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IJSMS
20,3 Crafting a legacy: investigating
the retired athlete brand image
Olzhas Taniyev
Department of Health and Human Performance,
390 Roanoke College, Salem, Virginia, USA, and
Received 15 February 2018 Brian S. Gordon
Revised 5 August 2018 Department of Health, Sport, and Exercise Sciences,
16 January 2019
Accepted 17 January 2019 University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, USA

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper exploratory study is to decipher sport consumer associations and
sentiments connected to the brand image of retired athletes.
Design/methodology/approach – In total, 14 sport consumers, who demonstrated an in-depth knowledge
of throwback branding tactics and expertise in athlete brand promotion, participated in in-depth semi-
structured interviews.
Findings – The findings indicate there are three prevalent themes across the present data (i.e. epoch epitome,
athlete-team connection and off-the-field persona).
Originality/value – While the proliferation of throwback merchandise and affinity for brands of retired
athletes is evident, the internalization of associations related to retired athletes has escaped empirical
investigation. Numerous questions concerning how specific facets of a retired athlete’s image (e.g. athletic
skills or life off the field) activate nostalgic feelings, drive consumer loyalty and establish market permanence
remain unanswered. The current study contributes to the understanding of the brand image of the retired
athlete and the existing literature concerning athlete branding.
Keywords Retired athlete, Brand image, Athlete branding, Nostalgia, Retro branding
Paper type Research paper

Introduction
While jerseys of active players constitute the majority of jersey sales in the four major North
American professional sport leagues, jersey sales of retired athletes have been increasing
steadily. As evidence of this booming market, Kobe Bryant and Michael Jordan occupy the
first and third spots in NBA jersey sales in China, while Allen Iverson and Tim Duncan rank
ahead of several current superstars including Russell Westbrook, James Harden and Kevin
Durant (Yuan, 2017). M&N has cataloged the top-selling throwback jerseys by state to map
consumer affinity for jerseys of retired players (M&N, n.d.; Petchesky, 2016). The popularity
of major sports leagues (e.g. NBA) and memorable achievements have allowed high-profile
athletes to extend their global reach and increase their personal brands’ worth. Illustrative
of this, Kobe Bryant’s illustrious career has earned him a large international fan base and
recognition well beyond his active playing years (Dorsey, 2012). It is evident that images of
retired athletes resonate with a large consumer target demographics across international
markets. In addition to the robust throwback jersey market, there is a highly exclusive
market for game-worn memorabilia from retired superstar athletes. Michael Jordan’s final
regular season game jersey sold for a stunning $173,240 at auction (Golden, 2015). As
important as the name on the jersey, the number features prominently on both the front and
back of jerseys thus creating an indelible association to the player. Like the iconic number
23, Wayne Gretzky’s 99 is associated with nothing but the “Great One” (Wissink, 2014).
International Journal of Sports
Marketing and Sponsorship These powerful numerical associations are incorporated into the athlete’s “brand” and
Vol. 20 No. 3, 2019
pp. 390-406
reinforce his legacy through throwback jerseys proudly displaying the iconic number. The
© Emerald Publishing Limited
1464-6668
number makes the jersey recognizable from multiple angles and from the greatest possible
DOI 10.1108/IJSMS-02-2018-0018 distance as an effective display of fanhood for the wearer and the ultimate advertising vehicle
for the athlete’s brand (Mullin et al., 2014). Sports fans across the country purchase throwback Retired athlete
jerseys to pay homage to the signature performances and distinct personalities of retired brand image
superstar athletes. Clothing companies such as M&N capitalize on market demand for
throwback merchandise and adoration of the celebrated (e.g. high-profile athletes) (Hackley and
Hackley, 2015). While past literature (e.g. Lunardo et al., 2015) contends that specific aspects of
personality (e.g. sincerity, competence and excitement) are capable of contributing to the
celebrities’ overall appeal, much less is known about the mechanisms of nostalgia that create an 391
affinity for a specific celebrity athlete’s brand and drive sales of his throwback jerseys.
The marketing initiatives for retired athletes involve associating the consumer and
advertisers with sports nostalgia (Solomon, 2011). Given the capability of retired athletes to
evoke the desire to “go back in time” and illuminate the sentimental feelings that consumers
associate with bygone eras and their personal pasts, their personal brands offer a safer
alternative in comparison to active athletes (Brown et al., 2003; Ju et al., 2016; Mullin et al.,
2014; Solomon, 2011). The memories activated by images of retired athletes evoke sense of
comfort and security, impacting consumer athlete brand preferences (Brown et al., 2003;
Mullin et al., 2014). In fact, the proliferation of throwback merchandise has induced this retro
market euphoria, where “customers are plunking down hundreds and sometimes thousands
of dollars to sport the latest retro stylings of Joe Namath and Gale Sayers, Nolan Ryan and
Magic Johnson” (Rovell, 2003, para. 4). Furthermore, the trends that guarantee brand
permanence within various industries (e.g. automobile, fashion and music) utilized retro
marketing tactics heavily at the turn of the century and that “retromania” is still going
strong today including for consumers of retired athlete brands (Brown, 2013).
While the existing research concerning athlete brands (Arai et al., 2014; Hasaan et al.,
2016) classifies athletic expertise and personal values into distinct categories related to
athlete brand image, these endeavors have not specifically examined the complexities of the
brand image of the retired athlete. Arai et al.’s (2014) model of athlete brand image applies to
current athletes; however, it does not capture the emotional yearning and nostalgic
associations consumers may hold for retired athletes. Specifically, an in-depth
understanding of how prominent retired athletes are viewed by sport consumers given
the likely presence of sentimental and nostalgic associations (Brown et al., 2003) that help
shape the overall brand image of the athlete has escaped our empirical attention.
To understand how this revived heritage of retired athletes portrays their story to signify
their brands’ personal and cultural meanings and associations via the process of internalization
(Brown et al., 2003; Gilchrist, 2005), it is necessary to obtain an in-depth understanding of brand
associations that comprise the image of retired athletes. Therefore, the primary aim of the
present study was to explore the associations that sport consumers hold toward retired
superstar athletes in order to gain an understanding of the overall image of the retired athlete.

