Sentential Semantics

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Sentential Semantics
Sentence semantics (sentential semantics), as well as phrasal semantics, deals with the meaning
of syntactic units larger than words, i.e. phrases, clauses and sentences, and
the semantic relationships between them. Sentential means ‘of a sentence’ or ‘relating to a
sentence’.
Sentential semantics generates the idea that meaning is determined not only by meaning of each
component of a sentence but also by how words and phrases in syntactic structure are positioned
as this also affects the entire meaning of a sentence. Recall the idea of thematic meaning!
Semantic properties are the components of meanings of words. A theory of phrasal composition
states that the meaning of a sentence consists of more than the meanings of its words combined
according to syntactic structure. It separates phrasal and sentential semantics into a number of
tiers, each of which contributes a different sort of information to the meaning.
Sentences and Sentence Meaning
A sentence can be understood in three ways:

• Syntactically- Based on the idea that a sentence is an expression with certain grammatical
properties.
• Semantically- Based on the idea that a sentence is an expression with certain meaning.
• Pragmatically- Based on the idea that a sentence is an expression with a certain kind of
use in a particular context.
These three conceptions are naturally well correlated. Speakers of natural languages typically use
sentences in the grammatical sense for making speech acts and expressing thoughts. One of the
key features of the syntactic conception of a sentence is that sentences are syntactically complex.
Since they result from combining linguistic elements, there is a question of how the meaning of
the sentence is related to the meanings of its parts and the way they are combined in a particular
context and how meaning is interpreted from sentences. Linguistic communication is a complex
process of encoding and decoding that proceeds between interlocutors. It also involves certain
non-linguistic elements which attach certain properties with sentences. These properties help in
the process of interpretation. These include:
Presuppositions: The propositions or beliefs assumed by an utterance. Presuppositions are

subjective and speaker-hearer centered.
In semantics and pragmatics, a presupposition (or PSP) is an implicit assumption about the
world or background belief relating to an utterance whose truth is taken-for-granted in discourse.
Examples of presuppositions include:
• Jane no longer writes fiction.

o Presupposition: Jane once wrote fiction.
• Have you stopped eating meat?
o Presupposition: you had once eaten meat.
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• Have you talked to Hans?

o Presupposition: Hans exists.
A presupposition must be mutually known or assumed by the speaker and addressee for the
utterance to be considered appropriate in a context. It will generally remain a necessary
assumption whether the utterance is placed in the form of an assertion, denial, or question and
can be associated with a specific lexical item or grammatical feature.
Those people stopped smoking presupposes that (1) the designated people exist; (2) that the
activity called smoking exists; (3) that that activity is known to the hearers; and (4) that the
designated people habitually smoked in the past.
Entailment
Entailment is a term derived from formal logic and now often used as part of the study of
semantics. David Crystal (1998: 136) defines entailment as ‘a term that refers to a relation
between two sentences such that the truth of the second necessarily follows from the truth of the
first. Hence, the second sentence is the consequence of the first. e.g.
1. I can see a dog entails that I can see an animal.
One cannot both assert the first and deny the second. Similarly, the sentence:
2. John is a bachelor entails three other sentences: .a. John is unmarried. b. John is male.
c. John is adult.
3. Jack killed Ann entails that Ann died.
The second sentence cannot be true if the first is not true.
Presupposition is what the speaker assumes to be the case prior to making an utterance whereas
entailment is what logically follows from what is asserted in the utterance. So, presupposition is
an individual, subjective idea whereas entailment is an objective concept.
Ambiguity
Ambiguity occurs when a word, phrase or sentence, taken out of context, has more than one
interpretation.
Types of Ambiguity
There are many types of ambiguity. The most common ones are:
a. Semantic Ambiguity
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Also known as polysemy occurs when a word has multiple meanings, this is called
“polysemy.” We can usually resolve the ambiguity using context, but sometimes this
doesn’t work. The word ‘play’ is a great example of polysemy. You can play a role,
play a guitar, play a game or play the fool (among other meanings). In most contexts,
you wouldn’t have any question about which one you are talking about. But if you
were hanging out with both a guitar and an mp3 player and someone asked you to
‘play’ some music, it would be ambiguous!
b. Syntactic Ambiguity
This sort of ambiguity comes out of the structure of the sentence rather than the words. For
example:
The murderer killed the student with a book.
The student talked to the stranger with a microphone.
We know what all these words mean individually, but altogether they are ambiguous; was the
book used as a murder weapons? Or was the victim carrying a book during the attack? Similarly,
in the second example, did the student use a microphone to talk or was it the stranger who was
carrying a microphone? There is ambiguity!
Semantic/Thematic Roles
In certain theories of linguistics, thematic relations or semantic roles are talked about. Generally
semantic/thematic roles explain the underlying relationship between the noun phrase and the
verb phrase. Semantic roles are the various roles that a noun phrase may play with respect to the
action or state described by the sentence’s main verb. A semantic role is the underlying
relationship that a noun phrase has with the main verb in a clause. An understanding about the
semantic/thematic roles of a noun phrase can help in understanding and interpreting a sentence.
Some thematic roles are:
Agent: The entity who deliberately performs an action (the subject). ‘Agent’ is the semantic
role of a person or thing who is the doer of an event. An agent is usually the grammatical subject
of the verb in an active clause. E.g.
• The officer went out.
• Foxes can see in the dark.
• Poison kills.
Patient: The entity undergoing an action (object). E.g.

• He presented the medal to the officer.
• The Muslims believe in one God.
• Black cats are considered a bad omen.
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Experiencer: The entity experiencing/perceiving something. Experiencer is the semantic role of

an entity (or referent) which receives, experiences or undergoes an action.
• The man was hit by a car.

• I felt cold all of a sudden.
• She was badly injured after falling from the roof.
• We felt happy after attending the concert.
Location: The place at which an entity or action is located or where the action of the verb is
taking place.
e.g.
• The girl is in the kitchen.

• The man was on the roof when the accident happened.
Goal: Semantic role of a noun phrase where the entity moves to. E.g.
• The girl went to the market.

• I’m planning to leave for the USA.
Source: Semantic role of a noun phrase identifying where an entity moves from. E.g.
• I’m coming from my home.

• He jumped from the roof.
• She’s just come back from the university.
Instrument: Instrument is the semantic role of an inanimate thing that an agent uses to carry out
or implement an action. It is the stimulus or immediate physical cause of an event. E.g.
• He hit the gate with a hammer.

• An axe was used to kill the woman.
• We removed the ice with a spade.
Compiled by: Dr. Salma Qayyum

Sentential Semantics

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1

Sentences and Sentence Meaning

A sentence can be understood in three ways:

Presuppositions: The propositions or beliefs assumed by an utterance. Presuppositions are

• Jane no longer writes fiction.

• Have you talked to Hans?

1. I can see a dog entails that I can see an animal.

3. Jack killed Ann entails that Ann died.

The second sentence cannot be true if the first is not true.

Some thematic roles are:

Patient: The entity undergoing an action (object). E.g.

Experiencer: The entity experiencing/perceiving something. Experiencer is the semantic role of

• The man was hit by a car.

• The girl is in the kitchen.

• The girl went to the market.

• I’m coming from my home.

• He hit the gate with a hammer.

Compiled by: Dr. Salma Qayyum

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