Aci 350-3 2020

IN-LB Inch-Pound Units
SI International System of Units

An ACI Standard
Code Requirements for

Seismic Analysis and
Design of Liquid-Containing
Concrete Structures
(ACI 350.3-20) and
Commentary
Reported by ACI Committee 350
ACI 350.3-20
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Code Requirements for Seismic Analysis and Design of Liquid-Containing Concrete

Structures (ACI 350.3-20) and Commentary
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ACI 350.3-20
Code Requirements for Seismic Analysis and

Design of Liquid-Containing Concrete Structures
(ACI 350.3-20) and Commentary
An ACI Standard
Reported by Joint ACI Committee 350
M. Reza Kianoush,* Chair Jon B. Ardahl, Vice Chair Andrew R. Minogue,‡ Secretary
Iyad M. Alsamsam Anthony J. Galterio* Khalid Motiwala Shashiprakash G. Surali

John W. Baker Carl A. Gentry* Jerry Parnes Lawrence M. Tabat*
Chuen-Shiow Chen* Kenneth Ryan Harvey Risto Protic* John M. Tehaney*
Steven R. Close* Keith W. Jacobson Satish K. Sachdev Miroslav Vejvoda
Mark W. Cunningham Edwina S. Lui William C. Sherman† William A. Wallace
Robert E. Doyle Daniel J. McCarthy Manwendra Sinha Jeffrey S. Ward
Ronald R. Fiore Kevin H. Monroe* Pericles C. Stivaros
Subcommittee Members
Ahmed Hafez Sanjay S. Mehta Nazar Sabti
Atis A. Liepins Rolf P. Pawski
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Consulting Members
William H. Backouse David G. Kittridge Lawrence G. Mrazek David M. Rogowsky
Patrick J. Creegan Dennis C. Kohl Javeed Munshi Lawrence J. Valentine
Anthony L. Felder Nicholas A. Legatos Terry Patzias
Charles S. Hanskat Kyle S. Loyd Andrew R. Philip
Jerry A. Holland Carl H. Moon Narayan M. Prachand
*
Members of Seismic Provisions Subcommittee.
†
Seismic Provisions Subcommittee Chair.
‡
Seismic Provisions Subcommittee Secretary.
This Code prescribes procedures for the seismic analysis and Keywords: circular tanks; concrete tanks; convective component; earth-
design of liquid-containing concrete structures. These procedures quake resistance; environmental concrete structures; impulsive component;
address the loading side of seismic design and are intended to liquid-containing structures; rectangular tanks; seismic resistance; sloshing;
complement Section 1.1.9 and Chapter 13 of ACI 350-20. storage tanks.
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, and Commentaries are

intended for guidance in planning, designing, executing, and
inspecting construction. This document is intended for the use
of individuals who are competent to evaluate the significance
and limitations of its content and recommendations and who
will accept responsibility for the application of the material it
contains. The American Concrete Institute disclaims any and
all responsibility for the stated principles. The Institute shall
not be liable for any loss or damage arising therefrom. ACI 350.3R-20 supersedes 350.3-06, became effective November 20, 2020, and
was published October 2021.
Reference to this document shall not be made in contract
Copyright © 2021, American Concrete Institute.
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2 SEISMIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF LIQUID-CONTAINING CONCRETE STRUCTURES (ACI 350.3-20)
PREFACE
From the time it embarked on the task of developing an ACI 318-dependent code, ACI Committee 350 decided to expand on
and supplement the seismic provisions for “Special Provisions for Seismic Design” to provide a set of thorough and compre-
hensive procedures for the seismic analysis and design of commonly used types of liquid-containing structures of circular and
rectangular configurations. The committee’s decision was influenced by the recognition that liquid-containing structures are
unique structures whose seismic design is not adequately covered by the leading national codes and standards. A seismic design
subcommittee was appointed with the charge to implement the committee’s decision.
The seismic subcommittee’s work was guided by two main objectives:
(1) Produce a self-contained set of procedures that would enable a practicing engineer to perform a full seismic analysis and
design of a liquid-containing structure. These procedures should cover both aspects of seismic design: the “loading side,”
which is the determination of the seismic loads based on the mapped risk-adjusted maximum considered earthquake spec-
tral response accelerations at short periods (Ss) and 1 second (S1) obtained from the Seismic Ground Motion maps (ASCE/
SEI 7-16 Chapter 22) and the geometry of the structure; and the “resistance side,” which is the detailed design of the structure
in accordance with the provisions of ACI 350-20, to resist those loads safely.
(2) Establish the scope of the new procedures consistent with the overall scope of ACI 350-20. This required the inclusion of
all types of tanks—rectangular as well as circular; and reinforced concrete as well as prestressed.
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There are currently at least two national standards that provide detailed procedures for the seismic analysis and design of
liquid-containing structures: ANSI/AWWA D110-13 (R18), which is limited to circular, prestressed concrete tanks; and ANSI/
AWWA D115-17, which covers both rectangular and circular prestressed concrete tanks.
As the loading side of seismic design is outside the scope of ACI 318, it was decided to maintain this practice in ACI 350
as well. Accordingly, the basic scope, format, and mandatory language of Chapter 21 of ACI 318-11 were retained with only
enough revisions to adapt the seismic provisions to environmental engineering structures. Provisions similar to Section 1.1.9 of
ACI 318-11 are included in ACI 350. This approach offers at least two advantages:
(1) Allows ACI 350 to maintain the ACI 318 practice of limiting its seismic design provisions to the resistance side only.
(2) Makes it easier to update these seismic provisions to keep up with the frequent changes and improvements in the field of
seismic hazard analysis and evaluation.
The forces due to earthquake determined in accordance with this Code are intended to be used in the determination of load
effects due to earthquake, E, in accordance with Chapter 9 of ACI 350-20. The seismic force levels and R-factors included in
this Code provide results at strength levels, such as those included for seismic design in the International Code Council (ICC)
2012 International Building Code (IBC 2012), particularly the applicable connection provisions of IBC 2012 as referenced in
ASCE/SEI 7-16. When comparing these provisions with other documents defining seismic forces at allowable stress levels (for
example, the 1997 Uniform Building Code [UBC-1997]), the seismic forces in this Code should be reduced by the applicable
factors to derive comparable forces at allowable stress levels.
Users should note the following general design methods used in this Code, which represent the evolution of seismic design
of liquid-containing structures over a number of years since ASCE (1984), as follows:
(a) Instead of assuming a rigid tank for which the acceleration is equal to the ground acceleration at all locations, this Code
assumes amplification of response due to natural frequency of the tank.
(b) The response modification factor is included.
(c) Rather than combining impulsive and convective modes by algebraic sum, this Code combines these modes by
square-root-sum-of-the-squares.
(d) The effects of vertical acceleration are included.
(e) An effective mass coefficient applicable to the mass of the walls is included.
For further information on seismic behavior of liquid-containing structures, refer to Housner (1957, 1963b). For fluids other
than water, refer to Veletsos and Shivakumar (1997).

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SEISMIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF LIQUID-CONTAINING CONCRETE STRUCTURES (ACI 350.3-20) 3
CONTENTS CHAPTER 6—STRESSES, p. 26

6.1—Rectangular tanks, p. 26
PREFACE, p. 2 6.2—Circular tanks, p. 26
CHAPTER 1—GENERAL REQUIREMENTS, p. 4 CHAPTER 7—FREEBOARD, p. 27

