all
the quantities will have the same magnitude but of opposite sign. Therefore, the work W C, which could not be
a positive quantity in the regular case, cannot be a negative quantity in the reversed case. Then it follows that
WC,int rev = 0 . Since it cannot be a positive or negative quantity, and therefore
for internally reversible cycles. Thus we conclude that the equality in the Clausius inequality holds for totally
or just internally reversible cycles and the inequality for the irreversible ones.
Consider the cycle shown below composed of two reversible processes A and B. Apply the Clausius inequality
for this cycle. What do you conclude about these two integrals?
We should find
Since the quantity (Qnet/T)int rev is independent of the path and must be a property, we call this property the
entropy S.
The entropy change occurring during a process is related to the heat transfer and the temperature of the
system. The entropy is given the symbol S (kJ/K), and the specific entropy is s (kJ/kgK).
The entropy change during a reversible process, sometimes called an internally reversible process, is defined as
Consider the cycle 1-A-2-B-1, shown below, where process A is arbitrary that is, it can be either reversible or
irreversible, and process B is internally reversible.
The integral along the internally reversible path, process B, is the entropy change S1 –S2. Therefore,
Here, the inequality is to remind us that the entropy change of a system during an irreversible process is always
greater than 0 , called the entropy transfer. That is, some entropy is generated or created during an
irreversible process, and this generation is due entirely to the presence of irreversibilities. The entropy generated
during a process is called entropy generation and is denoted as Sgen.
We can remove the inequality by noting the following
Sgen is always a positive quantity or zero. Its value depends upon the process and thus it is not a property. Sgen
is zero for an internally reversible process.
Now consider an isolated system composed of several subsystems exchanging energy among themselves. Since
the isolated system has no energy transfer across its system boundary, the heat transfer across the system
boundary is zero.
In the above figure, the heat transfer in an internally reversible process is shown as the area under the process
curve plotted on the T-S diagram.
For a process occurring over a varying temperature, the entropy change must be found by integration over the
process.
If the process is adiabatic and reversible, the equality holds and the entropy change is
S = S2 − S1 = 0
S2 = S1
The adiabatic, reversible process is a constant entropy process and is called isentropic. As will be shown later
for an ideal gas, the adiabatic, reversible process is the same as the polytropic process where the polytropic
exponent n = k = Cp/Cv.
The principle of increase of entropy for a closed system exchanging heat with its surroundings at a constant
temperature Tsurr is found by using the equation for the entropy generated for an isolated system.
S gen = Stotal = S sys + S surr 0
S sys = ( S2 − S1 ) sys
Qnet , surr
S surr =
Tsurr
Entropy as a Property
Entropy is a property, and it can be expressed in terms of more familiar properties (P,v,T) through the Tds
relations. These relations come from the analysis of a reversible closed system that does boundary work and
has heat added. Writing the first law for the closed system in differential form on a per unit mass basis
The temperature-entropy and enthalpy-entropy diagrams for water are shown below.
Entropy Change for Ideal Gases
The integrals on the right-hand side of the above equation are called the standard state entropies, so, at state 1,
T1, and state 2, T2; so is a function of temperature only.
P2 P2 / Pref P
= = r2
P1 s = const . P1 / Pref s = const . Pr1
And in terms of v the equation is:
Therefore, for any process:
P2 s − s = s o − s o − R ln P2
s2 − s1 = s2o − s1o − R ln 2 1 2 1 u
P1 P1
The standard state entropies are found in Tables A-17 for air on a mass basis and Tables A-18 through A-25 for
other gases on a mole basis. When using this variable specific heat approach to finding the entropy change for
an ideal gas, remember to include the pressure term along with the standard state entropy terms--the tables
don’t warn you to do this.
Isentropic process: s = 0
Entropy Generation
Entropy balance for any system undergoing any process is expressed as
𝐒𝐢𝐧 − 𝐒𝐨𝐮𝐭 + 𝐒𝐠𝐞𝐧 = ∆𝐒𝐬𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦
𝐝𝐒𝐬𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦
Or in the rate form: 𝐒̇𝐢𝐧 − 𝐒̇𝐨𝐮𝐭 + 𝐒̇𝐠𝐞𝐧 = 𝐝𝐭
𝐐𝐤
For Closed System: ∑ + 𝐒𝐠𝐞𝐧 = ∆𝐒𝐬𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦 = 𝐒𝟐 − 𝐒𝟏
𝐓𝐤
𝐐̇𝐤 𝐝𝐒
∑ + ∑ 𝐦̇𝐢 𝐬𝐢 − ∑ 𝐦̇𝐞 𝐬𝐞 + 𝐒̇𝐠𝐞𝐧 =
𝐓𝐤 𝐝𝐭 𝐂𝐕
𝐐̇𝐤
𝐒𝐭𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐲 − 𝐟𝐥𝐨𝐰: 𝐒̇𝐠𝐞𝐧 = ∑ 𝐦̇𝐞 𝐬𝐞 − ∑ 𝐦̇𝐢 𝐬𝐢 − ∑
𝐓𝐤
𝐐̇𝐤
𝐒𝐭𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐲 − 𝐟𝐥𝐨𝐰, 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐦: 𝐒̇𝐠𝐞𝐧 = ∑ 𝐦̇𝐞 (𝐬𝐞 − 𝐬𝐢 ) − ∑
𝐓𝐤
Exercise
Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 6Mpa, 600C, and 80m/s and leaves at 50kPa, 100C,and 140m/s. If the
power output of the turbine is 8000kW, determine the a) the mass flowrate of the steam flowing through the
turbine and b) the isentropic efficiency of the turbine.
A 20kg aluminum block initially at 200C is brought into contact with a 20kg block of iron at 100C in an
insulated enclosure. Determine the final equilibrium temperature and the total entropy change for this process.
Air is compressed by a 12kW compressor from P1 to P2. The air temperature is maintained constant at 25C
during this process as a result of heat transfer to the surrounding medium at 10C. Determine the rate of entropy
change of the air. State the assumptions used in solving this problem.
A 0.5m3 rigid tank contains refrigerant 134a initially at 200kPa and 40% quality. Heat is transferred now to the
refrigerant from a source at 35C until the pressure rises to 400kPa. Determine a) the entropy change of the
refrigerant b) the entropy change of the heat source and c) the total entropy change for this process.