Review of literature
Brand knowledge
Keller (1993) terms brand image as consumers’ perceptions about a brand influenced by brand
associations held in memory. The scholar is convinced that specific types, favorability, strength
and uniqueness of brand-related associations impact the ability to identify a brand and
ultimately guide consumer decisions in a crowded market space (Keller, 1993, 2008). Describing
the particularities of brand associations, Keller (1993) contends these beliefs take three different
forms. Specifically, attributes essentially detail characteristics of an offering or service (Keller,
1993). Keller (1993) further breaks down the category and compares non-product-related (e.g.
price, packaging and user imagery) to product-related attributes. Benefits, which are viewed as
personal value as perceived by consumers break into functional, experiential and symbolic
depending on the consumption advantages sought by consumers (Keller, 1993). The benefits
associations are particularly important considering the context of the present study. Keller
IJSMS (1993, p. 4) refers to these features as the “personal value consumers attach to the product or
20,3 service attributes.” The scholar considers functional benefits as intrinsic advantages of an
offering (e.g. product or service) related directly to its ability to satisfy consumers’ needs (Keller,
1993). Experiential benefits are viewed as consumers’ emotional experiences, intending to
“satisfy experiential needs such as sensory pleasure, variety, and cognitive stimulation” (Keller,
1993, p. 4). Keller (1993) identifies extrinsic advantages of a product or service (e.g. social
392 approval, personal expression or outer-directed self-esteem) as symbolic benefits. The process
of brand assessment facilitates formation of powerful consumer attitudes, which, in turn,
induce brand preference and purchasing decisions (Keller, 1993). How brand managers position
a brand (e.g. an athlete) will ultimately affect the uniqueness of associations held by consumers
and elicit the desired response (Arai et al., 2014; Keller, 1993).
As it pertains to the study at hand, nostalgia (i.e. evoked fond memories) is recognized as
one of the experiential benefits within the sport setting (Bauer et al., 2008). Lowenthal (1999)
categorizes past-related benefits into the following categories: familiarity and recognition,
reaffirmation and validation, individual and group identity, guidance, enrichment, and
escape. The scholar’s assertion points to one’s familiarity with the past as the guiding factor
in self-validation and making sense of the present times (Lowenthal, 1999). Furthermore,
Lowenthal (1999) recognizes identification with one’s earlier life stages as a crucial factor in
their well-being.
Athlete brand image. Brand building involves establishing an array of perceptions and
associations that consumers hold in memory (Evans and Berman, 1992; Keller, 1993).
Illustrative of this, Preece (2015) reported that the perception of authenticity could play a
significant role in constructing the desired celebrity brand narrative and consequently impact
its image. Mullin et al. (2014) suggested there is an abundance of associations attached to an
athlete’s name. These exclusive feelings and perceptions associated with an athlete’s style of
play and personality off the field result in creation of a unique brand image (Arai et al., 2014;
Evans and Berman, 1992; Mullin et al., 2014). Arai et al. (2014) defined an athlete brand as “a
public persona of an individual athlete who has established their own symbolic meaning and
value using their name, face or other brand elements in the market” (p. 98). Termed human
brands, Thomson (2006) insisted these individuals are most easily identified which presents a
unique opportunity for marketers in terms of promotional efforts.
Keller (2008) considered David Beckham as someone who exemplifies a branded product,
because he possesses different components of a brand such as name, logo and design. In a
similar manner, Arai et al. (2014) contended that all athletes should be viewed as brands and
contain a strong meaning of the brand image for consumers due to their distinctive
appearance, name and personality related brand associations. Some scholars argued that
considering the perceptions of sport stars that play a part in the citizens’ everyday cultural
experience, professional athletes should be perceived as societal objects (Gilchrist, 2005;
Guest and Cox, 2009; Rojek, 2006).
Athlete-based brand associations. When an athlete’s brand image transcends his sport,
their influence rises to that of a cultural icon (Arai et al., 2014; Gilchrist, 2005; Hasaan et al.,
2016). Despite playing a team sport, Michael Jordan was marketed as an individual and
redefined the “player as product” concept, immortalizing his first name mononym, last name
and number with a veritable brand empire extending well beyond his prolific, active playing
years (Mullin et al., 2000). It is due to the ability to create strong brand associations with their
fans, high-profile professional athletes build brand equity and, in turn, maximize their earnings
(Arai et al., 2014; Mullin et al., 2014). Prior literature recognizes two ways celebrity athletes can
develop brand associations. First, athletes leverage memorable athletic performances, style of
play and various signature moves to create indelible associations (Arai et al., 2014). An athlete’s
off-the-court initiatives further solidify his image and enhance marketability (Arai et al., 2014).
In fact, some academicians argued that the influence of professional athletes expands beyond Retired athlete
the field, positioning these individuals as cultural icons capable of impacting social change and brand image
communities (Gilchrist, 2005; Summers and Johnson Morgan, 2008). Recognizing this market
permanence and image-based superiority, sport organizations (e.g. teams) employ athlete
brand names and related features as a means of differentiation from competition (Shank, 2001).
In a similar manner, an athlete brand’s associations reinforce a memorable impression, which,
in turn, facilitates sponsor recruitment and expansion of target markets (see Mullin et al., 2014). 393
Given the context of the present study, retired athletes allow sport marketers to utilize the
sense of nostalgia for the “Good Old Days” to stir up recollections of past eras and generate
strong, positive and unique associations (Baker and Kennedy, 1994; Balmer, 2013; Cattaneo
and Guerini, 2012; Solomon, 2011).
Athlete brand consumer benefits and nostalgia. Sport nostalgia is used to create a strong
emotional bond between the consumer and retired athletes (Solomon, 2011). Fans relate to the
image of retired athletes based on the heritage created by their signature athletic
performances and sentimental associations (Mullin et al., 2014; Solomon, 2011). Brand heritage
was defined as “a dimension of a brand’s identity found in its track record, longevity, core
values, use of symbols and particularly in an organizational belief that its history is
important” (Urde et al., 2007, p. 4). The images of retired athletes serve as a catalyst that
triggers nostalgic sentiments. More importantly, however, Gladden and Funk (2002) identify
nostalgia as one of the derived consumer benefits in the context of sport brands. Furthermore,
prior literature indicated that marketers utilize history of sport facilities and related nostalgic
sentiments to trigger consumer affinity for sport brands (Gordon, 2013; Seifried and Meyer,
2010). This link to bygone eras activates fans’ nostalgic associations when prompted by
exposure to sport brands with heritage (Seifried and Meyer, 2010).
Stern (1992) argued that retro marketing has become increasingly relevant due to
increased nostalgic sentiments ignited by the fin de siècle period. Nostalgic feelings
activated by retro brands not only revive past epochs, but also position in consumers’ mind
the perception of former selves (Brown et al., 2003). This in turn allows marketers to utilize
athlete brand origins to plant in the mind of consumer the sense of pride, which translated
into a pattern of repeat consumption of throwback merchandise to pay tribute to its roots
(Brown et al., 2003; Hallegatte, 2014).
It is through the nostalgic lens and associations ignited by retro brands a person is able to
envision not only a better time but also a time we have already known, which, in turn,
stimulates us to rekindle warm memories and past accomplishments (Brown et al., 2003;
Davis, 1979). Other scholars posited that nostalgia connects people with their younger selves
and restores one’s sense of youthfulness (Routledge, 2015). It was evidenced that nostalgic
feelings positively impacted a sense of vitality (Routledge et al., 2011). More importantly,
Routledge (2015) contends that youthful spirit induced by nostalgia could result in health-
related benefits, which echoes the aforementioned assertions regarding the impact of past
memories on one’s overall well-being (Lowenthal, 1999). Routledge et al. (2013, p. 812) explain
cogently that “nostalgia positively affects psychological health by improving positive mood,
increasing social connectedness, enhancing positive self-regard, and contributing to
perceptions of meaning in life.” Davis (1979) further posited that some nuances of this
wistful affection for past time periods lead to believe nostalgia bestows upon us a certain
degree of current worth. In fact, the past is evidenced to enrich an unacceptable present and
provide guidance on the right conduct and actions (Lowenthal, 1999). Put differently,
nostalgia is a unique way of relating the past times to our present life and the future times.
Additionally, there is every reason to believe that the endless race to take the lead in the
marketing of merchandise has paved the way for a proliferation of retro brands and marketable
features of retired athletes (Aaker, 1996; Brown et al., 2003; Mullin et al., 2014). A brand’s lasting
IJSMS impression was perceived as a sign of trustworthiness, reaffirming consumers’ purchase
20,3 decisions (Cattaneo and Guerini, 2012). The existing literature confirmed that due to their stable
past, the brands of retired athletes are recognized as a safer option, which is a significant brand
selection factor among sport consumers (Mullin et al., 2014; Solomon, 2011). As evidenced by a
booming throwback market, retired athletes embody an indelible legacy and evoke pleasant
reflections of past times (Cattaneo and Guerini, 2012; Mullin et al., 2014).
394 The unique design features of retro brands appeal to the inner nature of consumers.
Some scholars claimed retro branding is a type of brand revitalization, where a brand’s
current associations intertwine with past memories (e.g. Hallegatte, 2014). Brown et al. (2003)
termed these brands as “a product or service brand from a prior historical period, which is
usually but not always updated to contemporary standards or performance, functioning, or
taste” (p. 20). For Brown et al. (2003), retro brands were distinguishable from their nostalgic
counterparts in that they were brand new, old-fashioned offerings.
Considering retro brands and the associations related to retired athletes are capable of
evoking desirable reflections of the past, some researchers devoted effort to the
investigation of affectionate feelings ignited by retro elements. For example, Cattaneo and
Guerini (2012) argued that a combination of socio-economic turmoil and the growing
challenges of meeting consumer needs has allowed marketers to exploit a brand’s
memorable story stored in consumers’ minds. In a like manner, other scholars insisted that
retro brands may bring people together (e.g. Muniz and O’Guinn, 2001) during challenging
times by stating, “it might be expected that in times of threat or of socio cultural and
economic turbulence, nostalgia would provide a sense of comfort and close-knit community,
a safe haven in an unsafe world” (Brown et al., 2003, p. 20).
Interestingly, some scholars admitted that history is often unclear, which made heritage
especially relevant considering its ability to clarify and make sense of the past (Lowenthal,
1998). It has been acknowledged that brands with heritage constituted a distinct category
elucidating past times (Urde et al., 2007).