1.1—Scope, p. 4 7.1—Wave oscillation, p. 27
1.2—Notation, p. 4
1.3—Definitions, p. 10 CHAPTER 8–EARTHQUAKE-INDUCED EARTH
PRESSURES, p. 32
CHAPTER 2—TYPES OF LIQUID-CONTAINING 8.1—General, p. 32
STRUCTURES, p. 11 8.2—Limitations, p. 33
2.1—Ground-supported structures, p. 11 8.3—Alternative methods, p. 33
2.2—Pedestal-mounted structures, p. 12
CHAPTER 9—DYNAMIC MODEL, p. 34
CHAPTER 3—GENERAL CRITERIA FOR ANALYSIS 9.1—General, p. 34
AND DESIGN, p. 13 9.2—Rectangular tanks (Type 1), p. 36
3.1—Dynamic characteristics, p. 13 9.3—Circular tanks (Type 2), p. 40
3.2—Design loads, p. 13 9.4—Seismic response coefficients Ci, Cc, and Ct, p. 44
3.3—Design requirements, p. 13 9.5—Site-specific seismic response coefficients Ci, Cc,
and Ct, p. 45
CHAPTER 4—EARTHQUAKE DESIGN LOADS, p. 14 9.6—Effective mass coefficient ε, p. 46
4.1—Earthquake pressures above base of tank wall, p. 14 9.7—Pedestal-mounted tanks, p. 46
4.2—Application of site-specific response spectra, p. 17
CHAPTER 10—COMMENTARY REFERENCES, p. 47
CHAPTER 5—EARTHQUAKE LOAD
DISTRIBUTION, p. 19 APPENDIX A—DESIGN METHOD, p. 49
5.1—General, p. 19 A.1—General outline of design method, p. 49
5.2—Shear transfer, p. 19
5.3—Dynamic force distribution above base of tank wall,
p. 21
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CODE COMMENTARY
CHAPTER 1—GENERAL REQUIREMENTS CHAPTER R1—GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
1.1—Scope R1.1—Scope
This Code describes procedures for the design of This Code is a companion Code to Chapter 13 of the
liquid-containing concrete structures subjected to seismic American Concrete Institute, “Code Requirements for Envi-
loads. These procedures shall be used in accordance with ronmental Engineering Concrete Structures (ACI 350-20)
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Chapter 13 of ACI 350-20. and Commentary (ACI 350R-20).”
This Code provides requirements for the designer of liquid-
containing concrete structures for computing seismic forces
that are to be applied to the particular structure. The designer
should also consider the effects of seismic forces on compo-
nents outside the scope of this Code, such as piping, equipment
(for example, clarifier mechanisms) and connecting walkways
where vertical or horizontal movements between adjoining
structures or surrounding backfill could adversely influence
the ability of the structure to function properly (NSF 1981).
Moreover, seismic forces applied at the interface of piping or
walkways with the structure may also introduce appreciable
flexural or shear stresses at these connections.
The hydrodynamic forces described in ACI 350.3 can be
used in design of liquid-containing concrete structures other
than environmental structures if the licensed design profes-
sional or another reference standard chooses to use or refer
to it.
The operational conditions used to calculate the seismic
forces determined by this Code need to be evaluated by the
licensed design professional. Considerations such as normal
operational liquid levels, and potential for a tank or cells
within a tank to be empty during a seismic event should be
included. It is common to consider several loading condi-
tions when designing for seismic loading, such as with the
liquid at normal operating levels and with the tank or indi-
vidual tank cells empty.
1.2—Notation R1.2—Notation
As = cross-sectional area of prestressed and non-
prestressed steel reinforcement, in.2 (mm2)
b = ratio of vertical to horizontal design
acceleration
B = inside dimension (length or width) of a rect-
angular tank, perpendicular to the direction of
the ground motion being investigated, ft (m)
Cc, Ci, and Ct = period-dependent seismic response coeffi-
cients (9.4, 9.5)
Cl, Cw = coefficients for determining the funda-
mental frequency of the tank-liquid system
(Eq. (9.3.4b) and Fig. 9.3.4b)
Cs = period-dependent seismic coefficient For Cs, refer to ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 12.8.1.
dmax = maximum vertical displacement of an
oscillating wave measured from the liquid
surface at rest, ft (m)
D = inside diameter of circular tank, ft (m)
EBP = excluding base pressure (datum line just EBP refers to the hydrodynamic design in which it is
above the base of the tank wall) necessary to compute the overturning of the wall with
respect to the top of the tank floor, excluding base pres-
sure (that is, excluding the pressure on the floor itself). EBP
CODE COMMENTARY
hydrodynamic design is used to determine the need for hold-
downs in non-fixed base tanks. EBP is also used in deter-
mining the design pressure acting on walls. (For explana-
tion, refer to Housner [1963a].)
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete, psi (MPa)
Es = modulus of elasticity of cable, wire, strand,
or conventional reinforcement, psi (MPa)
Fa = short-period site coefficient (at 0.2 second
period) from ASCE/SEI 7-16 Table 11.4-1
Fv = long-period site coefficient (at 1.0 second
period) from ASCE 7-16, Table 11.4-2
Gp = shear modulus of elastomeric bearing pad,
psi (MPa)
G = acceleration due to gravity (32.17 ft/s2
[9.807 m/s2])
hc = height above the base of the tank wall to the
center of gravity of the convective lateral
force for the case excluding base pressure
(EBP), ft (m)
hc′ = height above the base of the tank wall to the
center of gravity of the convective lateral
force for the case including base pressure
(IBP), ft (m)
heg = height above the base of the tank wall to the
center of gravity of the lateral force due to
the dynamic earth pressure, and from satu-
rated and unsaturated soils, ft (m)
hi = height above the base of the tank wall to the
center of gravity of the impulsive lateral
force for the case excluding base pressure
(EBP), ft (m)
hi′ = height above the base of the tank wall to the
center of gravity of the impulsive lateral
force for the case including base pressure
(IBP), ft (m)
hr = height from the base of the tank wall to the
center of gravity of the tank roof, ft (m)
hw = height from the base of the tank wall to the
center of gravity of the tank shell, ft (m)
H = as defined in Section R9.2.4, ft (m)
HL = design depth of stored liquid, ft (m)
Hw = wall height above top of floor (inside
dimension), ft (m)
I = importance factor, from Table 4.1.1a
Ib = moment of inertia at the base of the tank
IBP = including base pressure (datum line at the IBP refers to the hydrodynamic design in which it is neces-
base of the tank wall including the effects sary to investigate the overturning of the entire structure
on the tank bottom including dynamic fluid with respect to the tank support foundation. IBP hydrody-
pressure on the tank bottom) namic design is used to determine the design pressure acting
on the tank floor and the underlying foundation. This pres-
sure is transferred directly either to the subgrade or to other
supporting structural elements. IBP accounts for moment
effects due to dynamic fluid pressures on the bottom of the
tank by increasing the effective vertical moment arm to the
applied lateral forces. (For explanation, refer to Housner
[1963a].)
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CODE COMMENTARY
ka = spring constant of the tank wall system,
lb/ft per foot of wall width (N/m per meter
of wall width)
khw = ratio of the saturated unit weight of the
backfill to the buoyant unit weight of the
backfill (khw = γs/γb], lb/ft3
K = flexural stiffness of a unit width of a recti-
linear tank wall, lb/ft per foot of wall width
(N/m per meter of wall width)
Ka = active coefficient of lateral earth pressure
Ko = coefficient of lateral earth pressure at rest
L = inside dimension of a rectangular tank,
parallel to the direction of the ground
motion being investigated, ft (m)
Lc = effective length of restraint cable taken as
the sleeve length plus 35 times the cable
diameter, in. (mm)
Lp = length of individual elastomeric bearing
pads, in. (mm)
mi = impulsive mass of contained liquid per unit
width of a rectangular tank wall, lb-s2/ft per
foot of wall width (kg per meter of wall width)
mw = mass per unit width of a rectangular tank
wall, lb-s2/ft per foot of wall width (kg per
meter of wall width)
M = total mass per unit width of a rectangular
wall = mi + mw, lb-s2/ft per foot of wall
width (kg per meter of wall width)
Mb = bending moment on the entire tank cross
section just above the base of the tank wall,
ft-lb (kN-m)
Mc = bending moment of the entire tank cross
section just above the base of the tank wall
(EBP) due to the convective force Pc, ft-lb
(kN-m)
Mc′ = overturning moment at the base of the tank
wall, including dynamic fluid pressure on
the tank bottom (IBP), due to the convec-
tive force Pc, ft-lb (kN-m)
Meg = bending moment of the entire tank cross
due to dynamic earth pressure and from
saturated and unsaturated soils, ft-lb (kN-m)
Mi = bending moment of the entire tank cross
(EBP) due to the impulsive force Pi, ft-lb
(kN-m)
Mi′ = overturning moment at the base of the tank
the tank bottom (IBP), due to the impulsive
force Pi, ft-lb (kN-m)
Mo = overturning moment at the base of the tank
the tank bottom (IBP), ft-lb (kN-m)
Mr = bending moment of the entire tank cross
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CODE COMMENTARY
(EBP) due to the roof inertia force Pr, ft-lb
(kN-m)
Mw = bending moment of the entire tank cross
(EBP) due to the wall inertia force Pw, ft-lb
(kN-m)
Ncy = in circular tanks, hoop force at liquid level
y, due to the convective component of
the accelerating liquid, lb per foot of wall
height (kN/m)
Nhy = in circular tanks, hydrodynamic hoop force
at liquid level y, due to the effect of vertical
acceleration, lb per foot of wall height
(kN/m)
Niy = in circular tanks, hoop force at liquid level
y, due to the impulsive component of the
accelerating liquid, lb per foot of wall
height (kN/m)
Nwy = in circular tanks, hoop force at liquid level
y, due to the inertia force of the acceler-
ating wall mass, lb per foot of wall height
(kN/m)
Ny = in circular tanks, total effective hoop force
at liquid level y, lb per foot of wall height
(kN/m)
pcy = unit lateral dynamic convective pressure
distributed horizontally at liquid level y,
lb/ft2 (kPa)
piy = unit lateral dynamic impulsive pressure
distributed horizontally at liquid level y,
lb/ft2 (kPa)
pvy = unit hydrodynamic pressure due to the
effect of vertical acceleration, at liquid
level y, above the base of the tank wall
(pvy = üv × qhy), lb/ft2 (kPa)
pwy = unit lateral inertia force due to wall dead
weight, distributed horizontally at liquid
level y, lb/ft2 (kPa)
Pc = total lateral convective force associated
with Wc, lb (kN)
Pcy = lateral convective force due to Wc, per unit
height of the tank wall, occurring at liquid
level y, lb per foot of wall height (kN/m)
Peg = lateral force on the buried portion of a tank
wall due to the dynamic earth pressure
and from saturated and unsaturated soils,
lb (kN)
Ph = total hydrostatic force occurring on length For a schematic representation of Ph, refer to Fig. R5.3.1.
B of a rectangular tank or diameter D of a
circular tank, lb (kN)
Phy = lateral hydrostatic force per unit height of
the tank wall, occurring at liquid level y, lb
per foot of wall height (kN/m)
Pi = total lateral impulsive force associated with
Wi, lb (kN)
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CODE COMMENTARY
Piy = lateral impulsive force due to Wi, per unit
height of the tank wall, occurring at liquid
level y, lb per foot of wall height (kN/m)
Pr = lateral inertia force of the accelerating roof
Wr, lb (kN)
Pw = lateral inertia force of the accelerating wall
Ww, lb (kN)
Pw′ = in a rectangular tank, lateral inertia force of
one accelerating wall (Ww′), perpendicular
to the direction of the earthquake force,
lb (kN)
Pwy = lateral inertia force due to Ww, per unit
height of the tank wall, occurring at level y
above the base of the tank wall, lb per foot
of wall height (kN/m)
Py = combined horizontal force (due to the
impulsive and convective components of
the accelerating liquid; the wall’s inertia,
and the hydrodynamic pressure due to the
vertical acceleration) at a height y above
the base of the tank wall, lb per foot of wall
height (kN/m)
q, qmax = unit shear force in circular tanks, lb/ft
qhy = unit hydrostatic pressure at liquid level
y above the base of the tank wall [qhy =
γL(HL – y)], lb/ft2 (kPa)
Q = total membrane (tangential) shear force
at the base of tank wall at a circular tank,
lb (kN)
Qhy = in circular tanks, hydrostatic hoop force at
liquid level y (Qhy = qhy × R), lb per foot of
wall height (kN/m)
r = inside radius of circular tank, ft (m)
R = response modification factor, a numerical
coefficient representing the combined
effect of the structure’s ductility, energy-
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dissipating capacity, and structural redun-

dancy; Rc for the convective component of
the accelerating liquid and Ri for the impul-
sive component, from Table 4.1.1b
S1 = mapped maximum considered earthquake
5 percent damped spectral response accel-
eration; parameter at a period of 1 second,
expressed as a fraction of the acceleration
due to gravity, g, from ASCE/SEI 7-16
Fig. 22-2, 22-4, 22-5, 22-6, 22-7, and 22-8
SaM = maximum considered earthquake spectral
response acceleration (5 percent damped)
at period Ti or Tv, taken from a site-specific
acceleration response spectrum
Sc = center-to-center spacing between indi-
vidual restraint cable loops, in. (mm)
ScM = maximum considered earthquake spectral
response acceleration (0.5 percent damped)
at period Tc, taken from a site-specific
acceleration response spectrum
CODE COMMENTARY
S0 = effective peak ground acceleration (at
T = 0), related to the maximum consid-
ered earthquake; expressed as a fraction
of the acceleration due to gravity, g, from
a site-specific spectrum. (S0 is equivalent
to a PGA having a 2 percent probability
of exceedance in 50 years, as given in
the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) data-
base at website (http://earthquake.usgs.
gov/hazards).
Sa = generalized design spectral response accel-
eration corresponding to a given natural
period T, expressed as a fraction of the
acceleration due to gravity, g
SD = spectral displacement, ft (m)
SD1 = design spectral response acceleration

(5 percent damped) at a period of 1 second,
as defined in 9.4.1, expressed as a fraction
of the acceleration due to gravity, g
SDS = design spectral response acceleration
(5 percent damped) at short periods, as
defined in 9.4.1, expressed as a fraction of
the acceleration due to gravity, g
Sp = center-to-center spacing of elastomeric
bearing pads, in. (mm)
Ss = mapped maximum considered earthquake
5 percent damped spectral response accel
eration parameter at short periods, expressed
as a fraction of the acceleration due to
gravity g, from ASCE/SEI 7-16 Fig. 22-1,
22-3, 22-5, 22-6, 22-7, and 22-8
tp = thickness of elastomeric bearing pads,
in. (mm)
tw = average wall thickness, in. (mm)
Tc = natural period of the first (convective)
mode of sloshing, s
Ti = fundamental period of oscillation of the
tank (plus the impulsive component of the
contents), s
TL = long-period transition period(s) shown in
Fig. 22-14 through 22-17 of ASCE 7-16
TS = SD1/SDS, s
Tv = natural period of vibration of vertical liquid
motion, s
üv = effective spectral acceleration from an
inelastic vertical response spectrum, as
defined by Eq. (4.1.4.2b), that is derived by
scaling from an elastic horizontal response
spectrum, expressed as a fraction of the
acceleration due to gravity, g
V = total horizontal base shear, lb (kN)
wp = width of elastomeric bearing pad, in. (mm)
Wc = effective weight of the convective compo-
nent of the stored liquid, lb (kN)
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CODE COMMENTARY
We = effective dynamic weight of the tank struc-
ture (walls and roof) [We = (εWw + Wr)],
lb (kN)
Wi = effective weight of the impulsive compo-
nent of the stored liquid, lb (kN)
WL = total weight of the stored liquid, lb (kN)
Wr = weight of the tank roof, plus superimposed
load, plus applicable portion of snow load
considered as dead load, lb (kN)
Ww = weight of the tank wall (shell), lb (kN)
Ww′ = in a rectangular tank, the weight of one
wall perpendicular to the direction of the
earthquake force, lb (kN)
y = liquid level at which the wall is being
investigated (measured from the base of the
tank wall), ft (m)
α = angle of restraint cable or strand with hori-
zontal, degree
β = percent of critical damping
ηc, ηi = coefficients as defined in Section R4.2
γ = density of backfill soil, lb/ft3
γc = density of concrete, [150 lb/ft3 (23.56 kN/m3)
for standard-weight concrete]
γL = density of contained liquid, lb/ft3 (kN/m3)
γs = saturated unit weight of the backfill soil, lb/ft3
γb = buoyant unit weight of the backfill soil, lb/ft3
γw = density of water, 62.43 lb/ft3 (9.807 kN/m3)
ε = effective mass coefficient (ratio of equiva-
lent dynamic mass of the tank shell to its
actual total mass), Eq. (9.6a) and (9.6b)
θ = polar coordinate angle, degree For θ, refer to Fig. R5.2.1 and R5.2.2.
λ = coefficient as defined in 9.2.4 and 9.3.4
σy = membrane (hoop) stress in wall of circular
tank at liquid level y, psi (MPa)
ωc = circular frequency of oscillation of the first
(convective) mode of sloshing, radian/s
ωi = circular frequency of the impulsive mode
of vibration, rad/s
1.3—Definitions
base of tank wall—the level at which the tank wall inter-
sects the floor slab at the bottom of the tank wall and at which
the horizontal earthquake ground motions are assumed to be
imparted to the tank just above the floor level. This level
does not necessarily coincide with the ground level.
restraint cable—epoxy-coated or galvanized steel strand,
typically seven-wire, designed to resist tangential move-
ments but permit limited radial movements of the wall.
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CODE COMMENTARY
CHAPTER 2—TYPES OF LIQUID-CONTAINING CHAPTER R2—TYPES OF LIQUID-CONTAINING
STRUCTURES STRUCTURES
2.1—Ground-supported structures R2.1—Ground-supported structures

Structures in this category include rectangular and For basic configurations of ground-supported liquid-
circular liquid-containing concrete structures, on-grade and containing structures, refer to Fig. R2.1
below grade.
Fig. R2.1—Typical tank configurations (adapted from ASCE

--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- [1984]).
CODE COMMENTARY
2.1.1 Ground-supported liquid-containing structures R2.1.1 The classifications of Section 2.1.1 are based on
are classified according to this section on the basis of the the wall-to-foundation connection details as illustrated in
following characteristics: Fig. R2.1.1.
(a) General configuration (rectangular or circular) With any one of the tank types covered under this report
(b) Wall base joint type (fixed, hinged, or flexible base) the floor may be a membrane-type slab, a raft foundation, or
(c) Method of construction (reinforced or prestressed a structural slab supported on piles.
concrete) The tank roof may be a free-span dome or column-
Type 1—Rectangular tanks supported flat slab; or the tank may be open-topped.
Type 1.1—Fixed base
Type 1.2—Hinged base
Type 2—Circular tanks
Type 2.1—Fixed base
2.1(1)—Reinforced concrete
2.1(2)—Prestressed concrete
Type 2.2—Hinged base
2.2(1)—Reinforced concrete
2.2(2)—Prestressed concrete
Type 2.3—Flexible base (prestressed only)
2.3(1)—Anchored
2.3(2)—Unanchored, contained
2.3(3)—Unanchored, uncontained
Fig. R2.1.1—Types of ground-supported liquid-containing structures classified on the

basis of their wall-to-footing connection details (base waterstops not shown).
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
2.2—Pedestal-mounted structures
Structures in this category include liquid-containing structures
mounted on cantilever-type pedestals.