Steam is to be condensed in the condenser of a steam power plant at a temperature of 50C with cooling water
from a nearby lake, which enters the tubes of the condenser at 18C at a rate of 101kg/s and leaves at 27C.
Assuming the condenser to be perfectly insulated, determine a) the rate of condensation of the steam b) the
rate of entropy generation in the condenser.
Steam enters an adiabatic nozzle at 3Mpa and 400C with a velocity of 70m/s and exits at 2Mpa and 320m/s. if
the nozzle has an inlet area of 7cm2, determine a) the exit temperature and b) the rate of entropy generation
for this process.
Determine the entropy change of water contained in a closed system as it changes phase from saturated liquid
to saturated vapor when the pressure is 0.1 MPa and constant. Why is the entropy change positive for this
process?
Steam at 1 MPa, 600oC, expands in a turbine to 0.01 MPa. If the process is isentropic, find the final temperature,
the final enthalpy of the steam, and the turbine work.
Aluminum at 100oC is placed in a large, insulated tank having 10 kg of water at a temperature of 30 oC. If the
mass of the aluminum is 0.5 kg, find the final equilibrium temperature of the aluminum and water, the entropy
change of the aluminum and the water, and the total entropy change of the universe because of this process.
Carbon dioxide initially at 50 kPa, 400 K, undergoes a process in a closed system until its pressure and
temperature are 2 MPa and 800 K, respectively. Assuming ideal gas behavior, find the entropy change of the
carbon dioxide by first assuming constant specific heats and then assuming variable specific heats.
Consider steady heat transfer through a 5m by 6m brick wall of a house of thickness 30cm. On a day when the
temperature of the outdoors is 0C, the house is maintained at 27C. the temperatures of the inner and outer
surfaces of the brick wall are measured to be 20C and 5C, respectively, and the rate of heat transfer through
the wall is 1035W. Determine the rate of entropy generation in the wall, and the rate of total entropy generation
associated with this heat transfer process.
Steam at 7Mpa and 450C is throttled in a valve to a pressure of 3Mpa during a steady-flow process. Determine
the entropy generated during this process.
Chapter 8. Exergy
Topic No.: 8
Topic Title: Exergy
Topic Objectives: Define Exergy in engineering point of view.
Derive exergy equations for thermodynamic systems.
Define and derive equations for irreversibility.
Apply exergy to real engineering problems.
The energy content of the universe is constant, just as its mass content is. Yet at times of crisis we are bombarded with
speeches and articles on how to “conserve” energy. As engineers, we know that energy is already conserved. What is not
conserved is exergy, which is the useful work potential of the energy. Once the exergy is wasted, it can never be recovered.
When we use energy (to heat our homes, for example), we are not destroying any energy; we are merely converting it to
a less useful form, a form of less exergy.
Exergy Forms
Now let’s determine the exergy of various forms of energy.
Exergy of kinetic energy
Kinetic energy is a form of mechanical energy and can be converted directly into work. Kinetic energy itself is the work
potential or exergy of kinetic energy independent of the temperature and pressure of the environment.
W = P dV = ( P − P0 ) dV + P0 dV
= Wb, useful + P0 dV
The exergy of flow work is the excess of flow work done against atmospheric air at P0 to displace it by volume v. According
to the above figure, the useful work potential due to flow work is
wflow, energy = Pv − P0v
Exergy of a closed system
𝐦 𝐦𝐠
𝐗 = (𝐔 − 𝐔𝟎 ) + 𝐏𝟎 (𝐕 − 𝐕𝟎 ) − 𝐓𝐎 (𝐒 − 𝐒𝟎 ) + (𝜵𝟐 ) + (𝐳)
𝟐𝐠 𝐜 𝐠𝐜
on a unit mass basis, the closed system (or nonflow) exergy is
𝟏 𝐠
∅ = (𝐮 − 𝐮𝟎 ) + 𝐏𝟎 (𝐯 − 𝐯𝟎 ) − 𝐓𝐎 (𝐬 − 𝐬𝟎 ) + (𝜵𝟐 ) + (𝐳)
𝟐𝐠 𝐜 𝐠𝐜
Here, u0, v0, and s0 are the properties of the system evaluated at the dead state. Note that the exergy of the
internal energy of a system is zero at the dead state is zero since u = u0, v = v0, and s = s0at that state.
The exergy change of a closed system during a process is simply the difference between the final and initial exergies of
the system,
𝟏 𝐠
∆𝐱 = (𝐮𝟐 − 𝐮𝟏 ) + 𝐏𝟎 (𝐯𝟐 − 𝐯𝟏 ) − 𝐓𝐎 (𝐬𝟐 − 𝐬𝟏 ) + (𝜵𝟐𝟐 − 𝜵𝟐𝟏 ) + (𝐳𝟐 − 𝐳𝟏 )
𝟐𝐠 𝐜 𝐠𝐜
𝐦 𝐦𝐠
𝐗 = (𝐔 − 𝐔𝟎 ) + 𝐏𝟎 (𝐕 − 𝐕𝟎 ) − 𝐓𝐎 (𝐒 − 𝐒𝟎 ) + (𝜵𝟐 ) + (𝐳) + (𝐏 − 𝐏𝟎 )𝐕
𝟐𝐠 𝐜 𝐠𝐜
𝐦 𝐦𝐠
𝐗 = (𝐔 + 𝐏𝐕) − (𝐔𝟎 + 𝐏𝟎 𝐕𝟎 ) − 𝐓𝐎 (𝐒 − 𝐒𝟎 ) + (𝜵𝟐 ) + (𝐳)
𝟐𝐠 𝐜 𝐠𝐜
𝐦 𝐦𝐠
𝐗 = (𝐇 − 𝐇𝟎 ) − 𝐓𝐎 (𝐒 − 𝐒𝟎 ) + (𝜵𝟐 ) + (𝐳)
𝟐𝐠 𝐜 𝐠𝐜
The exergy of flow can be negative if the pressure is lower than atmospheric pressure.