Method
Data collection procedures
To elicit multifaceted consumer associations that portray the image of retired athletes, the
authors employed semi-structured interviews with open-ended questions. Telephone
interviewing was preferred to the in-person mode since the participants were dispersed
across various geographic regions (e.g. California, New York and Massachusetts). Further,
Musselwhite et al. (2007) argue that phone interviews: use economic and human resources
efficiently (e.g. reduce the need for travel); minimize disadvantages with in-person
interviewing (e.g. researcher can take notes discreetly, without making the participants feel
uncomfortable); facilitate development of appropriate relationships between researchers and
participants; and improve quality of data collection procedures. The benefits of telephone
interviewing outweighed any potential limitations.
An understanding of multiple perspectives related to the retired athlete brand image was
regarded as of critical importance for the rigor of the data. The authors sought participants
with history of throwback merchandise consumption to complement their industry experience
as we asked participants to answer questions from the perspective of their personal fandom.
Author One held preliminary discussions with all of the participants. This initial screening
procedure determined each participant’s eligibility for the present investigation.

Sample
Author One secured access to the current participants through his personal sport industry
network. Participants were recruited via personal e-mail. Participants included 14 sport
marketing professionals, who brought practical knowledge of throwback branding tactics and Retired athlete
the consumer’s viewpoint into the current study. Each participant’s expertise in athlete brand brand image
consultancy, sport brand promotion, fan engagement and sport event management
contributed significantly to their understanding and depth of retired athlete associations and
ultimately aided the authors in uncovering significant insight on retired athlete brand image.
Furthermore, present participants’ diverse industry experience facilitated insight into deeper
associations of retired athletes and their respective eras. A series of preliminary discussions 395
validated the consistency in consumption of throwback merchandise (e.g. retired athlete
jerseys), ensuring the adequacy of the current sample. Specifically, each participant was
carefully evaluated during the screening process for consistent consumption patterns of retro
merchandise, which would ultimately determine their eligibility for the present study. Author
One asked each participant to indicate their assortment of throwback clothing, whether they
had consumed throwback clothing in the past six months, and a period of usage of throwback
clothing. Restated, the current participant recruitment procedure was designed to identify
highly engaged consumers of throwback merchandise to capture a wide range of possible
brand associations related to the image of retired athletes.
Purposeful sampling allowed the authors to select participants, who contributed insights
and in-depth understanding of the associations related to retired athlete brand image (Creswell
and Plano Clark, 2011; Patton, 2002). This approach was deemed most appropriate since this
study was focused on investigating a poorly understood construct. In this case, Author One
conducted initial screening to identify key informants, who could speak knowledgeably about
sentimental feelings related to retired athletes and discern desirable associations to the aura of
a retired athlete (Creswell, 2014; Patton, 2002; Tongco, 2007). Further, a distinct generational
insight into the perceptions of retired athlete brand image was deemed important by the
present authors. Current study participant demographics were reported in Table I.

Interview
Data collection occurred between June and August, 2017. Each interview lasted
approximately 20–30 min and was audio recorded. Author One asked several “warm-up”
questions at the beginning of each interview to develop a rapport with the participants and
enhance respondents’ comfort level. The interviews were designed to gain further insight
into the perceptions of retired athlete brand image and corroborate the existing evidence
with respect to the athlete brand image construct. The present interview questions were
designed as a result of the analysis of prior literature concerning athlete branding, brand

Participant Age Gender Ethnicity Residence Relevant industry unit

Participant 1 20–29 Male African American Pennsylvania Marketing/Sales

Participant 2 50–59 Male White/Caucasian Massachusetts Marketing/Sales
Participant 3 40–49 Male White/Caucasian New York Marketing/Sales
Participant 4 20–29 Male White/Caucasian Washington, DC Marketing/Sales/Sponsorship
Participant 5 W60 Male White/Caucasian California Sales
Participant 6 30–39 Male White/Caucasian New York Sports Information/PR
Participant 7 30–39 Male White/Caucasian Maryland Marketing/Operations
Participant 8 50–59 Male White/Caucasian Massachusetts Sales
Participant 9 20–29 Male White/Caucasian New York Marketing/Sales/Sponsorship
Participant 10 20–29 Male White/Caucasian New York Sports Information/PR
Participant 11 30–39 Male White/Caucasian New York Sales
Participant 12 40–49 Male White/Caucasian California Marketing/Public Relations Table I.
Participant 13 20–29 Male White/Caucasian California Marketing/Sales Breakdown of
Participant 14 20–29 Male White/Caucasian California Marketing/Sales participants
IJSMS knowledge, retro branding and nostalgia. While the current authors received guidance on
20,3 the facets of athlete brand image found in Arai et al. (2014), it was critical for the authors to
consult with the literature concerning nostalgia and retro branding (e.g. Brown et al., 2003;
Hallegatte, 2014; Cattaneo and Guerini, 2012; Urde et al., 2007) to attempt to draw a complete
picture of retired athlete brand associations. A sample question guiding each interview
included: What do you think of when you hear this athlete’s name? A deep understanding of
396 participants’ perceptions and attitudes toward retired athletes was exceedingly important to
fulfill the purpose of the current study. Therefore, throughout the interviews, the sequence
of questions was altered to delve deeper into the knowledge, feelings and responses of
participants. The point of data saturation was reached within 14 interviews. Data saturation
occurs when gathering new data no longer provides new insights compared to the
information a researcher already collected (Charmaz, 2006; Gratton and Jones, 2004).

Data analysis
After the audio files of the interviews were transcribed verbatim by Author One, each
transcript was coded independently by two authors. The initial stage in data analysis
involved open coding, where “the data are broken down into discrete parts, closely
examined, compared for similarities and differences, and questions are asked about the
phenomena as reflected in the data” was employed (Strauss and Corbin, 1990, p. 62). The
authors implemented the deductive reasoning, where data is analyzed according to an
existing theoretical framework (Patton, 2002). To that end, the authors were guided by
a priori themes that were identified within the existing theory. The inductive approach
allowed the current authors to gather new themes that emerged from the collected data
(Patton, 2002). Further, the authors discussed their independent data analysis and any
differences until consensus was achieved (Hambrick and Kang, 2014).
To assess validity and reliability the authors utilized the five verification strategies
provided by Morse et al. (2008) including methodological coherence, appropriate sample,
collecting and analyzing concurrently, thinking theoretically and theory development.
These strategies incrementally and interactively evaluated reliability and validity of the
current findings, “thus ensuring rigor” (Morse et al., 2008, p. 19). The responses are
presented in verbatim form in the results chapter giving voice to the researchers and
participants. In some instances, the participant responses were summarized to report the
findings in a logical order. This approach is in line with the assertion that “though we break
data apart, and identify concepts to stand for the data, we also have to put it back together
again by relating those concepts” (Corbin and Strauss, 2008, p. 198).

Results
Three salient themes emerged following the analysis of interviews: epoch epitome, athlete-
team connection and off-the-field persona. Each principal theme breaks down into sub-
domains (e.g. rivalries, socio-cultural impact and community engagement) complementing
the outlooks of the participants. The authors included representative quotes revealing each
of the higher-order themes and sub-themes in the following chapter.