CODE COMMENTARY
CHAPTER 3—GENERAL CRITERIA FOR CHAPTER R3—GENERAL CRITERIA FOR
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
3.1—Dynamic characteristics R3.1—Dynamic characteristics

The dynamic characteristics of liquid-containing struc- For an outline of the general steps involved in the interac-
tures shall be derived in accordance with Chapter 9 or a tion between the structure and the contained liquid, refer to
more rigorous dynamic analysis that accounts for the inter- Appendix A.
action between the structure and the contained liquid.
3.2—Design loads
Loads generated by the design earthquake shall be
computed in accordance with Chapter 4.
3.3—Design requirements
3.3.1 The walls, floors, and roofs of liquid-containing
structures shall be designed to withstand the effects of both
the design horizontal acceleration and the design vertical
acceleration combined with the effects of the applicable
design static loads.
3.3.2 With regard to the horizontal acceleration, the design
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
shall take into account the effects of the transfer of the total
shear between the wall and the foundation and between the
wall and the roof, and the dynamic pressure acting on the
wall above the base of the tank wall.
3.3.3 Effects of maximum horizontal and vertical accel-

eration shall be combined by the square-root-sum-of-the-
squares method.

CODE COMMENTARY
CHAPTER 4—EARTHQUAKE DESIGN LOADS CHAPTER R4—EARTHQUAKE DESIGN LOADS
4.1—Earthquake pressures above base of tank R4.1—Earthquake pressures above base of tank
wall wall
The walls of liquid-containing structures shall be designed The general equation for the total base shear normally
for the following dynamic forces in addition to the static encountered in the earthquake-design sections of governing
pressures in accordance with Section 5.3: building codes, V = CsW, is modified in Eq. (4.1.1a) through
(a) Inertia forces Pw and Pr (4.1.1e) by replacing the term W with the four effective
(b) Hydrodynamic impulsive pressure Pi from the weights: the effective weight of the tank wall, εWw, and roof,
contained liquid Wr; the impulsive component of the liquid weight Wi and the
(c) Hydrodynamic convective pressure Pc from the convective component Wc; and the term Cs with Ci, Cc, or Cv
contained liquid as appropriate.
(d) Dynamic earth pressure from saturated and unsatu- Because the impulsive and convective components are not
rated soils against the buried portion of the wall, Peg in phase with each other, accepted practice is to combine
(e) The effects of vertical acceleration them using the square-root-sum-of-the-squares method
(Eq. (4.1.2)) (NZS 3106; Tavakkoli et al. 2012; Veletsos and
4.1.1 Dynamic lateral forces—The dynamic lateral forces Shivakumar 1997).
above the base of the tank wall shall be determined as follows A more detailed discussion of the impulsive and convec-
tive components, Wi and Wc, is contained in Section R9.1.
εWw
=
Pw Ci I × (4.1.1a) The imposed ground motion is represented by an elastic
Ri response spectrum that is either derived from an actual
earthquake record for the site or is constructed by analogy to
εWw′ sites with known soil and seismic characteristics. The profile
=
Pw′ Ci I × (4.1.1b) of the response spectrum is defined by Sa, which is a function
Ri of the period of vibration, and the mapped accelerations SS
and S1, as described in Section R9.4.
Factor I provides a means for the engineer to increase the
Wr
=
Pr Ci I × (4.1.1c) factor of safety for the categories of structures described in
Ri Table 4.1.1a. Engineering judgment may require a factor
I greater than tabulated in Table 4.1.1a where it is neces-
sary to reduce further the potential level of damage or
Wi
=
Pi Ci I × (4.1.1d) account for the possibility of an earthquake greater than the
Ri design earthquake.
The response modification factors Rc and Ri reduce the
elastic response spectrum to account for the structure’s
Wc
=
Pc Cc I × (4.1.1e) ductility, energy-dissipating properties, and redundancy
Rc (ACI 350-20 Section R13.1.1). For pedestal-mounted
where Ci and Cc are the seismic response coefficients deter- tanks, use the response modification factors Ri and Rc from
mined in accordance with Sections 9.4 and 9.5; I is the Table 4.1.1b for all components that are in contact with the
importance factor defined in Table 4.1.1a; Ww and Wr are contained liquid. For components of elevated tanks that
the weights of the cylindrical tank wall (shell) and tank roof, are not in contact with the contained liquid, Ri should be in
respectively; and Ww′ is the weight of one wall in a rectan- accordance with ASCE/SEI 7-16.
gular tank, perpendicular to the direction of the earthquake Explanations of the impulsive and convective pressures Pi
force; Notation ε is a factor defined in Section 1.2 and deter- and Pc are contained in Section R9.1 and Housner (1963a).
mined in accordance with Section 9.6; Wi and Wc are the An energy method of dynamic analysis may be used
impulsive and convective components of the stored liquid, instead of the base-shear approach of Section 4.1 for
respectively, as defined in Section 1.2, and determined in sizing earthquake cables and base pad for flexible base
accordance with Sections 9.2.1 and 9.3.1; and Ri and Rc are joints (Housner 1963a; John A. Blume & Associates 1958;
the response modification factors defined in Section 1.2 and Medearis and Young 1964; Uang and Bertero 1988; Bertero
determined in accordance with Table 4.1.1b. 1995; Scarlat 1997).
Where applicable, the lateral forces due to the dynamic With respect to seismic design, the Importance Factor
earth pressure from saturated and unsaturated soils against (Table 4.1.1a) has the effect of reducing the ductility demand
the buried portion of the walls shall be computed in accor- on the structure at a given level of ground shaking. Thus, it
dance with the provisions of Chapter 8. relates to how a structure responds to a design earthquake
rather than as a multiplier or modifier to the design earth-
quake. Application of the Importance Factor, I, as a divisor on
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CODE COMMENTARY
Table 4.1.1a—Risk category and importance factor
Risk category Definitions Importance factor I
I Liquid-containing structures that represent low risk to human life in the event of failure 1.00
II All liquid-containing structures except those listed in Risk Categories I, III, and IV 1.00
(1) Liquid-containing structures for water treatment facilities for potable water, wastewater
treatment facilities, and other public utility facilities not included in Risk Category IV
(2) Liquid-containing structures, the failure of which could pose a substantial risk to human life
(3) Liquid-containing structures, not included in Risk Category IV, with potential to cause a
substantial economic impact, mass disruption of day-to-day civilian life, or both, in the event
III of failure 1.25
(4) Liquid-containing structures not included in Risk Category IV, including but not limited
to, facilities that manufacture, process, handle, store, use, or dispose of such substances as
hazardous fuels, hazardous chemicals, hazardous waste, or explosives containing toxic or
explosive substances where the quantity of the material exceeds a threshold quantity established
by the authority having jurisdiction, and that is sufficient to pose a threat to the public if released
(1) Liquid-containing structures designated as essential facilities
(2) Water storage and pump structures required to maintain water pressure for fire suppression
(3) Liquid-containing structures including, but not limited to, facilities that manufacture,
IV process, handle, store, use, or dispose of such substances as hazardous fuels, hazardous 1.50
chemicals, or hazardous waste containing sufficient quantities of highly toxic substances where
the quantity of the material exceeds a threshold quantity established by the authority having
jurisdiction and is sufficient to pose a threat to the public if released
Notes:
1. Structures containing toxic, highly toxic, or explosive substances shall be eligible for classification to a lower Risk Category if it can be demonstrated to the satisfaction of the
authority having jurisdiction by a hazard assessment that a release of the substance is commensurate with the risk associated with that Risk Category.
2. Toxic substances and highly toxic substances are as defined in OSHA 29 CFR 1910.1200 Appendix A with Amendments as of February 1, 2000.
Table 4.1.1b—Response modification factor R

Ri
Structure type On or above grade Buried* Rc
(a) Anchored, flexible-base tanks 3.25 †
3.5 †
1.0
(b) Fixed or hinged-base tanks 2.25 3.25 1.0
(c) Unanchored, contained, or uncontained tanks ‡
1.5 2.25 1.0
(d) Pedestal-mounted tanks§ 2.25 — 1.0
Buried tank is defined as one whose maximum water surface at rest is at or below ground level.
*
For partially buried tanks, the Ri value may be linearly interpolated between that shown for tanks on grade, and for buried tanks.
†
Unanchored, uncontained tanks shall not be built in locations where Ss ≥ 0.75.

‡
The Ri for the pedestal mounted tank only applies to the tank on top of the pedestal. The R value for design of the pedestal shall be as required by ASCE/SEI 7.
§
the Response Modification Factor, R, allows for a reduction

of the R value to an effective value “R/I” as a partial control
on the amount of damage experienced by the structure under
a design earthquake. For a given strength demand, structures
assigned Importance Factors greater than 1.0 will then effec-
tively be designed for a reduced effective R factor (by means
of the Importance Factor). As a result, these structures are
expected to experience lower ductility demands than struc-
tures designed with lower Importance Factors and, thus,
sustain less damage. Such structures should also be able to
withstand larger magnitude earthquakes with less damage
than structures designed with lower Importance Factors.
In addition to reduced ductility demands, good connec-
tion details, a complete load path for lateral forces, quality
assurance procedures, and limitations on structure deforma-
tion or drift are also important to significantly improve the
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,```

CODE COMMENTARY
structural performance (minimizing damage) and safety of
critical facilities after a seismic event.
R4.1.1 Earthquake pressures above base of tank wall—A

model representation of Wi and Wc is shown in Fig. R9.1.
4.1.2 Total base shear—The horizontal base shear due to R4.1.2 Total base shear—Note that the total base shear
seismic forces applied at the base of the tank wall shall be calculated at the base of the tank wall in accordance with
determined by the following equation these provisions does not include inertia of the base slab.
Inertia of the base slab should be included in the total base
V= ( Pi + Pw + Pr ) 2 + Pc 2 + Peg 2 (4.1.2) shear applied at the bottom of the tank floor slab for tank
global stability evaluation.
Where applicable, the lateral forces due to the dynamic Also note that the total base shear for rectangular tanks is
earth pressure from saturated and unsaturated soils against calculated on a unit-width basis when using these provisions.
the buried portion of the walls shall be included in the deter- Inertia of the tank side walls (parallel to ground motion) is
mination of the total horizontal base shear V. not included. Inertia of these side walls should be added to
the inertia of the perpendicular tank walls and be included in
the total base shear for tank global stability evaluation.
4.1.3 Moments at base of tank wall, general equation— R4.1.3 Moments at base of tank wall, general equa-
The moments due to seismic forces at the base of the tank tion—IBP overturning moment Mo is the hydrodynamic
wall shall be determined by Eq. (4.1.3e) and (4.1.3h). overturning moment on a horizontal plane at the base of the
Bending moment on the entire tank cross section just tank wall resulting from the combined effect of the moment
above the base of the tank wall (EBP) due to dynamic fluid pressures acting vertically on the tank
bottom, and bending moment on the tank cross section.
Mw = Pw × hw (4.1.3a) When considering the moment due to dynamic pressures
on the tank floor slab, pressures acting on the top of the tank
floor slab may be computed based on Mo minus Mb. The
Mr = Pr × hr (4.1.3b) pressure distribution can be computed as (Mo – Mb)/(Ib/x), as
shown in Fig. R4.1.3, where Ib is the moment of inertia of the
tank bottom footprint.
Mi = Pi × hi (4.1.3c)
When determining the soil reaction pressure or the transfer
of the forces acting on supporting elements resulting from the
Mc = Pc × hc (4.1.3d) overturning moment, the pressure distribution from dynamic
fluid pressure on the tank bottom must be combined with the
effects of Mb. The type of foundation and its stiffness need
Meg = Peg × heg (4.1.3e)
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
M b= ( M i + M w + M r ) 2 + M c 2 + M eg 2 (4.1.3f)
Overturning moment at the base of the tank wall, including

dynamic fluid pressure on the tank bottom (IBP)
Mi′ = Pi′ × hi′ (4.1.3g)
Mc′ = Pc′ × hc′ (4.1.3h)
M o= ( M i′ + M w + M r ) 2 + M c′ 2 + M eg 2 (4.1.3i)
Fig. R4.1.3—Dynamic fluid pressure on the tank floor slab.