The exergy change of a fluid stream as it undergoes a process from state 1 to state 2 is
𝟏 𝐠
∆𝛗 = (𝛗𝟐 − 𝛗𝟏 ) = (𝐡𝟐 − 𝐡𝟏 ) − 𝐓𝐎 (𝐬𝟐 − 𝐬𝟏 ) + (𝜵𝟐𝟐 − 𝜵𝟐𝟏 ) + (𝐳𝟐 − 𝐳𝟏 )
𝟐𝐠 𝐜 𝐠𝐜
Irreversibility
The difference between the reversible work Wrev and the useful work Wu is due to the irreversibilities present during the
process and is called the irreversibility I. It is equivalent to the exergy destroyed and is expressed as
I = X destroyed = T0 Sgen = Wrev, out − Wu, out = Wu, in − Wrev, in
where Sgenis the entropy generated during the process. For a totally reversible process, the useful and reversible work
terms are identical and thus irreversibility is zero.
Irreversibility can be viewed as the wasted work potential or the lost opportunity to do work. It represents the energy
that could have been converted to work but was not.
Exergy destroyed represents the lost work potential and is also called the wasted work or lost work.
Second-Law Efficiency
The second-law efficiency is a measure of the performance of a device relative to the performance under reversible
conditions for the same end states and is given by
In general, the second-law efficiency is expressed as
Exergy recovered Exergy destroyed
II = = 1−
Exergy supplied Exergy supplied
For heat engines and other work-producing devices and
th W
II = = u
th , rev Wrev
For refrigerators, heat pumps, and other work-consuming devices.
COP Wrev
II = =
COPrev Wu
For adiabatic heat exchangers with two unmixed fluid streams (cold fluid 3 to 4 and hot fluid 1 to 2)
𝐦̇𝐜𝐨𝐥𝐝 (𝛙𝟒 − 𝛙𝟑 ) 𝐓𝐨 𝐒̇𝐠𝐞𝐧
𝛈𝐈𝐈 = =𝟏−
𝐦̇𝐡𝐨𝐭 (𝛙𝟏 − 𝛙𝟐 ) 𝐦̇𝐡𝐨𝐭 (𝛙𝟏 − 𝛙𝟐 )
For an adiabatic mixing chamber where a hot stream 1 is mixed with a cold stream 2, forming a mixture 3
𝐦̇𝟑 (𝛙𝟑 ) 𝐓𝐨 𝐒̇𝐠𝐞𝐧
𝛈𝐈𝐈 = =𝟏−
(𝐦̇𝟏 𝛙𝟏 + 𝐦̇𝟐 𝛙𝟐 ) (𝐦̇𝟏 𝛙𝟏 + 𝐦̇𝟐 𝛙𝟐 )
Exergy Transfer
Exergy can be transferred by heat, work, and mass flow, and exergy transfer accompanied by heat, work, and mass transfer
are given by the following.
Exergy Balances
Exergy balance for any system undergoing any process can be expressed as
Total Total Total Change in the
exergy − exergy − exergy = total exergy
entering leaving destroyed of the system
X in − X out − X destroyed = X system
Net exergy transfer Exergy Change
by heat, work, and mass destruction in exergy
Exercise
Refrigerant 134-a enters an adiabatic compressor at 160kPa superheated by 3C, and leaves at 1Mpa. If the
compressor has a second-law efficiency of 80%, determine a) the actual work input, b) the isentropic efficiency,
and c) the exergy destruction. Take the environment temperature to be 25C. Ans. A)49.8kJ/kg b) 0.78 c)
9.95kJ/kg
Steam is to be condensed in the condenser of a steam power plant at a temperature of 60C with cooling water
from a nearby lake that enters the tubes of the condenser at 15C at a rate of 140kg/s and leaves at 25C. Assuming
the condenser to be perfectly insulated, determine a) the rate of condensation of the steam and b) the rate of
exergy destruction in the condenser. Ans. A)2.48kg, b) 694kW.
An insulated vertical piston-cylinder device initially contains 15kg of water, 9kg of which is in the vapor phase.
The mass of the piston is such that it maintains a constant pressure of 200kPa inside the cylinder. Now steam
at 1 Mpa and 400C is allowed to enter the cylinder from a supply line until all the liquid in the cylinder is
vaporized. Assuming the surrounding to be at 25C and 100kPa, determine a) the amount of steam that has
entered and b) the exergy destroyed during the process. Ans. A) 23.66kg b) 7610kJ
A 0.6m3 rigid tank is filled with saturated liquid water at 170C. a valve at the bottom of the tank is now opened,
and one-half of the total mass is withdrawn from the tank in liquid form. Heat is transferred to water from a
source of 210C so that the temperature in the tank remains constant. Determine a) the amount of heat transfer
and b) the reversible work and exergy destruction for this process. Assume the surroundings to be at 25C and
100kPa.
Oxygen gas is compressed in a piston-cylinder device from an initial state of 0.8 m3/kg and 25oC to a final state
of 0.1 m3/kg and 287oC. Determine the reversible work input and the increase in the exergy of the oxygen
during this process. Assume the surroundings to be at 25oC and 100 kPa.
We assume that oxygen is an ideal gas with constant specific heats. From Table A-2, R = 0.2598 kJ/kgK. The
specific heat is determined at the average temperature Cv, ave = 0.690 kJ/kgK.
Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 6 MPa, 600C, and 80 m/s and leaves at 50 kPa, 100C, and 140 m/s. The
surroundings to the turbine are at 25C. If the power output of the turbine is 5MW, determine
(a)the power potential of the steam at its inlet conditions, in MW.
(b) the reversible power, in MW.
(c)the second law efficiency.
We assume steady-flow and neglect changes in potential energy.
A 200m3 rigid tank initially contains atmospheric air at 100kPa and 300K and is to be used as a storage vessel
for compressed air at 1Mpa and 300K. Compressed air is to be supplied by a compressor that takes in
atmospheric air at 100kPa and 300K. Determine the minimum work requirement for this process.
An insulated piston-cylinder contains 2L of saturated liquid water at a constant pressure of 150kPa. An electric
resistance heater inside the cylinder is turned on, and electrical work is done on the water in the amount of
2299kJ. Assuming the surroundings to be at 25C and 100kPa, determine a) the minimum work with which this
process could be accomplished and b) the exergy destroyed during this process.