Epoch epitome
Each epoch in sports represents a unique set of traits based on distinctive characters and
historical events. Pervasively throughout the interviews, participants indicated that their
perceptions of a specific athlete’s image connected them to an era of notable skill, compelling
rivalries and socio-cultural climate transformations.
Notable skill. For Participant 2, Bobby Orr’s elite skill “impacted the sport to the point
where it evolved into the next level, so he paved the way for a whole new generation of players
[…] every kid I knew became a fan and mostly because of Orr, we used to say ‘number four Retired athlete
Bobby Orr’ we would rhyme.” Jackie Robinson’s skill represented a favorable era for brand image
Participant 12 because “the way he [Jackie Robinson] played the game is definitely symbolic of
kind of the good old days of baseball.” The athlete’s signature skill is all the more memorable
when performed against iconic competition that serves to locate the athlete in an era.
Participant 9 equated the signature skill with the athlete himself when recalling Allen Iverson:
“I get a visual image, I think of a deadly crossover, he crossed over Jordan, I think of him 397
crossing over Ty Lue and then stepping over him on the way back down the court.” Iverson’s
crossover is impressive on its own but it becomes memorable when performed against an icon
like Michael Jordan because elite competition validates the legitimacy of the skill.
Rivalries. Balanced competition between multiple teams of exceptional quality, as indicated
by participant responses, makes for a great product because the suspense of an unpredictable
outcome amplifies the fans’ emotional experience and fuels the rivalry. Participants noted how
the players, who rise to the occasion in the big moments of rivalry games, solidify their image
and represent their era. Illustrative of this, Participant 2 expressed the following view: “It
brings me back to kind of the golden era of sport […] it was this great hockey era […] we had
some great teams like the Blackhawks were good, the Rangers were good, the St Louis Blues
were good […] you had all the good players on a few teams, so you had really good
competition.” Reflecting on the memories of Michael Jordan, Participant 14 emphasized:
I miss the 90s, I miss the specific moments […] especially with the New York Knicks, I mean
those were some intense battles with the Knicks and the Pistons you know back in the 80s and
90s, ruthless.

The perception of Mark Messier and the Devils-Rangers rivalry made it evident how iconic
the 1994 Stanley Cup Finals was to Participant 3:
You feel like your emotions are running sky high or six feet under whenever I watch the Rangers
playoff hockey and epitome of that is when they were actually in the Stanley Cup Finals and they
actually went to game seven and they actually won […] so during game seven, the Devils, I was in
Connecticut at my college roommate’s family house, I remember being downstairs, and my
roommate brother’s girlfriend was a die-hard Devils fan because she is from New Jersey so we had
to be separated, so she was upstairs and I was downstairs and when my team scored I went
screaming and yelling throughout the entire house with joy, whereas upstairs she had nothing but
despair, anger, remorse.

Evidently, the process of forming a perception about an iconic sport figure is dependent on
how the athlete competes for superiority in their sport. The participants’ experience
highlights how despite exceptional skill level as perceived by the athletes’ fans, it is the
signature contests that make the athlete shape an era and their sport. Additionally, the
longevity of iconic rivalries further validates the accolades iconic athletes are able to garner.
Socio-cultural impact. Current participants illustrated how the iconic performances of
superstar athletes propelled them to celebrity status and often brought awareness to the
athletes’ values and beliefs. The findings demonstrated that morally conscious professional
athletes recognized their unique platform and the universal power of sport to initiate a
discussion on social change. Athlete activism, in turn, brought attention to issues
surrounding cultural divide and continued their advocacy of social reforms. For example,
for Participant 12, Jackie Robinson is symbolic of a milestone for racial equality in
professional sports. Their comments included the following:
When you think of Jackie Robinson you think of the racial divide and the racial 40s, 50s […] that
was a very significant time period in American history and when you think of sports and you think
of racial segregation, racial inequality and trying to achieve racial equality I think the first person
anybody would say and associate with that would be him.
IJSMS It was apparent that this participant respected the values and equal rights initiatives
20,3 advocated by Jackie Robinson. It was evident that memories of Jackie Robinson made
Participant 12 feel nostalgic for a pivotal era in the history of professional sports in America
and society at large. Participant 12 went on to explain:
[I am] nostalgic for a time when society needed an athlete to learn social lessons and obviously in
his [Jackie Robinson] case racial acceptance equality, fair treatment, [I feel] nostalgic for a guy, who
398 made history not just the play, but made history by how they went about being a professional
athlete. To me I am always nostalgic about athletes breaking barriers during times when society
needed it most and when society was most divided having athletes come along and through sports
teach everyone a lesson and change minds and change social behaviors change attitudes, change
the way people looked at other people.
Another participant described Doug Williams as one, who transcended their sport and
paved the way for generations of African–American quarterbacks. They also commented
on the significance of Doug Williams’s accomplishments to the city of Washington.
Participant 7 stated:
What comes to mind about Doug Williams is he was the first African American quarterback to win
the Super Bowl and I think that’s pretty significant and as a result, he is kind of in Washington, D.C.
specifically the city not just the suburb but D.C. being primarily African American I think he plays
a pretty significant role, he is pretty important to the history of not just the sports culture in
Washington, but Washington D.C. itself.
The responses above indicate that a retired athlete’s image can elicit vivid memories of
social issues characteristic of a distinct era in sport and society at large. The social barriers
an athlete overcomes during their playing years cement their legacy and create an
impression of the athlete’s status in the mind of his followers.

