Trigonometric Functions - Wikipedia
Trigonometric Functions - Wikipedia
cosine secant
tangent cotangent
cosine adjacent
hypotenuse
tangent opposite
adjacent
cotangent adjacent
opposite
secant hypotenuse
adjacent
cosecant hypotenuse
opposite
Radians versus degrees
The other trigonometric functions can be found along the unit circle as
and
and
By applying the Pythagorean identity and geometric proof methods, these
definitions can readily be shown to coincide with the definitions of tangent,
cotangent, secant and cosecant in terms of sine and cosine, that is
Trigonometric functions: Sine, Cosine, Tangent,
Cosecant (dotted), Secant (dotted), Cotangent
(dotted) – animation (https://upload.wikimedia.or
g/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Trigonometric_functio
ns_derivation_animation.svg)
Since a rotation of an angle of does not change the position or size of
a shape, the points A, B, C, D, and E are the same for two angles whose
difference is an integer multiple of . Thus trigonometric functions are
periodic functions with period . That is, the equalities
and
hold for any angle θ and any integer k. The same is true for the four other
trigonometric functions. By observing the sign and the monotonicity of the
functions sine, cosine, cosecant, and secant in the four quadrants, one can
show that is the smallest value for which they are periodic (i.e., is the
fundamental period of these functions). However, after a rotation by an
angle , the points B and C already return to their original position, so that
the tangent function and the cotangent function have a fundamental period
of . That is, the equalities
and
hold for any angle θ and any integer k.
Algebraic values
(right angle)
Writing the numerators as square roots of consecutive non-negative
integers, with a denominator of 2, provides an easy way to remember the
values.[11]
Such simple expressions generally do not exist for other angles which are
rational multiples of a right angle.
For an angle which, measured in degrees, is a multiple of three, the exact
trigonometric values of the sine and the cosine may be expressed in terms
of square roots. These values of the sine and the cosine may thus be
constructed by ruler and compass.
For an angle of an integer number of degrees, the sine and the cosine
may be expressed in terms of square roots and the cube root of a non-
real complex number. Galois theory allows a proof that, if the angle is not
a multiple of 3°, non-real cube roots are unavoidable.
For an angle which, expressed in degrees, is a rational number, the sine
and the cosine are algebraic numbers, which may be expressed in terms
of nth roots. This results from the fact that the Galois groups of the
cyclotomic polynomials are cyclic.
For an angle which, expressed in degrees, is not a rational number, then
either the angle or both the sine and the cosine are transcendental
numbers. This is a corollary of Baker's theorem, proved in 1966.
Simple algebraic values
The following table lists the sines, cosines, and tangents of multiples of 15
degrees from 0 to 90 degrees.
Angle, θ, in
radians degrees
Undefined
In calculus
Sine is the unique solution with y(0) = 0 and y′(0) = 1; cosine is the unique
solution with y(0) = 1 and y′(0) = 0.
Applying the quotient rule to the tangent ,
so the tangent function satisfies the ordinary differential equation
The radius of convergence of these series is infinite. Therefore, the sine and
the cosine can be extended to entire functions (also called "sine" and
"cosine"), which are (by definition) complex-valued functions that are
defined and holomorphic on the whole complex plane.
Being defined as fractions of entire functions, the other trigonometric
functions may be extended to meromorphic functions, that is functions that
are holomorphic in the whole complex plane, except some isolated points
called poles. Here, the poles are the numbers of the form for the
tangent and the secant, or for the cotangent and the cosecant, where k
is an arbitrary integer.
Recurrences relations may also be computed for the coefficients of the
Taylor series of the other trigonometric functions. These series have a finite
radius of convergence. Their coefficients have a combinatorial
interpretation: they enumerate alternating permutations of finite sets.[13]
More precisely, defining
U , the nth up/down number,
n
B , the nth Bernoulli number, and
n
E , is the nth Euler number,
n
The last one was used in the historically first proof that π is irrational.[15]
Partial fraction expansion
There is a series representation as partial fraction expansion where just
translated reciprocal functions are summed up, such that the poles of the
cotangent function and the reciprocal functions match:[16]
This identity can be proved with the Herglotz trick.[17] Combining the (–n)th
with the nth term lead to absolutely convergent series:
Similarly, one can find a partial fraction expansion for the secant, cosecant
and tangent functions:
For the proof of this expansion, see Sine. From this, it can be deduced that
Relationship to exponential function (Euler's formula)
This formula is commonly considered for real values of x, but it remains true
for all complex values.