Nitrogen gas enters a diffuser at 100kPa and 150C with a velocity of 180m/s, and leaves at 110kPa and 25m/s. it
is estimated that 4.5kJ/kg of heat is lost from the diffuser to the surroundings at 100kPa and 27C. the exit area
of the diffuser is 0.06m2. Accounting for the variation of the specific heats with temperature, determine a) the
exit temperature b) the rate of exergy destruction and c) the second law efficiency of the diffuser.
References
Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 6th Edition, Yunus Cengel and Michael Boles, McGraw Hill
Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics; 4th Edition, M. J. Moran and H. N. Shapiro, Wiley
Engineering Thermodynamics, Burghardt, McGraw Hill
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics, 7th Edition; Borgnakke C. and Sonntag R. E.; John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Thermodynamics for Engineers, 2nd Edition; Wong K. V.; CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group
Thermodynamics II
In the analysis and application of the basic laws of thermodynamics, consideration is normally
given to systems involving constant and uniform chemical compositions. Many Engineering
applications, however, involve mixtures of gases whose properties are determined in the same way
as for a single gas.
An ideal gas is one which strictly obeys all the gas laws under given conditions of temperature and
pressure
The concept of the ideal gas represents a limiting state that can be approached but not achieved by
any real gas.
Analysis of many Mechanical Engineering processes are conducted at pressures and temperatures
that the ideal gas laws can be used as simple and reasonably close approximations to the behaviour
of the real gas.
The characteristic Gas Equation
The Physical properties of a gas are controlled by:
The pressure P exerted by the gas
The Volume V occupied by the gas and
The temperature T of the gas
The behavior of an ideal gas, undergoing any change in the above variables, is governed by such
laws as Boyle’s and Charle’s law.
Boyle’s law states that “the volume of a given mass of a gas varies inversely as its absolute pressure
provided the temperature remains constant
1
v
p
Charles’ law states that “the volume of a given mass varies directly as its absolute temperature
provided the pressure is kept constant”
vT
In Engineering practice, volume, pressure and temperature of a system varies simultaneously. When
both temperature T and Pressure p vary
T
v
p
The proportionality may be replaced by R
RT
v=
p
The constant R is known as the characteristic gas constant. For the mass m of a particular gas
pv = mRT
P=absolute pressure of gas in N/m2
T= absolute temperature of gas in K,
R=characteristic gas constant in Nm/kg.K
V= volume of gas in m3
m= mass pf gas in kg
The product of the characteristic gas constant R and the molecular weight M of an ideal gas is
constant known as the universal gas constant Ro
Ro = MR = 8314.3Nm / moleK
The discussions in this chapter are restricted to nonreactive ideal-gas mixtures.
Many thermodynamic applications involve mixtures of ideal gases. That is, each of the gases in the
mixture individually behaves as an ideal gas. In this section, we assume that the gases in the mixture
do not react with one another to any significant degree.
We restrict ourselves to a study of only ideal-gas mixtures. An ideal gas is one in which the equation
of state is given by
PV = mRT or PV = NRu T
Air is an example of an ideal gas mixture and has the following approximate composition.
Component % by Volume
N2 78.10
O2 20.95
Argon 0.92
CO2 + trace elements 0.03
Consider a container having a volume V that is filled with a mixture of k different gases at a pressure
P and a temperature T.
A mixture of two or more gases of fixed chemical composition is called a nonreacting gas mixture.
Consider k gases in a rigid container as shown here. The properties of the mixture may be based on
the mass of each component, called gravimetric analysis, or on the moles of each component, called
molar analysis.
k gases
T = TmV = Vm
P = Pmm = mm
The total mass of the mixture mm and the total moles of mixture Nm are defined as
k k
mm = mi and N m = Ni
i =1 i =1
The mass and mole number for a given component are related through the molar mass (or molecular
weight).
mi = N i M i
To find the average molar mass for the mixture Mm , note
k k
mm = mi = Ni Mi = N m M m
i =1 i =1
To change from a mole fraction analysis to a mass fraction analysis, we can show that
yi Mi
mf i = k
y Mi =1
i i
To change from a mass fraction analysis to a mole fraction analysis, we can show that
mf i / Mi
yi = k
mf
i =1
i / Mi
Amagat's law of additive vol-umes states that the volume of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the
volumes each gas would occupy if it existed alone at the mixture temperature and pressure.
k
Vm = Vi (Tm , Pm )
i =1
law of additive pressures. Also, the h, u, cv , and cp of an ideal gas depend on temperature only and
are independent of the pressure or the volume of the ideal-gas mixture.
The partial pressure of a component in an ideal-gas mixture is simply Pi = yi Pm, where Pm is the
mixture pressure.
Evaluation of ∆u or ∆h of the components of an ideal-gas mixture during a process is relatively easy
since it requires only a knowledge of the initial and final temperatures. Care should be exercised,
however, in evaluating the ∆s of the components since the entropy of an ideal gas depends on the
pressure or volume of the component as well as on its temperature. The entropy change of individual
gases in an ideal-gas mixture during a process can be determined from
where Pi,2 = yi,2Pm,2 and Pi,1 = yi,1Pm,1. Notice that the partial pressure Pi of each component is used
in the evaluation of the entropy change, not the mixture pressure Pm
The assumption that the water vapor is an ideal gas is valid when the mixture temperature is below
50oC. This means that the saturation pressure of the water vapor in the air-vapor mixture is below
12.3 kPa. For these conditions, the enthalpy of the water vapor is approximated by hv(T) = hg at
mixture temperature T. The following T-s diagram for water illustrates the ideal-gas behavior at
low vapor pressures.
The saturated vapor value of the enthalpy is a function of temperature and can be expressed as
75
T [C]
-25
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
s [kJ/kg-K]
P 0.622Pg
= and =
(0.622 + ) Pg P − Pg
Volume of mixture per mass of dry air, v
V m R T /P
v= = m m m m
ma ma
After several steps, we can show (you should try this)
V RT
v= = va = a m
ma Pa
So the volume of the mixture per unit mass of dry air is the specific volume of the dry air calculated
at the mixture temperature and the partial pressure of the dry air.