Athlete-team connection
The second theme concerning the retired athlete brand image was athlete-team connection.
Most participants indicated that they connected the retired athlete’s image to specific
characteristics of the team they played for and a tradition of excellence built by that team.
For example, Participant 6 attributed New York Yankees’ extended dominance to Derek
Jeter: “the history that the Yankees have, the winning excellence, winner, that’s what really
comes to mind first, high level of success when I hear Derek Jeter’s name.” Remembering
Steve Kerr’s playing years Participant 5 said: “it was the Bulls dynasty, the Bulls were doing
it every year, and they were beating everybody.” Despite athletes playing for multiple
teams, their legacy remains intact. In the responses, all participants admitted that retired
athletes associated with one specific team. Illustrative of this, for Participant 9, Allen
Iverson will forever be linked with the Philadelphia 76ers franchise, despite representing
five different teams throughout his career. Reflecting on Doug Williams’s dominant run with
the Washington Redskins, Participant 7 reminisced:
They [Washington Redskins] were just amazing and when you watched the Redskins, it was a
confidence probably the same thing as the Golden State Warriors are now or the Cleveland
Cavaliers, you just know year after year or football New England Patriots the confidence you had
every year you knew they may not win the Super Bowl, but you knew they were going to the
playoffs or doing really really well, there were not stretches of losing seasons until after the
ownership changed, Jack Kent Cooke passed away in Washington and Dan Snyder took over,
literally the minute Dan Snyder took over everything went downhill.
Here, the participant fondly remembers the preeminence of the Washington Redskins of
the late 1980s. It takes a worthy opponent to earn the dynasty status. Some teams were
given descriptive names that best characterized the team’s imprint. In the following
excerpt, Participant 2 connects Bobby Orr’s image to the toughness of the “Big Bad Retired athlete
Bruins” era: brand image
That era is the “Big Bad Bruins” era, it was like this old school hockey that had a lot of skill, they
were not goons, but they were tough guys and when they were going to fight they were not going to
lose much, every guy could throw down and fight, but everyone had skill.
Sport fans associate themselves with a winner so it is no surprise that a player’s contributions
to team success enhance the image and attach them to an era. Recalling Doug Williams’s 399
playing years took Participant 7 back nostalgically to the times when their team was dominant:
Well the Redskins of the 1980s and early 1990s were extremely dominant, I mean they won three
Super Bowls in like a 10 or 15 year period, which is why they are considered one of the best teams
of that generation thanks to Joe Gibbs, who was the head coach at the time and the quarterback
Doug Williams.
Participant 4 in a prideful manner explained how discussing Derek Jeter made them reflect
on the New York Yankees’ triumphs of the late 1990s:
The Yankees were winning championships, they were winning multiple World Series and it was a
great time to be a Yankees fan and Jeter was the captain, so certainly 96, 98, 2000 all years that the
Yankees were winning championships it was an amazing time and an incredible time to be a fan, to
be a Derek Jeter fan.
These responses suggest that the team success, particularly one or multiple titles, is
inexplicably linked to the retired athlete’s image.

Off-the-field persona
The athlete’s off-the-field persona represented another prevalent theme. In response to
questions about the retired athlete’s image, the majority of participants commented about
the life story and the struggles these athletes had to face along the way to reach the zenith of
their careers. Additionally, the responses revealed evidence of community engagement and
city identity associations. Participant 9, for example, recalled:
I know he [Allen Iverson] comes from Virginia and I think it’s Hampton area Chesapeake Bay or
something and there has been some great athletes from that part of the country, and Iverson was
also a quarterback in high school, he was a very good football player and so he was heavily
recruited for football and basketball out of high school […] this is the guy who could have been a
pro in any sport he wanted, he probably could have played baseball, he could have been a boxer
you know, who knows, it’s just one of those rare athletic talents and I have always been drawn to
athletes like that, those are the people I admire […] as far as like the rest of his career sort of a bad
boy, party animal through the NBA, he is famous for his practice rant.
Community engagement. Interviews suggested that athletes take on the role of influential
agents in terms of community outreach initiatives. Participants discussed how the athletes
use their platform to provide service for their communities. Participant 2, for example, said:
“He [Bobby Orr] does an amazing amount of stuff in the Boston area with charities, and he
does a lot of work for different funds, he really is a community builder.” It takes a special
person to recognize and get involved in socially responsible activities, which in turn
resonated with responsible citizenship outside of the athletes’ sports among study
participants. To illustrate, Participant 3 explained their sentiments as follows:
He [Mark Messier] was a pillar in the community, he has been a pillar in the community not just for
the Garden of Dreams […] just talking to him you get to see what kind of really down to earth guy
he is and how much he cares about New York City how much he cares about the community and
that is someone you want to grow up to be, that is a leader that is a leader on and off the ice and
someone, who essentially takes care of people other than himself.
IJSMS City identity. Participants appreciated and remembered when an athlete embraced the
20,3 franchise city. The athletes immersed themselves into the local community and
internalized the values of the adopted city. Participant 13 had the following perception of
Charles Woodson:
He [Charles Woodson] would always put his hands in a shape of an “O” for Oakland when he came
out of tunnel, when he was being introduced for a game or had a nice play or something like that he
400 would always put this “O” up, which would be Oakland for the Raiders for Raider Nation, so for all
the die-hard losers like me that’s something that we really really value for sure.
Participant 8 offered a similar opinion:
[Larry Bird] represented the mindset of the people around the Boston area for how like with the
Patriots today it is all about doing your job and working hard at it, your craft, doing your job and
playing till the end no matter what the score is.
The interviews suggest that the athletes, who are passionate about providing support
to their communities, build a special bond with the fans throughout their sporting
careers and beyond.