Proof: Let and One has
for j = 1, 2. The quotient rule implies thus that
. Therefore, is a constant function,
which equals 1, as This proves the formula.
One has
Solving this linear system in sine and cosine, one can express them in terms
of the exponential function:
When x is real, this may be rewritten as
Basic identities
Parity
The cosine and the secant are even functions; the other trigonometric
functions are odd functions. That is:
Periods
All trigonometric functions are periodic functions of period 2π. This is the
smallest period, except for the tangent and the cotangent, which have π as
smallest period. This means that, for every integer k, one has
Pythagorean identity
The Pythagorean identity, is the expression of the Pythagorean theorem in
terms of trigonometric functions. It is
.
Dividing through by either or gives
and
.
Sum and difference formulas
The sum and difference formulas allow expanding the sine, the cosine, and
the tangent of a sum or a difference of two angles in terms of sines and
cosines and tangents of the angles themselves. These can be derived
geometrically, using arguments that date to Ptolemy. One can also produce
them algebraically using Euler's formula.
Sum
Difference
When the two angles are equal, the sum formulas reduce to simpler
equations known as the double-angle formulae.
These identities can be used to derive the product-to-sum identities.
By setting all trigonometric functions of can be expressed as
rational fractions of :
Together with
Inverse functions
The trigonometric functions are periodic, and hence not injective, so strictly
speaking, they do not have an inverse function. However, on each interval
on which a trigonometric function is monotonic, one can define an inverse
function, and this defines inverse trigonometric functions as multivalued
functions. To define a true inverse function, one must restrict the domain to
an interval where the function is monotonic, and is thus bijective from this
interval to its image by the function. The common choice for this interval,
called the set of principal values, is given in the following table. As usual, the
inverse trigonometric functions are denoted with the prefix "arc" before the
name or its abbreviation of the function.
Function Definition Domain Set of principal values
The notations sin , cos , etc. are often used for arcsin and arccos, etc.
−1 −1
or equivalently,
In this formula the angle at C is opposite to the side c. This theorem can be
proved by dividing the triangle into two right ones and using the
Pythagorean theorem.
The law of cosines can be used to determine a side of a triangle if two sides
and the angle between them are known. It can also be used to find the
cosines of an angle (and consequently the angles themselves) if the lengths
of all the sides are known.
Law of tangents
The law of tangents says that:
.
Law of cotangents
If s is the triangle's semiperimeter, (a + b + c)/2, and r is the radius of the
triangle's incircle, then rs is the triangle's area. Therefore Heron's formula
implies that:
.
The law of cotangents says that:[19]
It follows that
Periodic functions
For example, the square wave can be written as the Fourier series
In the animation of a square wave at top right it can be seen that just a few
terms already produce a fairly good approximation. The superposition of
several terms in the expansion of a sawtooth wave are shown underneath.
History
exsec(θ) = sec(θ) − 1
excsc(θ) = exsec( π
2
− θ) = csc(θ) − 1
Etymology
The word sine derives[32] from Latin sinus, meaning "bend; bay", and more
specifically "the hanging fold of the upper part of a toga", "the bosom of a
garment", which was chosen as the translation of what was interpreted as
the Arabic word jaib, meaning "pocket" or "fold" in the twelfth-century
translations of works by Al-Battani and al-Khwārizmī into Medieval Latin.[33]
The choice was based on a misreading of the Arabic written form j-y-b
()جيب, which itself originated as a transliteration from Sanskrit jīvā, which
along with its synonym jyā (the standard Sanskrit term for the sine)
translates to "bowstring", being in turn adopted from Ancient Greek χορδή
"string".[34]
The word tangent comes from Latin tangens meaning "touching", since the
line touches the circle of unit radius, whereas secant stems from Latin secans
—"cutting"—since the line cuts the circle.[35]
The prefix "co-" (in "cosine", "cotangent", "cosecant") is found in Edmund
Gunter's Canon triangulorum (1620), which defines the cosinus as an
abbreviation for the sinus complementi (sine of the complementary angle)
and proceeds to define the cotangens similarly.[36][37]