Mass of mixture
mv
m = ma + mv = ma (1 + ) = ma (1 + )
ma
Based on the volume flow rate of mixture at a given state, the mass flow rate of dry air is
V m3 / s kga
a =
m 3
=
v m / kga s
Enthalpy of mixture per mass dry air, h
Hm Ha + Hv ma ha + mv hv
h= = =
ma ma ma
= ha + hv
The Adiabatic Saturation Process
Air having a relative humidity less than 100 percent flows over water contained in a well-insulated
duct. Since the air has RH < 100 percent, some of the water will evaporate and the temperature of
the air-vapor mixture will decrease.
If the mixture leaving the duct is saturated and if the process is adiabatic, the temperature of the
mixture leaving the device is known as the adiabatic saturation temperature.
Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures
In normal practice, the state of atmospheric air is specified by determining the wet-bulb and dry-
bulb temperatures. These temperatures are measured by using a device called a psychrometer. The
psychrometer is composed of two thermometers mounted on a sling. One thermometer is fitted with
wet gauze and reads the wet-bulb temperature. The other thermometer reads the dry-bulb, or
ordinary, temperature. As the psychrometer is slung through the air, water vaporizes from the wet
gauze, resulting in a lower temperature to be registered by the thermometer. The dryer the
atmospheric air, the lower the wet-bulb temperature will be. When the relative humidity of the air
is near 100 percent, there will be little difference between the wet-bulb and dry-bulb temperatures.
The wet-bulb temperature is approximately equal to the adiabatic saturation temperature. The wet-
bulb and dry-bulb temperatures and the atmospheric pressure uniquely determine the state of the
atmospheric air.
The Psychrometric Chart
For a given, fixed, total air-vapor pressure, the properties of the mixture are given in graphical form
on a psychrometric chart. The air-conditioning processes are shown in the figure.
The complete combustion process is also called the stoichiometric combustion, and all coefficients
are called the stoichiometric coefficients.
In most combustion processes, oxygen is supplied in the form of air rather than pure oxygen.
Air data: volumetric analysis; XN=79%, XO=21%
Gravimetric analysis; fm N=76.9%, fm O=23.1%
Standard air: 60% RH, at 26.7C (80F) humidity ratio= 0.013kgv/kgda or lbv/lbda
Air-Fuel Ratio
Since the total moles of a mixture are equal to the sum of moles of each component, there are 12.5(1
+ 3.76) = 59.5 moles of air required for each mole of fuel for the complete combustion process.
Often complete combustion of the fuel will not occur unless there is an excess of air present greater
than just the theoretical air required for complete combustion.
To determine the amount of excess air supplied for a combustion process, let us define the air-fuel
ratio AF as
Mole basis
kmol air
AF =
kmol fuel
Mass basis
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝐴𝐹 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
Theoretical Air requirements when gravimetric analysis of C,H,O,S are known;
O
A / F = 11.56C + 34.63 H − + 4.33S
8
Percent Theoretical and Percent Excess Air
In most cases, more than theoretical air is supplied to ensure complete combustion and to reduce or
eliminate carbon monoxide (CO) from the products of combustion. The amount of excess air is
usually expressed as percent theoretical air and percent excess air.
AFactual
Percent theoreticalair = 100%
AFth
AFactual − AFth
Percentexcessair = 100%
AFth
Dew Point Temperature
The dew point temperature for the product gases is the temperature at which the water in the product
gases would begin to condense when the products are cooled at constant pressure. The dew point
temperature is equal to the saturation temperature of the water at its partial pressure in the products.
Enthalpy of Formation
When a compound is formed from its elements (e.g., methane, CH4, from C and H2), heat transfer
occurs. When heat is given off, the reaction is called exothermic. When heat is required, the
reaction is called endothermic. Consider the following.
The reaction equation is
C + 2 H2 → CH4
Qnet = N h
Products
e e − Nh
Reactants
i i
A common reference state for the enthalpies of all reacting components is established asThe enthalpy
of the elements or their stable compounds is defined to be ZERO at 25oC (298 K) and 1 atm (or 0.1
MPa).
The enthalpy of formation h̅of is tabulated for typical compounds. The enthalpy of formation of
the elements in their stable form is taken as zero. The enthalpy of formation of the elements found
naturally as diatomic elements, such as nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen, is defined to be zero.
Adiabatic Flame Temperature
The temperature the products have when a combustion process takes place adiabatically is called the
adiabatic flame temperature.
Enthalpy of Reaction and Enthalpy of Combustion
When the products and reactants are at the same temperature, the enthalpy of reaction hR, is the
difference in their enthalpies. When the combustion is assumed to be complete with theoretical air
supplied the enthalpy of reaction is called the enthalpy of combustion hC. The enthalpy of
combustion can be calculated at any value of the temperature, but it is usually determined at 25 oC
or 298 K.
hC = H P − H R when TP = TR = 25o C = 298 K
= N h
Products
e
o
f e − Nh
Reactants
i
o
f i
Heating Value
The heating value, HV, of a fuel is the absolute value of the enthalpy of combustion or just the
negative of the enthalpy of combustion.
HV = hC
The lower heating value, LHV, is the heating value when water appears as a gas in the products.
The lower heating value is often used as the amount of energy per kmol of fuel supplied to the gas
turbine engine.
The higher heating value, HHV, is the heating value when water appears as a liquid in the products.
The higher heating value is often used as the amount of energy per kmol of fuel supplied to the steam
power cycle.
The higher and lower heating values are related by the amount of water formed during the
combustion process and the enthalpy of vaporization of water at the temperature.
The working fluid, steam (water), undergoes a thermodynamic cycle from 1-2-3-4-1. The cycle is
shown on the following T-s diagram
Carnot Vapor Cycle Using Steam
700
600
500
6000 kPa
400
T [C]
100 1 4
0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
s [kJ/kg-K]
Where:
The thermal efficiency can be interpreted as the ratio of the area enclosed by the cycle on a T-s
diagram to the area under the heat-addition process.
The Actual Rankine Cycle
The figure below shows the actual process diagram of Rankine Cycle.
Wnet
th =
Qin
Carnot Cycle
The Carnot cycle was introduced in Chapter 5 as the most efficient heat engine that can operate
between two fixed temperatures TH and TL. The Carnot cycle is described by the following four
processes.