Discussion
The contributions of the present study lie in furthering our understanding of the indelible
images and nostalgic associations that sport fans hold toward retired athletes. This
connection to athletes and the era they represent has become the impetus for consumer
loyalty and spending choices (see M&N, n.d.; Petchesky, 2016; Yuan, 2017). Recent data
indicates an expanding demand for this type of throwback merchandise euphoria, items
that embody the iconic names and times of these retired athletes (see Golden, 2015).
However, research investigating this enduring bond that consumers maintain with retired
athletes is rather limited, leaving academicians and sport industry practitioners at a
substantial disadvantage.
Numerous questions concerning how nostalgic sentiments are induced and how these
feelings drive affection and consumption of personal brands connected to retired athletes
remain largely unanswered. The current endeavor uncovered associations driven by
consumers’ recollections of former athletes and the lasting connections with their aura and
indelible images. The initial study by Arai et al. (2014) introduced the theoretical
underpinnings of the athlete brand construct by proposing a definition of the concept (i.e.
athlete brand) and outlined the dimensions of the athlete brand image (e.g. athletic
performance and attractive appearance). Additionally, prior literature highlights the
antecedents of the athlete brand model that influences the overall framework of the athlete
brand image (Hasaan et al., 2016).
When the participants in this study were prompted by a retired athlete’s name, they
highlighted the link between an athlete and a distinct time period in history, revealing intimate
recollections and connections with the athlete. These findings echo Brown et al.’s (2003)
contention that retro branded products (e.g. throwback jerseys) are designed to embody
features and character of a prior historical period. Nostalgic emotions are triggered by
exposure to attributes of retro brands from distinct time periods and persuade sport
consumers into a yearning for an idealized past era (Brown et al., 2003). As it pertains to the
specific benefits derived from the consumption of retired athlete brands, our data furthers the
understanding of nostalgic sentiments in relation to identification of one’s authentic self. For
example, the present findings suggest that through fond memories of retired athletes’ elite
skills, most participants relived experiences from the past. As an illustration, Participant 9
reminisced on Michael Jordan’s memorable performances. In a similar manner, remembering
the impact Derek Jeter had on the New York Yankees made Participant 4 discuss how they
viewed the late 1990s as the ideal time for the franchise and their fandom. It is clear that Retired athlete
retired athlete-evoked nostalgic memories returned after decades and resonated with the brand image
current participants. These responses reinforce the contentions made in prior literature.
Specifically, the current participant opinions highlighted psychological benefits and emotional
bond they have with images of retired athletes (Bauer et al., 2008; Keller, 1993). Current
participants’ recollections of iconic rivalries triggered by the images of retired athletes further
exemplify the experiential benefits linked to consumption of retired athlete brands. 401
The current participant responses are in line with Lowenthal’s (1999) conceptualization
of the benefits (e.g. familiarity, enrichment or escape) derived from reliving the past. The
remembered moments of the ideal past ignited by images of retired athletes evoked feelings
of warmth in present participants. The associations related to the brands of retired athletes
stirred powerful emotions and took our participants back in time. Overall, the remembrance
of significant moments associated with retired athletes allowed our participants to relive
those experiences from the perspective of their younger selves, reaffirming their identities
and enhancing the feelings of self-worth (Lowenthal, 1999).
The findings of this study show that the patterns associated with memories of specific
eras are quite significant to the literature on athlete branding. The way athletic performance
solidifies the initial impression of an athlete was highlighted in the existing literature (Arai
et al., 2014; Hasaan et al., 2016); however, the present findings augment the athlete brand
image construct by providing a deeper insight into the processes that link an athlete to a
specific era. Specifically, current participants’ perspectives supplemented the existing
impressions of an athlete brand and demonstrated that the image of retired athletes
differentiated their eras into distinct epochs.
Additionally, this study underscores the link between past memories related to retired
athletes and the fickle nature of the modern sports culture impacted by the proliferation of
modern technology. Previous literature argues that the socio-economic turmoil typical of
today’s society enforces an emotional yearning for an ideal past among consumers of retro
brands (Brown et al., 2003; Cattaneo and Guerini, 2012; Kozinets, 2002; Stern, 1992). As
illustrated by participant responses, retired athletes epitomized the “good old days of sport”
to invoke a yearning for bygone, idealized eras. For example, for Participant 12 Jackie
Robinson represented the Golden Age of baseball and was a symbol of courage and
leadership. In fact, the sport consumers’ reminiscences of the simpler times in the past could
“not only ward off the existential threat of what the dreaded future might hold, but can also
bolster and positively reinforce and individual’s self-concept” through old-fashioned image
and values (Fairley and Gammon, 2005, p. 185). The associations held by current
participants make a case for the connection between retired athletes and an appreciation of
positive memories and focal eras, an element neglected by the existing literature (e.g. Arai
et al., 2014; Hasaan et al., 2016).
Whether it is through masterful on-field performances or campaigns that take place off
the playing field, superstar athletes have been known for taking a stance on socio-cultural
issues facing American society. Socially responsible star athletes can use their voice as a
vehicle for social change because their status in the community is “raised from the ranks of
ordinary men and women into the echelons of achieved celebrity culture” (Rojek, 2006,
p. 684). Across participants, the authors discerned retired athletes’ ability to evoke an
emotional response due to their willingness to advocate for social change. This notable