CODE COMMENTARY
to be considered to determine the distribution of the reaction
to Mb.
Mo should be considered for evaluating soil bearing pres-
sure and global overturning. Consider supporting structure
height or the foundation thickness when evaluating over-
turning and bearing pressure of the entire structure. The
combined effects of bearing pressures from static forces and
vertical acceleration with those resulting from seismic over-
turning should be considered.
4.1.4 Vertical acceleration R4.1.4 Vertical acceleration—The effective fluid pressure

will be increased or decreased due to the effects of vertical
4.1.4.1 The tank shall be designed for the effects of vertical acceleration. Similar changes in effective weight of the
acceleration. In the absence of a site-specific response spec- concrete structure may also be considered.
trum, the ratio b of the vertical to horizontal acceleration ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 12.4.2.2 and FEMA-2 Section
shall not be less than two-thirds. 4.2.2.1 use a factor of 0.2SDS to account for the effects of
vertical ground acceleration in the definition of seismic
4.1.4.2 The hydrostatic load qhy from the tank contents, at effects.
level y above the base of the tank wall, shall be multiplied
by the spectral acceleration üv to account for the effect of the
vertical acceleration. The resulting hydrodynamic pressure
pvy shall be computed as follows
pvy = üv × qhy (4.1.4.2a)
where
b
=uv Ct I ≥ 0.2 S DS (4.1.4.2b)
Ri
where Ct is the seismic response coefficient determined in
accordance with Sections 9.4 and 9.5.
4.2—Application of site-specific response spectra R4.2—Application of site-specific response spectra

4.2.1 General—Where site-specific procedures are used, R4.2.1 General—In locations with SS ≥ 1.5 or S1 ≥ 0.60,
the maximum considered earthquake spectral response and sites with weak soil conditions, site-specific response
acceleration shall be taken as the lesser of the probabi- spectra are normally used.
listic maximum earthquake spectral response acceleration
as defined in Section 4.2.2 and the deterministic maximum
spectral response acceleration as defined in Section 4.2.3.
4.2.2 Probabilistic maximum considered earthquake— R4.2.2 Probabilistic minimum considered earthquake—
The probabilistic maximum considered earthquake spectral For probabilistic ground motions, a 2 percent probability of
response acceleration shall be taken as the spectral response exceedance in a 50-year period is equivalent to a recurrence
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
acceleration represented by a 5 percent damped acceleration interval of approximately 2500 years.

response spectrum having a 2 percent probability of exceed- The damping ratio for structures is assumed as 5 percent
ance in a 50-year period. in this Code, as is common industry practice. For sloshing
liquids, the damping ratio is assumed as 0.5 percent in this
Code, which is used in development of the response spectrum
for the convective component of the liquid seismic force.
When the available site-specific response spectrum is
for a damping ratio β other than 5 percent of critical, the
period-dependent spectral acceleration SaM given by such
site-specific spectrum should be modified by the factor ηi to
account for the influence of damping on the spectral amplifi-
cation as follows (Newmark and Hall 1982):

CODE COMMENTARY
For 0 s < (Ti or Tv) < Ts 2.706
ηi =
4.38 − 1.04 ln β
For Ts < (Ti or Tv) < 4.0 s

2.302
ηi =
3.38 − 0.67 ln β
For β = 5 percent, ηi = 1.0.

When the available site-specific response spectrum is for a
damping ratio β other than 0.5 percent of critical, the period-
dependent spectral acceleration ScM given by that spectrum
may be modified by the ratio ηc to account for the influence
of damping on the spectral amplification as follows:
3.043
ηc =
2.73 − 0.45 ln β
For β = 0.5 percent, ηc = 1.0.

For site-specific response spectra drawn on a tripartite
logarithmic plot, the design spectral acceleration ScM can
also be derived by using the relationship
2
S  2π  1.226 S D
ScM =
ηc D   = ηc
g  Tc  Tc 2
where SD is the spectral displacement corresponding to Tc

obtained directly from the site-specific spectrum in the range
Tc > 1.6/Ts.
4.2.3 Deterministic maximum considered earthquake— R4.2.3 Deterministic maximum considered earthquake—
The deterministic maximum considered earthquake spec- For deterministic ground motions, the magnitude of a char-
tral response acceleration at each period shall be taken as acteristic earthquake on a given fault should be the best
150 percent of the largest median 5 percent damped spectral estimate of the maximum magnitude capable for that fault
response acceleration computed at that period for character- and should not be less than the largest magnitude that has
istic earthquakes on all known active faults within the region. occurred historically on the fault.
The deterministic value of the spectral response acceleration
shall not be taken lower than 0.6Fv/T, except that the lower
limit of the spectral response acceleration shall not exceed
1.5Fa. The site coefficients Fa and Fv shall be obtained from
ASCE/SEI 7-16 Tables 11.4-1 and 11.4-2, respectively.
4.2.4 The maximum considered earthquake spectral
response accelerations SaM and ScM shall be determined in
accordance with Section 9.5 using the site-specific accelera-
tion response spectrum as defined in Section 4.2.1.
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CODE COMMENTARY
CHAPTER 5—EARTHQUAKE LOAD DISTRIBUTION CHAPTER 5—EARTHQUAKE LOAD DISTRIBUTION
5.1—General
In the absence of a more rigorous analysis that considers
the complex vertical and horizontal variations in hydro-
dynamic pressures, liquid-containing structures shall be
designed for the following dynamic shear and pressure
distributions in addition to the static load distributions.
5.2—Shear transfer R5.2—Shear transfer (NZS 3106)

The horizontal earthquake force V generates shear forces
between the wall and foundation and the wall and roof.
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
5.2.1 Rectangular tanks—The wall-to-floor, wall-to-wall, R5.2.1 Rectangular tanks—Typically, the horizontal
and wall-to-roof joints of rectangular tanks shall be designed distribution of forces and wall reactions in rectangular tank
for the earthquake shear forces on the basis of the following walls will be similar to that shown in Fig. R5.2.1.
shear-transfer mechanism:
Walls perpendicular to the direction of the earthquake
force shall be analyzed as slabs subjected to the horizontal
pressures computed in Section 5.3. The shears along the
bottom and side joints and the top joint in case of a roof-
covered tank shall correspond to the slab reactions.
Walls parallel to the direction of the earthquake force shall
be analyzed as shear walls subjected to the in-plane forces
computed in Section 5.3.
Fig. R5.2.1—Hydrodynamic pressure distribution in tank
walls. (Adapted from Housner [1963a] and NZS 3106.)
5.2.2 Circular tanks—The wall-to-foundation and wall-to- R5.2.2 Circular tanks—Typically, the horizontal distribu-
roof joints shall be designed for the earthquake shear forces. tion of forces in circular tank walls will be similar to that
shown in Fig. R5.2.2a.
Fig. R5.2.2a—Horizontal distribution of forces in circular

tank walls (adapted from NZS 3106).
In fixed- and hinged-base circular tanks (Types 2.1 and

2.2), the earthquake base shear is transmitted partially by
membrane (tangential) shear and the rest by radial shear
that causes vertical bending. For a tank with a height-to-
diameter ratio of 1:4 (D/HL = 4.0), approximately 20 percent
of the earthquake shear force is transmitted by the radial
base reaction to vertical bending. The remaining 80 percent
is transmitted by tangential shear transfer Q. To transmit this
CODE COMMENTARY
tangential shear Q, a distributed shear force q is required at
the wall/footing interface, where
Q
=q sin θ
πr
The distribution of tangential shear is illustrated in
Fig. R5.2.2b.
Fig. R5.2.2b—Membrane shear transfer at base of circular

tank walls (adapted from NZS 3106).
The maximum tangential shear occurs at a point on the

tank wall oriented 90 degrees to the design earthquake direc-
tion being evaluated and is given by
Q 0.8V
=
qmax =
πr πr
The radial shear is created by the flexural response of the

wall near the base of tank wall and is therefore proportional
to the hydrodynamic forces shown in Fig. R5.2.2a. The
radial shear attains its maximum value at points on the tank
wall oriented zero and 180 degrees to the ground motion and
should be determined using cylindrical shell theory and the
tank dimensions. The design of the wall-foundation inter-
face should take the radial shear into account.
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
In general, the wall-footing interface should have rein-
forcement designed to transmit these shears through the
joint. Alternatively, the wall may be located in a preformed
slot in the ring beam foundation.
In anchored, flexible-base, circular tanks (Type 2.3(1))
it is assumed that the entire base shear is transmitted
by membrane (tangential) shear with only insignificant
vertical bending.
Q = 1.0V
Q V
=
qmax =
πr πr
In tank Types 2.3(2) and 2.3(3), it is assumed that the base
shear is transmitted by friction only. If friction between the base
of the wall and the foundation, or between the base of the tank
CODE COMMENTARY
wall and the bearing pads, is insufficient to resist the earthquake
shear, some form of mechanical restraint such as dowels, galva-
nized steel cables, or preformed slots may be required.
Failure to provide a means for shear transfer around the
circumference may result in sliding of the wall.
When using preformed slots, vertical bending moments
induced in the wall by shear should be considered.
The roof-to-wall joint is subject to earthquake shear from
the horizontal acceleration of the roof. Where dowels are
provided to transfer this shear, the distribution will be the
same as shown in Fig. R5.2.2b with maximum shear given by
0.8 Pr
qmax =
πr
where Pr is the force from the horizontal acceleration of
the roof.
For tanks with roof overhangs, the concrete lip can be
designed to withstand the earthquake force. Because the roof
is free to slide on top of the wall, the shear transfer will take
place over that portion of the circumference where the lip
overhang comes into contact with the wall. Typically, the
distribution of forces and wall reactions in circular tanks will
be similar to that shown in Fig. R5.2.2a, but reacting on only
half of the circumference. The maximum reaction force will
be given by
2.0 Pr
qmax =
πr
5.3—Dynamic force distribution above base of R5.3—Dynamic force distribution above base of
tank wall tank wall
5.3.1 Rectangular tanks—Walls perpendicular to the R5.3.1 Rectangular tanks—The vertical distribution, per
earthquake force and in the leading half of the tank shall foot of wall height, of the horizontal dynamic forces acting
be loaded perpendicular to their plane (dimension B) by the perpendicular to the plane of the wall may be assumed as
wall’s own inertia force Pw′, one-half the impulsive force Pi, shown in Fig. 5.3.1a (adapted from NZS 3106:1986 Section
and one-half the convective force Pc. 2.2.9.5) and as shown in Fig. R5.3.1b.
Walls perpendicular to the earthquake force and in the
trailing half of the tank shall be loaded perpendicular to their
plane (dimension B) by the wall’s own inertia force Pw′, one-
half the impulsive force Pi, one-half the convective force Pc,
and the dynamic earth and groundwater pressure against the
buried portion of the wall.
Walls parallel to the direction of the earthquake force
shall be loaded in their plane (dimension L) by the wall’s
own in-plane inertia force Pw′, and the in-plane forces corre-
sponding to the edge reactions from the roof Pr (where appli-
cable), and from the abutting wall(s).
Superimposed on these lateral unbalanced forces shall be Fig. R5.3.1a—Vertical force distribution of horizontal
the lateral hydrodynamic force resulting from the hydrody- forces: rectangular tanks.
namic pressure due to the effect of vertical acceleration, pvy,
acting on each wall.
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CODE COMMENTARY
Pwy = (CiI/Ri) × [ε(γcBtw)]/12 (in.-lb)
Pwy = (CiI/Ri) × [ε(γcBtw)] (SI)
Based on the exact distribution, the impulsive and convec-

tive pressure distributions are:
3   y  
2
Pi
piy = × 1 −  
2 2 H L   H L  
 
  2y 
cosh  2.5  
Pc 5 3.6   L 
p= × 
cy
2 3L   2H L  
 sinh  2.5 L  
 
Alternatively, the assumed linear distribution can be used

as follows
  
( )
P
i  4 H − 6h − 6 H − 12h 
y 

2  L i L i  H 
  L  
Piy =
HL2
For hc < (2/3)HL
Pc   y 
 4 H L − 6hc − ( 6 H L − 12hc )  
2   H L  
=Pcy ≥0
H L2
For hc ≥ (2/3)HL:
For y ≤ (3hc – 2HL): Pcy = 0
For y > (3hc – 2HL): Pcy = Pc[y + 2HL – 3hc]/[9(HL – hc)2]
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CODE COMMENTARY
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig. R5.3.1b—Distribution of hydrostatic and hydrodynamic pressures and inertia forces

on the wall of a rectangular liquid-containing structure. (Adapted from Haroun [1984].)
The horizontal distribution of the dynamic pressures

across the wall width B is
pwy = Pwy/B; pcy = Pcy/B
piy = Piy/B; pvy = üvqhy
The dynamic force on the leading half of the tank will be

additive to the hydrostatic force on the wall, and the dynamic
force on the trailing half of the tank will reduce the effects of
the hydrostatic force on the wall.
5.3.2 Combining dynamic forces for rectangular tanks— R5.3.2 Combining dynamic forces for rectangular tanks—
The dynamic force at any given height y from the base of The shape of the dynamic soil pressure will vary depending
the tank wall shall be determined by the following equation on the soil conditions. The geotechnical professional should
determine the distribution of the dynamic earth pressure at
Py = ( Piy + Pwy ) 2 + Pcy 2 + ( pvy × B) 2 (5.3.2) any height on the wall. Also refer to R8.1.
Where applicable, the effect of the dynamic earth pressure

and from saturated and unsaturated soils against the buried
portions of the walls shall be included.
5.3.3 Circular tanks—The cylindrical walls of circular R5.3.3 Circular tanks—The vertical distribution, per foot
tanks shall be loaded by the wall’s own inertia force distrib- of wall height, of the horizontal dynamic forces acting on