Carnot Cycle
Process Description
1-2 Isothermal heat addition
2-3 Isentropic expansion
3-4 Isothermal heat rejection
4-1 Isentropic compression
Note the processes on both the P-v and T-s diagrams. The areas under the process curves on the P-
v diagram represent the work done for closed systems. The net cycle work done is the area enclosed
by the cycle on the P-v diagram. The areas under the process curves on the T-s diagram represent
the heat transfer for the processes. The net heat added to the cycle is the area that is enclosed by the
cycle on the T-s diagram. For a cycle we know Wnet = Qnet; therefore, the areas enclosed on the P-
v and T-s diagrams are equal.
TL
th , Carnot = 1 −
TH
Thermal efficiency increases with an increase in the average temperature at which heat is supplied
to the system or with a decrease in the average temperature at which heat is rejected from the system.
Air-Standard Assumptions
In our study of gas power cycles, we assume that the working fluid is air, and the air undergoes a
thermodynamic cycle even though the working fluid in the actual power system does not undergo a
cycle.
To simplify the analysis, we approximate the cycles with the following assumptions:
The air continuously circulates in a closed loop and always behaves as an ideal gas.
All the processes that make up the cycle are internally reversible.
The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition process from an external source.
A heat rejection process that restores the working fluid to its initial state replaces the exhaust process.
The cold-air-standard assumptions apply when the working fluid is air and has constant specific heat
evaluated at room temperature (25oC or 77oF).
Terminology and Parts of Reciprocating Devices
The following is some terminology we need to understand for reciprocating engines—typically
piston-cylinder devices. Let’s look at the following figures for the definitions of top dead center
(TDC), bottom dead center (BDC), stroke, bore, intake valve, exhaust valve, clearance volume,
displacement volume, compression ratio, and mean effective pressure.
Otto Cycle
-The Ideal Cycle for Spark-Ignition Engines
Processes
Intake stroke
Compression stroke
Power (expansion) stroke
Exhaust stroke
The air-standard Otto cycle is the ideal cycle that approximates the spark-ignition combustion
engine.
Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant volume heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant volume heat rejection
The P-v and T-s diagrams are
We see that increasing the compression ratio increases the thermal efficiency. However, there is a
limit on r depending upon the fuel. Fuels under high temperature resulting from high compression
ratios will prematurely ignite, causing knock.
Diesel Cycle
The air-standard Diesel cycle is the ideal cycle that approximates the Diesel combustion engine
Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant volume heat rejection
Air Standard Dual Cycle
The PV and Ts diagram of a Dual Cycle
Stirling Cycle
The PV and Ts Diagram of an Stirling Cycle:
Erricson Cycle
Brayton Cycle
The Brayton cycle is the air-standard ideal cycle approximation for the gas-turbine engine. This
cycle differs from the Otto and Diesel cycles in that the processes making the cycle occur in open
systems or control volumes. Therefore, an open system, steady-flow analysis is used to determine
the heat transfer and work for the cycle.
We assume the working fluid is air and the specific heats are constant and will consider the cold-air-
standard cycle. The open and closed cycle are as follows:
Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection
The T-s diagrams for closed cycle are
What happens to th, win /wout, and wnet as the pressure ratio rp is increased? Consider the T-s diagram
for the cycle and note that the area enclosed by the cycle is the net heat added to the cycle. By the
first law applied to the cycle, the net heat added to the cycle is equal to the net work done by the
cycle. Thus, the area enclosed by the cycle on the T-s diagram also represents the net work done by
the cycle.
Regenerative Brayton Cycle
For the Brayton cycle, the turbine exhaust temperature is greater than the compressor exit
temperature. Therefore, a heat exchanger can be placed between the hot gases leaving the turbine
and the cooler gases leaving the compressor. This heat exchanger is called a regenerator or
recuperator.
Brayton Cycle with Regeneration, Reheating and Intercooling
Inter-cooling and reheating are two important ways to improve the performance of the Brayton cycle
with regeneration.
Reheating
When using multistage expansion through two or more turbines, reheating between stages will
increase the net work done (it also increases the required heat input). The regenerative Brayton
cycle with reheating was shown above.
The optimum intermediate pressure for reheating is the one that maximizes the turbine work.
Following the development given above for intercooling and assuming reheating to the high-
pressure turbine inlet temperature in a constant pressure steady-flow process, we can show the
optimum reheat pressure to be
P7 = P6 P9
or the pressure ratios across the two turbines are equal
P6 P7 P8
= =
P7 P9 P9
The vapor compression refrigeration cycle is a common method for transferring heat from a low
temperature to a high temperature.
The above figure shows the objectives of refrigerators and heat pumps. The purpose of a refrigerator
is the removal of heat, called the cooling load, from a low-temperature medium. The purpose of a
heat pump is the transfer of heat to a high-temperature medium, called the heating load. When we
are interested in the heat energy removed from a low-temperature space, the device is called a
refrigerator. When we are interested in the heat energy supplied to the high-temperature space, the
device is called a heat pump. In general, the term heat pump is used to describe the cycle as heat
energy is removed from the low-temperature space and rejected to the high-temperature space.
The performance of refrigerators and heat pumps is expressed in terms of coefficient of performance
(COP), defined as
Desired output Cooling effect QL
COPR = = =
Required input Work input Wnet ,in
Desired output Heating effect Q
COPHP = = = H
Required input Work input Wnet ,in
Both COPR and COPHP can be larger than 1. Under the same operating conditions, the COPs are
related by
COPHP = COPR + 1
Refrigerators, air conditioners, and heat pumps are rated with a SEER number or seasonal adjusted
energy efficiency ratio. The SEER is defined as the Btu/hr of heat transferred per watt of work
energy input. The Btu is the British thermal unit and is equivalent to 778 ft-lbf of work (1 W =
3.4122 Btu/hr). An EER of 10 yields a COP of 2.9.
Refrigeration systems are also rated in terms of tons of refrigeration. One ton of refrigeration is
equivalent to 12,000 Btu/hr or 211 kJ/min. How did the term “ton of cooling” originate?