finding refines Arai et al.’s (2014) role model component and contributes to the overall
athlete brand image by demonstrating how these associations add to the marketability of
former professional athletes. By suggesting that retired athletes embody an object of
imitation when sport consumers and society as a whole reflect on the inherent ethical
questions present within a culture, the present data extends the existing framework for the
athlete brand image notion (Feezell, 2005).
IJSMS The authors contend the current findings corroborate the athletic performance facet of
20,3 the Arai et al.’s (2014) model. Current participants interpreted the image of retired athletes in
consideration of their winning record and proficiency in sport. Participants’ discussion of
retired athletes’ athletic performance, accomplishments and style of play aligned with the
existing literature (e.g. Arai et al., 2014; Gladden et al., 1998; Mullin et al., 2014; Richelieu and
Pons, 2006). Specifically, the present research shows that retired athletes not only created a
402 culture of success, but also more importantly played a key role in developing and nurturing
a single team’s character, building the team’s legacy and pairing their name with one
specific sport organization. To illustrate, Participant 10 attributed the dominance and
distinct personality of the Los Angeles Lakers brand to Shaquille O’Neal’s tenure with the
franchise. Based on the perception of this participant, O’Neal’s legacy with the Lakers
remains intact despite representing six different organizations throughout his career.
In relation, the current findings hint at retired athletes’ ability to influence consumers’
emotional pleasure and motivation for spectatorship, corroborating the existing scholarly
work concerning symbolic benefits derived by sport consumers (Bauer et al., 2008). Putting
things in perspective, sport team-related associations sparked by memories of retired
athletes rewarded our participants with numerous symbolic benefits, which in turn
impacted their fandom (Bauer et al., 2008). The fact that it was reported in prior literature
(Bauer et al., 2008) that brand benefits have a significant effect on brand attitudes makes our
findings especially intriguing given further implications for team brands and related
marketing initiatives. From the standpoint of practicality, our data provides actionable
guidance for sport marketing practitioners. Specifically, sport marketers can leverage our
data in their team brand positioning practices and analyze the athlete-team connection from
a client’s perspective. Bauer et al. (2008) accentuated that “the attachment of fans and their
pronounced loyalty propensity is the most important asset of a team-sport organization”
(p. 222). Restated, by implementing the link between retired athletes and respective team
brands, marketing practitioners can further solidify consumer loyalty in the long run.
While past research (Arai et al., 2014; Choi and Rifon, 2007; Keller, 2008; Rojek, 2006)
highlights an athlete’s marketable features (e.g. life story) and athletic performance
(e.g. athletic expertise), the present findings provide evidence to suggest that former
superstar athletes add another layer of meaning to their personal brand. Furthermore, the
current study participants’ ability to locate an athlete in an era based on how they shaped
the identity of their team is rather intriguing. A good example of this is Bobby Orr’s role in
framing the “Big Bad Bruins” culture, synonymous with toughness and grit while shifting
the entire landscape of the National Hockey League in the late 1960s. By looking back
through a nostalgic lens, sport consumers can relive iconic sports moments produced by
retired athletes. The existing literature (e.g. Arai et al., 2014; Hasaan et al., 2016) does not
consider how nostalgia is a unique way of relating the past to the present life and the
future (Davis, 1979), which outlines worth of this study to the perceptions about images of
retired athletes.
The life story dimension proposed by Arai et al. (2014) is termed as “an appealing,
interesting off-field life story about an athlete and may include a message that reflects an
athlete’s personal values” (p. 102). Thomson (2006) contends that it is due to repeated and
quality interaction human brands are perceived as more approachable by their audience.
This meaningful interaction in turn breaks down the border between the human brand and
their admirers and makes the brand consumers feel appreciated (Silvera and Austad, 2004).
Despite the current findings that parallel the associations concerning the life stories, this
analysis took the existing research (e.g. Arai et al., 2014; Hasaan et al., 2016) a step further.
The data indicated that by exhibiting responsible citizenship, retired athletes’ achievements
instill a deep sense of pride in their followers, which could consequently have a positive
impact on their self-assuredness, creativity and altruistic values (Bagozzi et al., 1999;
Verbeke et al., 2004). To pinpoint, Participant 3 specifically discussed how Mark Messier’s Retired athlete
community engagement sets a unique model of behavior the younger generations should brand image
observe and emulate.
It was clear that the proclivity to engage in socially responsible behavior was perceived
by the current participants in a positive light. As evidenced by the sentiments expressed by
Participant 2, retired athletes’ community service resonated with the participants and
ultimately enhanced the overall sense of pride in a community (Bauer et al., 2008). In terms 403
of consumer symbolic values, the implications of our findings are twofold. It appeared that
the images of retired athletes filled the void of exemplary conduct exhibited by athletes.
Given the value past literature (Bauer et al., 2008) places on symbolic benefits in relation to
consumer self-enhancement and place-based identity, we believe the present study will be
beneficial for marketing academicians and the practical field. In addition, the scholars
posited that sport consumers tend to value symbolic benefits over functional features as it
pertains to sport brands (Bauer et al., 2008). This assertion further solidifies the belief that
our data will be instrumental in promotion of the link between athletes’ responsible actions
and values characteristic of a certain community. It is evident that this component (i.e. local
community support) reinforces the image of retired athletes. While the need for additional
research is evident, the current authors still believe the data should be viewed as valuable
for the stream of research on athlete branding.