CODE COMMENTARY
one half of the wall may be assumed as shown in Fig. R5.3.3
and in Fig. R5.2.2a.
Fig. R5.3.3—Vertical force distribution:circular tanks.
Pw
Pwy =
2H w
(As shown for a constant-thickness wall. For a tapered

wall, use height above floor slab to centroid of wall.)
Based on the exact distribution, the impulsive and convec-

tive pressure distributions are
3   y  
2
Pi
piy = × 1 −  
2 2 H L   H L  
 
  y 
cosh  3.375  
Pc 9   r 
p= × 
2 2r 6   HL  
cy
 sinh  3.375 r  
 
Alternatively, the assumed linear distribution can be used

as follows
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Pi   y 
 4 H L − 6hi − (6 H L − 12hi )  
2  H L  
Piy =
H L2
For hc < (2/3)HL:

Pc   y 
 4 H L − 6hc − (6 H L − 12hc )  
2   H L  
=Pcy ≥0
H L2
For hc ≥ (2/3)HL:
For y ≤ (3hc – 2HL): Pcy = 0

For y > (3hc – 2HL): Pcy = Pc[y + 2HL – 3hc]/[9(HL – hc)2]
(For circular tanks, the vertical distribution of the impulsive

and convective forces is identical to that shown in Fig. R5.3.1b
for rectangular tanks, while the horizontal distribution varies
along the tank circumference as shown in Fig. R.5.2.2a.)
CODE COMMENTARY
uted uniformly around the entire circumference; one-half The horizontal distribution of the dynamic pressure across
the impulsive force Pi applied symmetrically about θ = 0 the tank diameter D may be assumed as follows
and acting outward on one half of the wall, and one-half Pi
symmetrically about θ = π and acting inward on the oppo- pwy = Pwy/πr; pcy = (16Pcy/9πr) × cosθ
site half of the wall; one-half the convective force Pc, acting
on one-half of the wall symmetrically about θ = 0 and one- piy = (2Piy/ πr) × cosθ; pvy = üvqhy
half Pc symmetrically about θ = π and acting inward on the
opposite half of the wall; and the dynamic earth pressure
and from saturated and unsaturated soil against the trailing
half of the buried portion of the wall. Superimposed on these
lateral unbalanced forces shall be the axisymmetric lateral
hydrodynamic force resulting from the hydrodynamic pres-
sure pvy acting on the tank wall.
Roof inertia generates hoop forces with sinusoidal variation
in the circumferential direction in the dome ring/top of the
wall region. In case of flat roof, the extent of top of the wall
resisting roof inertia depends on wall-roof connection details.
In case of dome roof, this region is defined by the dome ring.
Below this region, the roof inertia generates shear stresses
which can be computed by treating the entire cross section
of the tank as hollow circular section (or hollow rectangular
section). The roof inertia should be added to the impulsive
component of liquid when computing total base shear.
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CODE COMMENTARY
CHAPTER 6—STRESSES CHAPTER R6—STRESSES
6.1—Rectangular tanks R6—General

The vertical and horizontal bending stresses and shear In calculating the vertical bending moments in the walls
stresses in the wall and at the base of the tank wall due to of rectangular and circular tanks, the boundary conditions
lateral earthquake forces shall be computed on the basis of at the wall-to-base and wall-to-roof joints should be prop-
slab action (Sections 5.2 and 5.3), using pressure distribu- erly accounted for. Typical earthquake force distributions
tion consistent with the provisions of Section 5.3.1. in walls of rectangular and circular tanks are presented in
R5.3.1 and R5.3.3, respectively.
6.2—Circular tanks R6.2—Circular tanks

The vertical bending stresses and shear stresses in the wall For free-base circular tanks (Type 2.3), the terms in
and at the base of the tank wall due to lateral earthquake Eq. (6.2a) are defined as follows
forces shall be computed on the basis of shell action using 2 Piy
an acceptable pressure distribution. N= piy × =
r for (at =
θ 0)
π
iy
Dynamic membrane (hoop) forces in the cylindrical wall
corresponding to any liquid level, y, above the base of the 16 Pcy
tank wall shall be determined by the following equation N= pcy ×=
r for (at =
θ 0)
π
cy
Ny = ( N iy + N wy ) 2 + N cy 2 + N hy 2 (6.2a) Pwy
N wy= pwy × r=
π
and hoop stress
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Nhy = üv × Qhy
Ny
σy = (in.-lb) where
12t w
(6.2b)
Ny Qhy = qhy × r
σy = (SI)
tw
where tw is wall thickness at the level being investigated For fixed- or hinged-base circular tanks (Types 2.1 and
(liquid level y). Where applicable, the effects of the dynamic 2.2) the terms in Eq. (6.2a) should be modified to account for
earth pressure and from saturated and unsaturated soils the effects of base restraint. Similarly, the terms in Eq. (6.2a)
against the buried portions of the walls shall be included. should be modified to account for the restraint of rigid wall-to-
roof joints. Out-of-phase dynamic forces (inertia, impulsive,
convective and vertical acceleration) generally have widely
spaced frequencies of vibration from individual modes and
there is minimal coupling between modes. The effects of the
out-of-phase forces may be combined using a method such as
the square-root-sum-of-the-squares (SRSS) method.

CODE COMMENTARY
CHAPTER 7—FREEBOARD CHAPTER R7—FREEBOARD
7.1—Wave oscillation R7.1—Wave oscillation

Provisions shall be made to accommodate the maximum The horizontal earthquake acceleration causes the
wave oscillation dmax generated by earthquake acceleration. contained fluid to slosh with vertical displacement of the
The maximum vertical displacement dmax to be accommo- fluid surface.
dated shall be calculated from the following expressions: The amount of freeboard required in design to accommo-
Rectangular tanks date this sloshing will vary. Where overtopping is tolerable
no freeboard provision is necessary. Where loss of liquid
L
d max = Cc I (7.1a) should be prevented (for example, tanks for the storage of
2 toxic liquids), or where overtopping may result in scouring
In lieu of the simplified Eq. (7.1a), dmax may be calculated of the foundation materials or cause damage to pipes, roof,
using Eq. (7.1b) or both, then one or more of the following measures should
be undertaken:
0.264 L
d max = I (7.1b) (a) Provide a freeboard allowance
 2g   3.16 H L  (b) Design the roof structure to resist the resulting uplift
− 1 tanh  L 
 ω c 2 Cc L  pressures, and design the tank to include the confined
portion of the convective (sloshing) mass as an additional
Circular tanks impulsive mass; and/or
(c) Provide an overflow spillway
D
d max = Cc I (7.1c) Two sets of equations are provided to calculate the vertical
2 displacement of the fluid surface. Equations (7.1a) and
In lieu of the simplified Eq. (7.1c), dmax can be calculated (7.1c) are a simplified and conservative approach consistent
using Eq. (7.1d) with ASCE/SEI 7-16. Equations (7.1b) and (7.1d) are taken
from TID-7024 (Housner 1963a), including the corrected
0.204 D
d max = I (7.1d) Appendix F, which addresses an integration error in the
 2g   3.68 H L  published θh equation for cylindrical containers. The variable
− 1 tanh  D 
 ω c 2 Cc D  θh, defined in TID-7024, is equivalent to Cc as defined in this
Code. The simplified equations conservatively result in values
where Cc is the seismic response coefficient as computed in 10 to 20 percent greater than the exact results. The sloshing
Section 9.4. height and required freeboard differences between this code
and ASCE 7 are currently under consideration by ACI 350.
Observations of rectangular tanks during seismic events
and modeling of tanks on shake tables as well as finite
element investigations (Tavakkoli et al. 2012) have indi-
cated a potential significant increase in slosh height at tank
corners. Instead of detailed analysis, the corner sloshing can
be estimated by combining sloshing height in each orthog-
onal direction by use of the square-root-sum-of-the-squares
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(SRSS) method. More accurate estimation of the corner

sloshing may be determined by further detailed analysis.
When a covered tank has inadequate freeboard, the
sloshing wave will impact the roof and cause an upward
pressure on the roof structure. Other codes, both in
the United States (ASCE/SEI 7) and in other countries
(EN 1998-4(2006) [Eurocode 8]; NZS 3106; AIJ [2010])
do not have a consistent method for calculating the upward
force. Research papers (Malhotra 2005; Goudarzi et al. 2010;
Douglass et al. 2006; Isaacson 2010; Kobayashi 1980),
whether based on scale-model experiments or based on
purely analytical approaches, give widely varying answers
to the problem. Because of the widely varying results of the
research, a more complex method will not necessarily give
a more accurate pressure. The following simplified method
may be used to calculate the uplift force.

CODE COMMENTARY
This method is based on “Wave Forces on Bridge Decks”
by Douglass et al. (2006).
Loads on flat roofs covering rectangular or circular
tanks: The upward force on a flat roof structure has two
components: a buoyant component and an impact compo-
nent. The authors state, “The two types of loads, ‘impact’ and
slowly ‘varying’ [buoyant] will be additive but not neces-
sarily in phase, i.e. they won’t both be at their peak at the
same moment in time.” The buoyant component is the force
from 1.0 times the liquid density times the wave height above
the bottom of the flat roof. The impact force can be taken
as some multiple of the buoyant force. Various papers give
values for the impact force ranging from 0.0 (ACI 350-20)
to 3.0 (IBC 2003) times the buoyant force. The buoyant and
impulsive forces should be combined using SRSS. This is
consistent with how the impulsive and convective forces
are combined in this Code. The selection of the value of the
impact force is left to the licensed design professional. It is
recommended that the value of CLF in the following equation
be taken as no less than 1.4 (impact force equal to 1.0 times
buoyant force), and a reasonable upward bound for CLF may
be 3.2 (impact force equal to 3.0 times the buoyant force). A
reasonable compromise value for CLF is 2.2.
The upward fluid pressure on the underside of the flat roof
structure may be determined by
FR/Av = CLFγL(dmax/I – ho)
where CLF is the coefficient that is the SRSS combination of

the buoyant and impulsive multipliers; FR is the total upward
force on the flat roof structure from an impacting wave, lb; Av
is the area the flat roof impacted by the wave, ft2; and ho is the
distance from undisturbed water surface to underside of roof
(freeboard).
The flat roof structure within a distance of Li of the wall
will be subject to an upward pressure of FR/Av, where Li may
be determined by:
Length of flat roof impacted by wave in circular tanks
Li = D/2 – D/πsin–1(ho/dmax)
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Length of flat roof impacted by wave in rectangular tanks
Li = (L/π)cos–1(ho/dmax)
Upward fluid pressure and length of roof impacted by wave

will be smaller in the case of dome roofs. It will be necessary
to modify the aforementioned equations to account for the
curvature of dome roofs. Alternately, the flat roof calcula-
tions may be conservatively used.

CODE COMMENTARY
Fig. R7.1—Wave impact area on the roofs of tanks.
Wall loads for tanks with inadequate freeboard

When the wave impacts the roof, in addition to loading the
roof, there will be an increase in the impulsive mass of water
and a reduction in the convective mass as a result of the roof
constraining an otherwise free fluid surface. ASCE/SEI 7-16
requires that “the design of the tank shall use the confined
portion of the convective (sloshing) mass as an additional
impulsive mass.” The following method accomplishes this.
The wall forces may be determined using the method
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
given in Bandyopadhyay et al. (1993).

CODE COMMENTARY
In the following equations, kc × 100 is the percentage of
the total roof area that is impacted by the wave; similarly
for kr.
Wall forces in circular tanks with inadequate freeboard
At minimum, the total base shear and moment should not
be less than the corresponding values computed assuming
that the adequate freeboard is provided.
Excluding bottom pressure
Pi-w = [(1 – kc)Wi + kc(Hw/HL)WL]Ci(I/Ri)
Pc-w = (1 – kc)Cc(I/Rc)Wc
Mi-w = [(1 – kc)Wihi + kc(Hw/HL)WL(Hw/2)]Ci(I/Ri)
Mc-w = Pc-whc
where Pi-w and Pc-w are the impulsive and convective forces
on the wall of a tank with inadequate freeboard, respec-
tively, and Mi-w and Mc-w are, respectively, the impulsive and
convective moments at the base of the wall of a tank with
inadequate freeboard
kc = [2qo + sin(2qo)]/2p
qo = cos–1(ho/dmax)
where qo is in radians.
The resultant wall pressure may be assumed to be trap-
ezoidal with the resultant force and height calculated as:
2 2
Resultant wall force = Pi -w + Pc -w
Height to resultant wall force =
M i -w 2 + M c -w 2 / Pi -w 2 + Pc -w 2
Including bottom pressure
Mi-w′ = [(1 – kc)Wihi′ + kc(Hw/HL)WL(Hw/2)]Ci(I/Ri)
Mc-w′ = (1 – kc)Pchc′
where Mi-w′ and Mc-w′ are the impulsive and convective over-
turning moments of a tank with inadequate freeboard.
Wall forces in rectangular tanks with inadequate freeboard
At minimum, the total base shear and moment should not
be less than the corresponding values computed assuming
that the adequate freeboard is provided.
Excluding bottom pressure
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,
Pi-w = [(1 – kr)Wi + kr(Hw/HL)WL]Ci(I/Ri)