Reversed Carnot Refrigerator and Heat Pump
Shown below are the cyclic refrigeration devices operating between two constant temperature
reservoirs and the T-s diagram for the working fluid when the reversed Carnot cycle is used. Recall
that in the Carnot cycle heat transfers take place at constant temperature. If our interest is the cooling
load, the cycle is called the Carnot refrigerator. If our interest is the heat load, the cycle is called the
Carnot heat pump.
The standard of comparison for refrigeration cycles is the reversed Carnot cycle. A refrigerator or
heat pump that operates on the reversed Carnot cycle is called a Carnot refrigerator or a Carnot heat
pump, and their COPs are
1 TL
COPR , Carnot = =
TH / TL − 1 TH − TL
1 TH
COPHP , Carnot = =
1 − TL / TH TH − TL
Notice that a turbine is used for the expansion process between the high and low-temperatures.
While the work interactions for the cycle are not indicated on the figure, the work produced by the
turbine helps supply some of the work required by the compressor from external sources.
The Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle has four components: evaporator, compressor,
condenser, and expansion (or throttle) valve. The most widely used refrigeration cycle is the vapor-
compression refriger-ation cycle. In an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant
enters the compressor as a saturated vapor and is cooled to the saturated liquid state in the condenser.
It is then throttled to the evaporator pressure and vaporizes as it absorbs heat from the refrigerated
space.
The ideal vapor-compression cycle consists of four processes.
Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant pressure heat rejection in the condenser
3-4 Throttling in an expansion valve
4-1 Constant pressure heat addition in the evaporator
Gas Refrigeration Systems
The power cycles can be used as refrigeration cycles by simply reversing them. Of these, the reversed
Brayton cycle, which is also known as the gas refrigeration cycle, is used to cool aircraft and to
obtain very low (cryogenic) temperatures after it is modified with regeneration. The work output of
the turbine can be used to reduce the work input requirements to the compressor. Thus, the COP of
a gas refrigeration cycle is
qL qL
COPR = =
wnet , in wcomp , in − wturb , out
Where:
Taking the partial derivative of M with respect to y and of N with respect to x yields
Since properties are continuous point functions and have exact differentials, the following is true
The equations that relate the partial derivatives of properties P, v, T, and s of a simple compressible
substance to each other are called the Maxwell relations. They are obtained from the four Gibbs
equations. The first two of the Gibbs equations are those resulting from the internal energy u and
the enthalpy h.
du = T ds − P dv
dh = T ds + v dP
The second two Gibbs equations result from the definitions of the Helmholtz functiona and the
Gibbs function g defined as
a = u − Ts
da = du − T ds − s dT
da = − s dT − P dv
g = h − Ts
dg = dh − T ds − s dT
dg = − s dT + v dP
Setting the second mixed partial derivatives equal for these four functions yields the Maxwell
relations
Then du becomes
Using the third Maxwell’s relation
s P
=
v T T v
u P
=T −P
v T T v
Thus the total differential for u = u(T,v) is written as
Specific Heats
For specific heats, we have the following general relations:
Let Cp0 be the ideal-gas, low-pressure value of the specific heat at constant pressure. Integrating
the above relation for Cp along an isothermal (T = constant) path yields
Given the equation of state, we can evaluate the right-hand side and determine the actual specific
heat as Cp = Cp(T,P).
Other relations for the specific heats are given below.
Heat Transfer
1. A mild steel tank of wall thickness 10mm contains water at 90oC. The thermal conductivity of mild
steel is 50 W/m oC and the heat transfer coefficient for inside and outside of the tank area are 2800 and
11W/m2oC, respectively. If the atmospheric temperature is 20oC, which of the following is correct for
rate of heat loss per m2 of the tank surface area?
A. 1500 W/m2 C. 950.5 W/m2
2
B. 765.3 W/m D. 840.3 W/m2
2. A spherical shaped vessel of 1.2 m diameter is 100 mm thick. What is the rate of heat leakage,
if the temperature difference between the inner and outer surfaces is 200o C. Thermal conductivity
of material is 0.0833 W/moC?
A. 879.1 W/m2 C. 698.4 W/m2
2
B. 978.2 W/m D. 840.3 W/m2
3. ________is the process of energy transfer between systems or a system and its surroundings
due to temperature difference.
A. Mass transfer C. Heat transfer
B. Thermodynamics D. Condensation
4. From the following which one is caused due to diffusion of energy due to random molecular motion
plus energy transfer due to bulk motion (advection)
A. Conduction heat transfer C. Convection heat transfer
B. Condensation heat transfer D. Radiation heat transfer
5. A piece of metal will feel colder than a piece of wood at the same temperature. Why?
A. Metals, in general, have a higher specific heat capacity than wood.
B. Metals, in general, are good heat conductors.
C. Metals are colder than wood.
D. Wood, in general, is a poor insulator.
E. Metal atoms are moving more slowly, on the average, than wood atoms
6. Temperature is related mostly to the _____.
A. Average molecular kinetic energy in a substance
B. Total potential energy of an object
C. Specific heat of a substance
D. Total energy of an object
E. Average kinetic energy of an object
7. Heat transfer take place as per ________
A. Zeroth law of thermodynamics C. Second law of thermodynamics
B. First law of thermodynamics D. Kirchhoff’s law
8. The rate equation for convective heat transfer between surface and an adjacent fluid is governed by
__________
A. Fourier’s Law C. Kirchhoff’s law
B. Newton’s Law of cooling D. Steffen Boltzmann law
9. _____________is commonly used to depict an important special case involving heat transfer by
conduction within a solid and heat transfer by convection/radiation from the boundaries of the solid.
A. Condensation C. Fins
B. Extended surface D. B & C
10. ___________are devices which facilitate the exchange of heat between two fluids at different
temperatures.