Limitations and future research

The authors acknowledge some limitations to the present findings. Considering the current
qualitative endeavor was the first attempt to further the understanding of the retired athlete
brand image, the findings may not be transferable to larger populations and should be
interpreted with caution. The goal of this study was to uncover the depth of consumer
associations in the context of retired athletes. While the data from the interviews point to
multifaceted associations about retired athletes, it is still not clear how the current themes
may have been impacted by a different sample of athletes. Furthermore, the formation of
nostalgic sentiments attracted to specific aspects of retired athletes’ personal brands
requires further scholarly attention. In moving forward with this effort, future research
could focus on singling out specific facets of retired athletes’ image to explore how they
evoke nostalgic feelings and impact associations related to retired athletes.
Future research endeavors should examine how retired athlete brand associations are
affected in the realm of different sports and eras. While the present findings offer insight
into the retired athlete brand associations in the context of major league sports, future work
could embark on an analysis of a wider range of sports. For example, given the current pool
of athletes represented major North American sport leagues, future studies could investigate
sport consumer associations in the context of international sports and their athletes.
Furthermore, future research focusing on specific eras in sports could contribute to the
understanding of how retired athletes are perceived by the sport consumer.
While current athletes comprised the brand image of the team they represented, further
analysis is needed to understand how retired athletes characterize the teams they played for
following their retirement. To accomplish this, future research endeavors could focus on
investigating how various associations characteristic of a specific dimension control team
and retired athlete associations among sport consumers.
Finally, future studies may build on the present data and bridge the gap between
conceptualizations related to formation of athlete brand associations and larger social and
cultural ideologies present in a community. Ever-evolving athlete marketing landscape is
widely acknowledged, offering sport marketing scholars a plethora of opportunities to
further investigate the construct at hand and expand our grasp of the intricate consumer
associations and benefits derived from consumption of retired athlete brands.
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Corresponding author
Olzhas Taniyev can be contacted at: [email protected]

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