CODE COMMENTARY
Pc-w = (1 – kr)Cc(I/Rc)Wc
Mi-w = [(1 – kr)Wihi + kr(Hw/HL)WL(Hw/2)]Ci(I/Ri)
Mc-w = (1 – kr)Pchc
where
kr = θo/π
θo = cos–1(ho/dmax)
where θo is in radians.
The resultant wall pressure may be assumed to be trap-
ezoidal with the resultant force and height calculated as:
2 2
Resultant wall force = Pi -w + Pc -w
Height to resultant wall force =
M i -w 2 + M c -w 2 / Pi -w 2 + Pc -w 2
Including bottom pressure
Mi-w′ = [(1 – kr)Wihi′ + kr(Hw/HL)WL(Hw/2)]Ci(I/Ri)
Mc-w′ = (1 – kr)Pchc′
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CODE COMMENTARY
CHAPTER 8–EARTHQUAKE-INDUCED EARTH CHAPTER R8—EARTHQUAKE-INDUCED EARTH
PRESSURES PRESSURES
8.1—General R8.1—General
Dynamic earth pressures shall be taken into account when The lateral forces due to dynamic earth pressures are
computing the base shear of a partially or fully buried liquid- combined with other earthquake-induced pressures on the
containing structure, and when designing the walls. tanks using the square-root-sum-of-the-squares method
The effects of groundwater table, if present, shall be (SRSS) as in Eq. (4.1.2).
included in the calculation of these pressures. Ko, the coef- Earthquake-induced earth pressures should be provided in
ficient of lateral earth pressure at rest, shall be used in esti- the site geotechnical report. However, when not otherwise
mating the earth pressures, unless it is demonstrated by available, the earthquake-induced earth pressures may be
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
calculation that the structure deflects sufficiently to lower calculated using the following for walls with level backfill.
the coefficient to some value between Ko and Ka, the active Earthquake-induced earth pressure in the absence of
coefficient of lateral earth pressure. groundwater
In a pseudo-static analysis, the resultant of the seismic In the absence of a geotechnical report that provides the
component of the earth pressure shall be assumed to act at earthquake-induced earth pressures, the following may be
a point 0.6 of the earth height above the base of the tank used in locations without groundwater:
wall, and when part or all of the structure is below the water For walls that can move sufficiently to develop active
table, the resultant of the incremental increase in water pres- earth pressures (yielding walls), the earthquake-induced
sure shall be assumed to act at a point one-third of the water earth pressure Peg may be determined by
depth above the base of the tank wall.
Peg = (3/8)(SDS/2.5)γH2(I/R) (R8.1a)
For walls that cannot move sufficiently to develop active

earth pressures (non-yielding walls), the earthquake-induced
earth pressure Peg may be determined by
Peg = (SDS/2.5)γH2(I/R) (R8.1b)
The resultant force should be applied at 0.6H above the

base of the tank wall.
Equations (R8.1a) and (R8.1b) are taken from
FEMA 450-2. These are the simplified Monobe-Okabe
(M-O) formulations for the increased lateral pressures on
retaining structures during earthquakes.
Earthquake-induced earth pressure where groundwater is
present
The earthquake-induced earth pressure Peg may be deter-
mined by:
Yielding walls
Peg = (3/8)khw(SDS/2.5)γH2(I/R) (R8.1c)
Non-yielding walls
Peg = khw(SDS/2.5)γH2(I/R) (R8.1d)
khw = γs/γb (R8.1e)
where γs is saturated unit weight of the backfill, and γb is

buoyant unit weight of the backfill = γs – γw.
The resultant force should be applied at 0.6H above the
base of the tank wall.
The equations for earthquake-induced earth pressure
where groundwater is present are taken from ASCE/SEI 7-16.
CODE COMMENTARY
The equations given here assume that groundwater is
at grade.
The aforementioned equations do not apply at soils that
are subjected to liquefaction, as determined by a professional
geotechnical engineer. Soil liquefaction is a phenomenon
whereby a saturated or partially saturated soil substantially
loses strength and stiffness in response to an applied stress,
such as earthquake shaking, causing it to behave like a liquid.
8.2—Limitations
In a buried tank, the dynamic backfill forces shall not be
relied upon to reduce the dynamic effects of the stored liquid
or vice versa.
8.3—Alternative methods R8.3—Alternative methods

The provisions of this chapter shall be permitted to be ASCE/SEI 7-16 requires a geotechnical investigation
superseded by recommendations of the project geotechnical report for structures assigned to Seismic Design Categories
engineer that are approved by the building official having C, D, E, and F. However, earthquake-induced earth pres-
jurisdiction. sures are only required for geotechnical reports for struc-
tures assigned to Seismic Design Categories D, E, and F.
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CODE COMMENTARY
CHAPTER 9—DYNAMIC MODEL CHAPTER R9—DYNAMIC MODEL
9.1—General R9.1—General
The dynamic characteristics of ground-supported liquid- The following commentary is adapted from Housner
containing structures subjected to earthquake acceleration (1963a):
shall be computed in accordance with Sections 9.2, 9.3, The design procedures described in Chapter 4 recognize
and 9.5. that the seismic analysis of liquid-containing structures
The dynamic characteristics of pedestal-mounted liquid- subjected to a horizontal acceleration should include the
containing structures shall be computed in accordance with inertia forces generated by the acceleration of the structure
Section 9.7. itself, and the hydrodynamic forces generated by the hori-
zontal acceleration of the contained liquid.
According to Housner (1963a), the pressures associated
with these forces “…can be separated into impulsive and
convective parts. The impulsive pressures are not impulses
in the usual sense but are associated with inertia forces
produced by accelerations of the walls of the container
and are directly proportional to these accelerations. The
convective pressures are those produced by the oscilla-
tions of the fluid and are therefore the consequences of the
impulsive pressures.”
Figure R9.1 shows an equivalent dynamic model for
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
calculating the resultant seismic forces acting on a ground-
based fluid container with rigid walls. This model has been
accepted by the profession since the early 1960s. In this
model Wi represents the resultant effect of the impulsive
seismic pressures on the tank walls. Wc represents the resul-
tant effect of the sloshing (convective) fluid pressures.
In the model, Wi is rigidly fastened to the tank walls at a
height hi above the base of tank wall, that corresponds to the
location of the resultant impulsive force Pi. Wi moves with
the tank walls as they respond to the ground shaking (the fluid
is assumed to be incompressible and the fluid displacements
small). The impulsive pressures are generated by the seismic
accelerations of the tank walls so that the force, Pi, is evenly
divided into a pressure force on the wall accelerating into the
fluid, and a suction force on the wall accelerating away from
the fluid. During an earthquake, the force Pi changes direc-
tion several times per second, corresponding to the change in
direction of the base acceleration; the overturning moment
generated by Pi is thus frequently ineffective in tending to
overturn the tank. Impulsive forces, however, are conserva-
tively included in the overturning forces due to the difficulty
in establishing the true effect on overturning.
Wc is the effective weight of the oscillating fluid that
produces the convective pressures on the tank walls with
resultant force Pc, which acts at a height of hc above the base
of the tank wall. In the model, Wc is fastened to the tank walls
by springs that produce a period of vibration corresponding
to the period of fluid sloshing. The sloshing pressures on the
tank walls result from the fluid motion associated with the
wave oscillation. The period of oscillation of the sloshing
depends upon the ratio of fluid depth to tank diameter and
is usually several seconds. The overturning moment exerted
by Pc (Fig. R9.1) acts for a sufficient time to tend to uplift
the tank wall if there is insufficient restraining weight. The
forces Pi and Pc act independently and simultaneously on the
CODE COMMENTARY
Fig. R9.1—Dynamic model of liquid-containing tank rigidly supported on the ground.
tank. The force Pi (and its associated pressures) primarily

acts to stress the tank wall, whereas Pc acts primarily to
uplift the tank wall. The vertical vibrations of the ground are
also transmitted to the fluid and, thus, producing pressures
that acts on the tank walls. They act to increase or decrease
the hoop stresses.
The pressures and forces on a cylindrical tank are similar
to but not the same as those acting on a rectangular tank.
The rapid fluctuations of the force Pi mean that the bending
moments and stresses in the wall of a rectangular tank also
vary rapidly (the effect is not like a constant force acting on
the wall). The duration of the fluctuations is 10 to 15 seconds
for earthquakes of magnitude 6.5 to 7.5.
The force Pc fluctuates sinusoidally with a period of vibra-
tion that depends on the dimensions of the tank and can
be several seconds or longer. The duration of sloshing can
be 20 to 40 seconds for earthquakes of magnitude 6.5 to
7.5. Note that the damping of the sloshing water is small,
approximately 0.5 to 1 percent of critical damping. The
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
sloshing increases and decreases the fluid pressure on the

CODE COMMENTARY
wall. Normally, this is smaller than the impulsive effect, but
if there is not enough dead load, the tank will tend to uplift.
9.2—Rectangular tanks (Type 1) R9.2—Rectangular tanks (Type 1)

All equations in Section 9.2 except Eq. (9.2.4a), (9.2.4b),
and (9.2.4c) were originally developed by Housner (1963a)
and subsequently used by other authors (Housner 1956; NZS
3106; Haroun 1984; ASCE 1981; Veletsos and Shivakumar
1997; ANSI/AWWA D110-13 (R18); ANSI/AWWA D115-17;
FEMA 450-2; ASCE/SEI 7-16; Haroun and Ellaithy 1985).
Equations (9.2.4a), (9.2.4b), and (9.2.4c) were adapted
from NZS 3106.
9.2.1 Effective weights of accelerating liquid (Fig. 9.2.1)
Fig. 9.2.1—Factors Wi/WL and Wc/WL versus ratio L/HL for rectangular tanks.
tanh [ 0.866( L /H L ) ]
Wi /WL = (9.2.1a)
0.866( L /H L )
Wc/WL = 0.264(L/HL)tanh[3.16(HL/L)] (9.2.1b)
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CODE COMMENTARY
9.2.2 Height to centers of gravity EBP (Fig. 9.2.2)
Fig. 9.2.2—Factors hi/HL and hc/HL versus ratio L/HL for rectangular tanks (EBP).
For tanks with L/HL < 1.333
hi/HL = 0.5 – 0.09375(L/HL) (9.2.2a)
For tanks with L/HL ≥ 1.333
hi/HL = 0.375 (9.2.2b)
For all tanks

cosh [ 3.16( H L /L) ] − 1
hc /H L = 1 − (9.2.2c)
3.16( H L /L) sinh [ 3.16( H L /L) ]
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CODE COMMENTARY
9.2.3 Heights to center of gravity (IBP) (Fig. 9.2.3)
Fig. 9.2.3—Factors hi′/HL and hc′/HL versus ratio L/HL for rectangular tanks (IBP).
For tanks with L/HL < 0.75
hi′/HL = 0.45 (9.2.3a)
For tanks with L/HL ≥ 0.75
0.866( L /H L )
=hi′/H L − 0.125 (9.2.3b)
2 tanh[0.866( L /H L )]
For all tanks
cosh [ 3.16( H L /L) ] − 2.01
hc′ /H L = 1 − (9.2.3c)
3.16( H L /L) sinh [ 3.16( H L /L) ]
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
9.2.4 Dynamic properties—The structural stiffness k shall R9.2.4 Dynamic properties—The following equations are
be computed on the basis of correct boundary conditions. provided as examples for the special case of a wall of uniform
thickness. (Note that mass is equal to weight divided by the
k
ωi = (9.2.4a) acceleration due to gravity.)
m
 γ 
m = mw + mi (9.2.4b) mw = H w tw  c  (in.-lb)
 12 g 
γ 
2π m mw = H w tw  c  (SI)
Ti = = 2π (9.2.4c)  g
ωi k
λ  W   L γ 
ωc = (9.2.4d) mi =  i    H L  L  (in.-lb)
L  WL   2   g
where
 W   L γ 
=mi  i    H L  L  × 103 (SI)
λ = 3.16 g tanh [ 3.16( H L /L) ] (9.2.4e)  WL   2   g

CODE COMMENTARY
2π  2π 
=
Tc =   L (9.2.4f)
ωc  λ 
 2π 
  is from Fig. 9.2.4.
λ
Fig. 9.2.4—Factor 2π/λ for rectangular tanks.
(For results in the SI system, multiply the factors on the (hw mw + hi mi )

vertical axis by 1.811.) h=
(mw + mi )
where hw = 0.5Hw, and hi is obtained from Eq. (9.2.2a) and