A. Heat Exchanger C. Evaporator
B. Condenser D. ALL
Thermodynamics
Refrigeration
1. Which of the following is not a component of a typical air handling unit (AHU)?
A. Blower fan
B. Heating coil
C. Cooling coil
D. Compressor
2. What type of compressor is commonly used in small refrigeration systems?
A. Reciprocating
B. Screw
C. Centrifugal
D. Scroll
3. Which of the following is not a common air conditioning system component?
A. Evaporator
B. Condenser
C. Compressor
D. Boiler
4. What is the function of an expansion valve in a refrigeration system?
A. To reduce the pressure of the refrigerant and cause it to expand
B. To increase the pressure of the refrigerant and cause it to contract
C. To regulate the temperature of the refrigerant
D. To filter impurities from the refrigerant
5. What is the function of a refrigerant in a refrigeration system?
A. To transfer heat from one location to another
B. To compress and expand air
C. To generate electricity
D. To filter impurities from the air
6. Which of the following is a component of a typical air conditioning system that removes moisture
from the air?
A. Compressor
B. Condenser
C. Evaporator
D. Dehumidifier
7. Which of the following refrigerants is a natural refrigerant?
A. R22
B. R32
C. R404a
D. Ammonia
8. Which of the following is not a type of air conditioning system?
A. Window unit
B. Central air
C. Split system
D. Steam boiler system
9. What is the function of a fan in an air conditioning system?
A. To compress the refrigerant
B. To regulate the flow of refrigerant
C. To circulate air over the evaporator or condenser coils
D. To remove moisture from the air
10. What is the function of a filter drier in a refrigeration system?
A. To regulate the flow of refrigerant
B. To remove moisture and contaminants from the refrigerant
C. To increase the pressure of the refrigerant
D. To cool the refrigerant
11. What is the primary difference between an air conditioning system and a refrigeration system?
A. The type of refrigerant used
B. The operating temperature range
C. The size of the system
D. The amount of moisture removed from the air
12. What is the function of a thermostatic expansion valve (TXV) in a refrigeration system?
A. To regulate the temperature of the refrigerant
B. To increase the pressure of the refrigerant
C. To reduce the pressure of the refrigerant and cause it to expand
D. To filter impurities from the refrigerant
13. What is the primary purpose of an air conditioning system?
A. To cool and dehumidify the air
B. To heat and humidify the air
C. To filter impurities from the air
D. To increase the pressure of the air
14. What is the function of a heat exchanger in an air conditioning system?
A. To cool the air
B. To heat the air
C. To transfer heat between the refrigerant and the air
D. To filter impurities from the air
15. What is the function of an accumulator in a refrigeration system?
A. To regulate the flow of refrigerant
B. To remove moisture from the refrigerant
C. To increase the pressure of the refrigerant
D. To store excess refrigerant and prevent liquid slugging
16. Which of the following is not a component of a typical air conditioning system?
A. Compressor
B. Condenser
C. Refrigerant metering device
D. Humidifier
17. What is the purpose of the evaporator in a refrigeration system?
A. To compress the refrigerant
B. To cool the refrigerant
C. To remove heat from the refrigerated space
D. To filter impurities from the refrigerant
18. Which of the following is not a common type of compressor used in refrigeration and air conditioning
systems?
A. Piston compressor
B. Rotary compressor
C. Screw compressor
D. Expansion compressor
19. What is the function of a liquid line filter drier in a refrigeration system?
A. To remove moisture and contaminants from the refrigerant
B. To regulate the flow of refrigerant
C. To increase the pressure of the refrigerant
D. To cool the refrigerant
20. What is the function of a heat pump?
A. To cool the air
B. To heat the air
C. To filter impurities from the air
D. To humidify the air
21. What is the function of a defrost timer in a refrigeration system?
A. To regulate the temperature of the refrigerant
B. To remove moisture from the refrigerant
C. To prevent frost buildup on the evaporator coils
D. To filter impurities from the refrigerant
22. Which of the following is a type of air conditioning system that does not require ductwork?
A. Window unit
B. Central air
C. Split system
D. Packaged terminal air conditioner (PTAC)
23. What is the function of a suction line accumulator in a refrigeration system?
A. To store excess refrigerant and prevent liquid slugging
B. To remove moisture from the refrigerant
C. To increase the pressure of the refrigerant
D. To filter impurities from the refrigerant
24. Which of the following is not a method of heat transfer in refrigeration and air conditioning systems?
A. Conduction
B. Convection
C. Radiation
D. Hydrolysis
25. What is the function of a thermal expansion valve in a refrigeration system?
A. To compress the refrigerant
B. To regulate the flow of refrigerant
C. To remove heat from the refrigerated space
D. To filter impurities from the refrigerant
26. Which of the following is not a factor that affects the performance of an air conditioning system?
A. Outdoor temperature
B. Indoor temperature
C. Humidity level
D. Wind speed
27. What is the function of an evaporator fan in an air conditioning system?
A. To compress the refrigerant
B. To cool the refrigerant
C. To circulate air over the evaporator coils
D. To regulate the flow of refrigerant
28. Which of the following is not a component of a typical refrigeration system?
A. Compressor
B. Condenser
C. Evaporator fan
D. Humidifier
29. What is the function of a filter drier in a refrigeration system?
A. To remove moisture from the refrigerant
B. To store excess refrigerant
C. To filter impurities from the refrigerant
D. To regulate the flow of refrigerant
30. Which of the following is a type of air conditioning system that uses ducts to distribute cooled air
throughout a building?
A. Window unit
B. Central air
C. Split system
D. Packaged terminal air conditioner (PTAC)
-Answers Key-
Fluid Mechanics
1. C 2. D 3. B 4. B 5. C 6. C 7. B 8. B 9. B 10. C
11. D 12. A 13. B 14. C 15. D 16. A 17. B 18. C 19. C 20. A
21. D 22. D 23. A 24. A 25. A 26. B 27. B 28. B 29. D 30. B
Heat Transfer
1. B 2. A 3. C 4. C 5. B 6. A 7. C 8. B 9. D 10. D
Thermodynamics
1. A 2. C 3. _ 4. B 5. C 6. D 7. C 8. D 9. C 10. C
11. D 12. D 13. C 14. A 15. B 16. C 17. A 18. B 19. A 20. C
21. D
Refrigeration
1. D 2. A 3. D 4. A 5. A 6. D 7. D 8. D 9. C 10. B
11. B 12. C 13. A 14. C 15. D 16. D 17. C 18. D 19. A 20. B
21. C 22. D 23. A 24. D 25. B 26. D 27. C 28. D 29. C 30. B