(9.2.2b), and Fi.
For walls of nonuniform thickness, special analysis is
required to determine mw, mi, and h.
For fixed-base, free-top cantilever walls such as in open-
top tanks, flexural stiffness for a unit width of wall may be
approximated using the following equation
3
Ec  tw 
k= (in.-lb)
48  h 
3
Ec  tw 
k= (SI)
4 × 103  h 
Flexural stiffness formulas may be developed for other

wall support conditions. Such spring constants will gener-
ally fall within the low period range (less than approximately
0.3 seconds) for tanks of normal proportions.
As an alternative to computing the natural period of vibra-
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
tion, particularly for end conditions other than cantilever, it is

reasonable to assume the wall rigid. In such cases, Eq. (9.4.1b)
may be conservatively used to calculate the impulsive forces
regardless of the actual boundary conditions of the structure
or structural components being analyzed.
CODE COMMENTARY
9.3—Circular tanks (Type 2) R9.3—Circular tanks (Type 2)
9.3.1 Effective weights of accelerating liquid (Fig. 9.3.1) All equations in Section 9.3 except Eq. (9.3.4a) through
(9.3.4f) were originally developed by Housner (1963a) and
tanh [ 0.866( D /H L ) ] subsequently used by other authors (Housner 1956; NZS
Wi /WL = (9.3.1a) 3106; Haroun 1984; ASCE 1981; Veletsos and Shivakumar
0.866( D /H L ) 1997; ANSI/AWWA D110-13 (R18); ANSI/AWWA D115-17;
Haroun and Ellaithy 1985).
Wc/WL = 0.230(D/HL)tanh[3.68(HL/D)] (9.3.1b) Equations (9.3.4a) through (9.3.4f) were adapted from
NZS 3106.
Fig. 9.3.1—Factors Wi/WL and Wc/WL versus ratio D/HL for circular tanks.
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
9.3.2 Heights to centers of gravity (EBP) (Fig. 9.3.2)
Fig. 9.3.2—Factors hi/HL and hc/HL versus ratio D/HL for circular tanks (EBP).
CODE COMMENTARY
For tanks with D/HL < 1.333
hi/HL = 0.5 – 0.09375(D/HL) (9.3.2a)
For tanks with D/HL ≥ 1.333
Hi/HL = 0.375 (9.3.2b)
For all tanks
cosh [ 3.68( H L /D) ] − 1

hc /H L = 1 − (9.3.2c)
3.68( H L /D) sinh [ 3.68( H L /D) ]
9.3.3 Heights to center of gravity (IBP) (Fig. 9.3.3)
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig. 9.3.3—Factors hi′/HL and hc′/HL versus ratio D/HL for circular tanks (IBP).
For tanks with D/HL < 0.75
hi′/HL = 0.45 (9.3.3a)
For tanks with D/HL ≥ 0.75
0.866( D /H L )
=hi′ / H L − 0.125 (9.3.3b)
2 tanh [ 0.866( D /H L ) ]
cosh [ 3.68( H L /D) ] − 2.01

hc′ /H L = 1 − (9.3.3c)
3.68( H L /D) sinh [ 3.68( H L /D) ]

CODE COMMENTARY
9.3.4 Dynamic properties R9.3.4 Dynamic properties—Equations (9.3.4a) and
For tank Types 2.1 and 2.2: (9.3.4b) are adapted from ASCE (1981) and Veletsos and
Shivakumar (1997).
12 Ec g Equations (9.3.4d) and (9.3.4e) are adapted from ANSI/
ω i = Cl × (in.-lb) AWWA D110-13 (R 18) and ANSI/AWWA D115-17.
HL γc (9.3.4a)
Equations (9.2.4e), (9.2.4f), (9.3.4g), and (9.3.4h) are
3
1 10 × Ec g adapted from Housner (1963a).
ω i = Cl × (SI)
HL γc
tw
C= Cw × 10 (in.-lb)
12r
l
tw (9.3.4b)
C= Cw × (SI)
10r
l
Cw from Fig. 9.3.4a

--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig. 9.3.4a—Coefficient Cw for circular tanks.
For D/HL > 0.667
Cw = 9.375 × 10–2 + 0.2039(HL/D) – 1.034(HL/D)2

– 0.1253(HL/D)3 + 0.1267(HL/D)4 – 3.186 × 10–2(HL/D)5
Ti = 2π/ωi (9.3.4c)
For tank Type 2.3
8π (Ww + Wr + Wi )
Ti = (9.3.4d)
gDk a
but shall not exceed 1.25s

CODE COMMENTARY
 A E cos 2 α   2G p wp L p  
=ka 144  s s  +  t S   (in-lb)
 Lc Sc  p p  
(9.3.4e)

6  As Es cos α 
2  2G p wp L p  
=ka 10   +  t S   (SI)
 Lc Sc  p p  
Tc
λ
ωc = (9.3.4f)
D
where
λ = 3.68 g tanh [ 3.68( H L /D) ] (9.3.4g)
2π  2π 
=
Tc =   D (9.3.4h)
ωc  λ 
 2π 
  from Fig. 9.3.4b
λ
Fig. 9.3.4b—Factor 2π/λ for circular tanks.
(For results in the SI system, multiply the factors on the

vertical axis by 1.811.)
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CODE COMMENTARY
9.4—Seismic response coefficients Ci, Cc, and Ct R9.4—Seismic response coefficients Ci, Cc, and Ct
Designations Ci, Cc, and Ct define the profile of the design
response spectrum at periods Ti, Tc, and Tv respectively. A
plot of the seismic response coefficient Ci is shown in the
design response spectrum in Fig. R9.4.1, which is adapted
from IBC-2003.
Fig. R9.4.1—Design response spectrum (5 percent damping).
9.4.1 Ci shall be determined as follows: R9.4.1 The mapped spectral response accelerations SS and
For Ti ≤ TS S1 for any location can also be obtained from the latest data-
base of the United States Geological Survey (USGS), at its
Ci = SDS (9.4.1a) website http://earthquake.usgs.gov/hazards/ using the specific
zip code or latitude and longitude that identify the location.
For Ti > TS In regions other than those shown in the maps in IBC-2012,
S D1 FEMA 450-2, or ANSI/AWWA D115-17, SS and S1 may be
=
Ci ≤ S DS (9.4.1b) replaced by the maximum considered earthquake spectral
Ti response accelerations from 5 percent damped response
where spectra representing earthquakes with a 2 percent probability
S D1 of exceedance in a 50-year period, equivalent to a recurrence
TS = (9.4.1c) interval of approximately 2500 years.
S DS
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SDS is the design spectral response acceleration at short
periods.
2
S DS = S S Fa (9.4.1d)
3
SD1 is the design spectral response acceleration at 1 s
period.
2
S D1 = S1 Fv (9.4.1e)
3
SS and S1 are the mapped spectral response accelerations at

short periods (Ss) and 1-second (S1) respectively, and shall be
obtained from the seismic ground motion maps 22-1 through
22-7 of ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 22; and Fa and Fv are the
site coefficients and shall be obtained from Tables 11.4-1 and
11.4-2, respectively, of ASCE/SEI 7-16, in conjunction with
Table 20.3-1, “Site Classification,” of ASCE/SEI 7-16.

CODE COMMENTARY
9.4.2 Cc shall be determined as follows: R9.4.2 Factor 1.5 represents the approximate ratio of the
For Tc ≤ TL spectral amplifications based on 0.5 percent damping to
those based on 5 percent damping. 0.4SDS in Eq. (9.4.3b) is
1.5S D1
=
Cc ≤ 1.5S DS (9.4.2a) an approximation of the effective peak ground acceleration,
Tc S0 (at T = 0) reduced by a factor of two-thirds.
For Tc > TL
1.5S D1TL
Cc = (9.4.2b)
Tc2
9.4.3 Ct shall be determined as follows: R9.4.3 Axisymmetric pulsating (“breathing”) of the cylin-
For circular tanks drical wall of a circular tank (upright cylinder) occurs due
to the hydrodynamic pressures resulting from the vertical,
Ct = SDS (9.4.3a) piston-like “pounding” of the stored liquid by the vertically
accelerating ground. For practical tank sizes, the period of
For rectangular tanks vibration of vertical liquid motion will be less than TS and the
peak spectral response acceleration may be used for design.
Ct = Ci (9.4.3b) For reference, the natural period of vibration of vertical
liquid motion in a circular tank may be calculated as
γ L DH L 2
Tv = 2π (in.-lb)
24 gtw Ec
γ L DH L 2
Tv = 2π (SI)
2 gtw Ec
For rectangular tanks, vertical accelerations of the fluid

will result in pulsating horizontal pressures on the walls,
resulting in a similar dynamic response for both horizontal
and vertical ground motions.
9.5—Site-specific seismic response coefficients R9.5—Site-specific seismic response coefficients
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Ci, Cc, and Ct Ci, Cc, and Ct
When site-specific procedures are used, the maximum For damping ratios other than 5 percent of critical, refer
considered earthquake spectral response accelerations SaM to R4.2.
and ScM shall be obtained from the site-specific acceleration If the site-specific response spectrum does not extend into,
spectrum as follows: or is not well defined in, the Tc range, coefficient Cc may be
SaM shall be the spectral response acceleration corresponding calculated using the equation
to Ti. When a 5 percent damped, site-specific vertical response 2
spectrum is available, SaM shall be determined from that spec- S
3 0 4 S0
trum as required for periods less than TS. Cc 6=
=
Tc 2 Tc 2
For periods less than or equal to TS, SaM shall be taken
as the spectral acceleration obtained from the site-specific where S0 is the effective site-specific peak ground accelera-
spectrum at a period of 0.2 seconds, except that it shall not tion (at T = 0) expressed as a fraction of the acceleration due
be taken less than 90 percent of the peak spectral accel- to gravity, g.
eration at any period larger than 0.2 seconds. For periods The use of site-specific response spectra represents one
greater than TS, SaM shall be taken as the spectral response specific case of an accepted alternative method of analysis as
acceleration corresponding to Ti. When a 5 percent damped, permitted in Section 13.1.1.9 of ACI 350-20. Therefore, the
site-specific vertical response spectrum is available, SaM 80 percent lower limit imposed in 9.5 should be considered the
in Eq. (9.6.1) shall be determined from that spectrum as same as the limit imposed in Section 13.1.1.9 of ACI 350-20.
required for periods less than TS.
For vertical acceleration of circular tanks, for all periods
SaM shall be as required for periods less than TS. For rect-
angular tanks, Ct shall be determined in accordance with
Section 9.4.3.

CODE COMMENTARY
ScM shall be taken as 150 percent of the spectral response
acceleration corresponding to Tc, except that when a 0.5 per
cent damped, site-specific horizontal response spectrum is
available, ScM shall be equal to the spectral response accel-
eration from that spectrum corresponding to period Tc.
The seismic response coefficients Ci, Cc, and Ct shall be
determined from Eq. (9.5a), (9.5b), and (9.5c), respectively,
for all periods.
2
Ci = S aM (9.5a)
3
2
Cc = ScM (9.5b)
3
2
Ct = S aM (9.5c)
3
The values of Ci, Cc, and Ct used for design shall not be
less than 80 percent of the corresponding values as deter-
mined in accordance with Section 9.4.
9.6—Effective mass coefficient ε R9.6—Effective mass coefficient ε

9.6.1 Rectangular tanks—For nonflexible base tanks The coefficient ε represents the ratio of the equivalent (or
generalized) dynamic mass of the tank shell to its actual
ε = [0.0151(L/HL)2 – 0.1908(L/HL) + 1.021] ≤ 1.0 (9.6.1) total mass. Equations (9.6a) and (9.6b) are adapted from
Tavakkoli et al. (2012).
For flexible base tanks, ε = 1.0. For additional information related to the effective mass
coefficient ε, consult ASCE (1981).
9.6.2 Circular tanks—For nonflexible base tanks
ε = [0.0151(D/HL)2 – 0.1908(D/HL) + 1.021] ≤ 1.0 (9.6.2)
For flexible base tanks, ε = 1.
9.7—Pedestal-mounted tanks R9.7—Pedestal-mounted tanks

The effective weights Wi and Wc, and heights to the centers Housner (1963a), ASCE/SEI 7-16, ASCE (1984), and
of gravity hi, hc, hi′, and hc′ of a mounted tank, shall be Haroun and Ellaithy (1985) provide additional guidelines on
computed using the corresponding equations in Sections 9.2 the dynamic analysis of pedestal-mounted tanks.
and 9.3 for rectangular and circular tanks, respectively.
The dynamic properties, including periods of vibration
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
and lateral coefficients, shall be permitted to be determined

on the basis of generally acceptable methods of dynamic
analysis.

CHAPTER 10—COMMENTARY REFERENCES High-Level Waste Storage Tanks and Appurtenances,”

Committee documents are listed first by document number Brookhaven National Laboratory, Associated Universities,
and year of publication followed by authored documents Inc., National Technical Information Service, Jan.
listed alphabetically. Bertero, V. V., 1995, “Energy-Based Design Approach,”
Performance-Based Seismic Engineering of Buildings,
American Concrete Institute (ACI) SEAOC, Apr., pp. D-1 to D-12.
ACI 350-20—Code Requirements for Environmental Douglass, S. L.; Chen, Q. J.; and Olsen, J. M., 2006,
Engineering Concrete Structures (ACI 350-20) and “Wave Forces On Bridge Decks,” Coastal Transportation
Commentary Engineering Research & Education Center Department of
ACI 371R-16—Guide for the Analysis, Design, and Civil Engineering, University of South Alabama, Mobile,
Construction of Elevated Concrete and Composite Steel- AL, June.
Concrete Water Storage Tanks Goudarzi, M. A.; Sabbagh-Yazdi, S. R.; and Marx, W.,
2010, “Seismic Analysis of Hydrodynamic Sloshing Force
American Society of Civil Engineers on Storage Tank Roofs,” Earthquake Spectra, V. 26, No. 1,
ASCE/SEI 7-16—Minimum Design Loads and Associ- pp. 131-152. doi: 10.1193/1.3283902
ated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures Haroun, M. A., 1984, “Stress Analysis of Rectangular
Walls Under Seismically Induced Hydrodynamic Loads,”
American Water Works Association (AWWA) Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, V. 74,
ANSI/AWWA D110-13 (R18)—Wire- and Strand-Wound, No. 3, pp. 1031-1041.
Circular, Prestress Concrete Water Tanks Haroun, M. A., and Ellaithy, H. M., 1985, “Seismically
ANSI/AWWA D115-17—Tendon-Prestressed Concrete Induced Fluid Forces on Elevated Tanks,” Journal of Tech-
Water Tanks nical Topics in Civil Engineering, V. 3, No. 1, 1985, pp. 1-15.
Housner, G. W., 1956, “Limit Design of Structures to
International Code Council (ICC) Resist Earthquakes,” Proceedings, World Conference on
IBC-2003—International Building Code Earthquake Engineering, University of California, Berkley,
IBC-2012—International Building Code pp. 5-1 to 5-13.
Housner, G. W., 1957, “Dynamic Pressure on Accelerated
International Conference of Building Officials Fluid Containers,” Bulletin of the Seismological Society of
UBC-1997—Uniform Building Code America, V. 47, No. 1, 1957, pp. 15-37.
Housner, G. W., 1963a, “Dynamic Pressure on Fluid
European Committee for Standardization (CEN) Containers,” Technical Information Document (TID)
EN 1998-4(2006)—Eurocode 8 7024, Chapter 6, and Appendix F, U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission.
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Housner, G. W., 1963b, “The Dynamic Behavior of Water
FEMA 450-2:2003—NEHRP Recommended Provisions Tanks,” Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America,
for Seismic Regulations for New Buildings and Other Struc- V. 53, No. 2, pp. 381-387.
tures: Commentary Isaacson, M., 2010, “Earthquake-Induced Hydrodynamic
FEMA P-750:2009—NEHRP Recommended Seismic Forces on Reservoir Roofs,” Canadian Journal of Civil
Provisions for New Buildings and Other Structures Engineering, V. 37, No. 8, pp. 1107-1115. doi: 10.1139/
L10-049
Standards New Zealand John A. Blume & Associates, 1958, “Report of Testing
NZS 3106:1986—Design of Concrete Structures for the Program on Earthquake Cable Detail for the Preload
Storage of Liquids Company.”
Kobayashi, N., 1980, “Impulsive Pressure Acting on the
AIJ, 2010, “Design Recommendations for Storage Tanks Tank Roofs Caused by Sloshing Liquid,” Proceedings of
and Their Supports with an Emphasis on Seismic Design,” 7th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Istanbul,
Architectural Institute of Japan, Tokyo, Japan, 179 pp. Turkey, pp. 315-322.
ASCE, 1981, “Guidelines for the Seismic Design of Oil Malhotra, P., 2005, “Sloshing Loads in Liquid-Storage
and Gas Pipeline Systems,” Committee on Gas and Liquid Tanks with Insufficient Freeboard,” Earthquake Spectra,
Fuel Lifelines of the Technical Council on Lifeline Earth- V. 21, No. 4, pp. 1185-1192. doi: 10.1193/1.2085188
quake Engineering, Section 7, American Society of Civil Medearis, K., and Young, D. H., 1964, “Energy Absorp-
Engineers, Reston, VA, 473 pp. tion of Structures Under Cyclic Loading,” Journal of the
ASCE, 1984, Fluid/Structure Interaction During Seismic Structural Division, V. 90, pp. 61-89.
Excitation, Committee on Seismic Analysis American Newmark, N. M., and Hall, W. J., 1982, Earthquake
Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA, 74 pp. Spectra and Design, Earthquake Engineering Research
Bandyopadhyay, K.; Cornell, A.; Costantino, C.; Kennedy, Institute Monograph, 103 pp.
R.; Miller, C.; and Veletsos, A., 1993, “Seismic Design
and Evaluation Guidelines for the Department of Energy
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

NSF, 1981, “Earthquake Design Criteria for Water Supply Uang, C. M., and Bertero, V. V., 1988, “Use of Energy as
& Wastewater Systems,” National Science Foundation a Design Criterion in Earthquake-Resistant Design,” EERC
Report NSF/CE52-81079, Sept. Report No. UCB/EERC-88, Nov., 57 pp.
Scarlat, A. S., 1997, “Design of Soft Stories—A Simpli- Veletsos, S. A., and Shivakumar, P., 1997, “Dynamic
fied Energy Approach,” Earthquake Spectra, V. 13, No. 2, Response of Tanks Containing Liquids or Solids,” Computer
pp. 305-315. doi: 10.1193/1.1585947 Analysis and Design of Earthquake-Resistant Structures,
Tavakkoli, I.; Kianoush, M. R.; and Ghaemmaghami, D. E. Beskos and S. A. Anagnostopoulos, eds., Computa-
A. R., 2012, “Effect of Three-Dimensional Geometry on tional Mechanics Publications, Earthquake Engineering
the Sloshing Behavior of Rectangular Concrete Tanks,” Series.
Proceedings of the 15th World Conference on Earthquake
Engineering, Lisbon, Portugal, Oct.
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

APPENDIX A—DESIGN METHOD
A.1—General outline of design method

In the absence of a more rigorous method of analysis, the general procedures outlined that follow may be used to apply the
provisions of Chapters 1 through 9.
Basic seismic design parameters:
1. Establish the design depth of the stored liquid HL, the wall height Hw, and the tank length or diameter, L or D, respectively;
2. From the applicable seismic ground motion map of ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapter 22, obtain the mapped maximum considered
earthquake spectral response accelerations at short periods and at 1 second (SS and S1, respectively). After selecting the site
classification from ASCE/SEI 7-16 Table 20.3-1, obtain coefficients Fa and Fv using ASCE/SEI 7-16 Tables 11.4-1 and 11.4-2,
and calculate SDS and SD1 using Eq. (9-35) and (9-36);
3. Select an importance factor I from Table 4.1.1a;
4. Select the factors Ri and Rc from Table 4.1.1b for the type of structure being investigated;
Tank dynamic properties:
5. Calculate the weight of the tank wall (shell) Ww, roof Wr, and the stored liquid WL. Also, compute the effective mass coef-
ficient ε;
6. Calculate the effective weight of the impulsive component of the stored liquid Wi, and the convective component Wc using
Fig. 9.2.1 for rectangular tanks or Fig. 9.3.1 for circular tanks;
7. Calculate the heights hw, hr, hi, and hc (EBP) and hiʹand hcʹ (IBP) to the center of gravity of the tank wall, roof, impulsive
--``,,```,`,`````,``,,`````,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
component, and convective component, respectively (Fig. 9.2.2, 9.2.3, 9.3.2, and 9.3.3, or Sections 9.2 and 9.3);
8. Calculate the combined natural frequency of vibration ωi of the containment structure and the impulsive component of the
stored liquid (Eq. (9.2.4a) for rectangular tanks or Eq. (9.3.4a) for circular tank Types 2.1 and 2.2). The impulsive mode will
generally fall into the rigid range of the response spectra; that is, the constant spectral acceleration region of the design response
spectrum in Fig. R9.4.1, for common sizes of concrete tanks. Thus, if the maximum value of Ci is used (SDS), calculation of the
natural frequency and natural period is not required;
9. Calculate the frequency of the vibration ωc of the convective component of the stored liquid (Eq. (9.2.4d) for rectangular
tanks or Eq. (9.3.4f) for circular);
10. Using the frequency values determined in Steps 8 and 9, calculate the corresponding natural periods of vibration Ti and
Tc (Eq. (9.2.4c) and (9.2.4f) for rectangular tanks, or Eq. (9.3.4c), (9.3.4d), and (9.3.4h) for circular tanks);
11. Based on the natural periods determined in Step 10 and the design spectral response acceleration values derived in Step 2,
calculate the corresponding seismic response coefficients Ci and Cc (Eq. (9.4.1b), (9.4.1c), (9.4.2b), and (9.4.3a)). Note: Where
a site-specific response spectrum is constructed in accordance with Section 4.2.1, Ci and Cc are determined in accordance with
Sections 9.5 and R9.5;
Freeboard:
12. Where required, calculate the maximum vertical displacement of liquid surface (wave height) in accordance with
Chapter 7. Adjust the wall height if required to meet freeboard requirements;
Base shear and overturning moments:
13. Compute the dynamic lateral forces (Eq. (4.1a) to (4.1d)) and total base shear V (Eq. (4.1e));
14. Calculate the bending and overturning moments (Eq. (4.1.3e) and (4.1.3h));
Vertical acceleration:
15. Compute the vertical amplification factor Ct in accordance with Section 9.4.3;
16. Calculate the hydrodynamic pressure pvy (Eq. (4.1.4.2a));
Pressure distribution:
17. Compute the vertical distribution of the force components in accordance with Chapter 5;
Stresses:
18. In rectangular tanks, calculate the stresses in the wall due to the impulsive and convective pressures, depending on the
structural system considered (Section 6.1) and the stresses associated with the increase in effective fluid density due to the
vertical acceleration. In circular tanks, calculate the hoop stresses due to the impulsive and convective pressures and due to the
vertical acceleration (Section 6.2); and
19. Calculate the overall bending stresses due to the overturning moments (from Step 14). Downward pressures on the
neoprene bearing pads of free base circular tanks caused by overturning moments should be considered. If uplift develops on
the heel side, then anchor cables must be provided.

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As ACI begins its second century of advancing concrete knowledge, its original chartered purpose
remains “to provide a comradeship in finding the best ways to do concrete work of all kinds and in
spreading knowledge.” In keeping with this purpose, ACI supports the following activities:
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members receive discounts of up to 40% on all ACI products and services, including documents, seminars
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a commitment to maintain the highest industry standards for concrete technology, construction,
and practices. In addition, ACI chapters provide opportunities for interaction of professionals and
practitioners at a local level to discuss and share concrete knowledge and fellowship.
American Concrete Institute

Farmington Hills, MI 48331
Phone: +1.248.848.3700
Fax: +1.248.848.3701
www.concrete.org
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Farmington Hills, MI 48331 USA
+1.248.848.3700
www.concrete.org
The American Concrete Institute (ACI) is a leading authority and resource

worldwide for the development and distribution of consensus-based
standards and technical resources, educational programs, and certifications
for individuals and organizations involved in concrete design, construction,
and materials, who share a commitment to pursuing the best use of concrete.
Individuals interested in the activities of ACI are encouraged to explore the

ACI website for membership opportunities, committee activities, and a wide
variety of concrete resources. As a volunteer member-driven organization,
ACI invites partnerships and welcomes all concrete professionals who wish to
be part of a respected, connected, social group that provides an opportunity
for professional growth, networking and enjoyment.
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IN-LB Inch-Pound Units

SI International System of Units

Code Requirements for

Copyright American Concrete Institute

Code Requirements for Seismic Analysis and Design of Liquid-Containing Concrete

American Concrete Institute

Copyright American Concrete Institute

Code Requirements for Seismic Analysis and

Reported by Joint ACI Committee 350

Iyad M. Alsamsam Anthony J. Galterio* Khalid Motiwala Shashiprakash G. Surali

ACI Committee Reports, Guides, and Commentaries are

Copyright American Concrete Institute

CONTENTS CHAPTER 6—STRESSES, p. 26

CHAPTER 1—GENERAL REQUIREMENTS, p. 4 CHAPTER 7—FREEBOARD, p. 27

Copyright American Concrete Institute

Copyright American Concrete Institute

Copyright American Concrete Institute

Copyright American Concrete Institute

dissipating capacity, and structural redun-

SD1 = design spectral response acceleration

Copyright American Concrete Institute

Copyright American Concrete Institute

2.1—Ground-supported structures R2.1—Ground-supported structures

Fig. R2.1—Typical tank configurations (adapted from ASCE

Fig. R2.1.1—Types of ground-supported liquid-containing structures classified on the

Copyright American Concrete Institute

3.1—Dynamic characteristics R3.1—Dynamic characteristics

3.3.2 With regard to the horizontal acceleration, the design

3.3.3 Effects of maximum horizontal and vertical accel-

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Copyright American Concrete Institute

Table 4.1.1b—Response modification factor R

Unanchored, uncontained tanks shall not be built in locations where Ss ≥ 0.75.

the Response Modification Factor, R, allows for a reduction

Copyright American Concrete Institute

R4.1.1 Earthquake pressures above base of tank wall—A

Overturning moment at the base of the tank wall, including

Mi′ = Pi′ × hi′ (4.1.3g)

Mc′ = Pc′ × hc′ (4.1.3h)

Fig. R4.1.3—Dynamic fluid pressure on the tank floor slab.

4.1.4 Vertical acceleration R4.1.4 Vertical acceleration—The effective fluid pressure

pvy = üv × qhy (4.1.4.2a)

4.2—Application of site-specific response spectra R4.2—Application of site-specific response spectra

acceleration represented by a 5 percent damped acceleration interval of approximately 2500 years.

Copyright American Concrete Institute

For Ts < (Ti or Tv) < 4.0 s

For β = 5 percent, ηi = 1.0.

For β = 0.5 percent, ηc = 1.0.

where SD is the spectral displacement corresponding to Tc

Copyright American Concrete Institute

5.2—Shear transfer R5.2—Shear transfer (NZS 3106)

Fig. R5.2.2a—Horizontal distribution of forces in circular

In fixed- and hinged-base circular tanks (Types 2.1 and

Fig. R5.2.2b—Membrane shear transfer at base of circular

The maximum tangential shear occurs at a point on the

The radial shear is created by the flexural response of the

Copyright American Concrete Institute

Pwy = (CiI/Ri) × [ε(γcBtw)] (SI)

Based on the exact distribution, the impulsive and convec-

Alternatively, the assumed linear distribution can be used

For hc < (2/3)HL

Copyright American Concrete Institute

Fig. R5.3.1b—Distribution of hydrostatic and hydrodynamic pressures and inertia forces