Mechanisms Linking Employee Affective Delivery and Customer Behavioral Intentions
Mechanisms Linking Employee Affective Delivery and Customer Behavioral Intentions
Past empirical evidence has indicated that employee affective delivery can influence customer reactions
(e.g., customer satisfaction, service quality evaluation). This study extends previous research by empir-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
ically examining mediating processes underlying the relationship between employee affective delivery
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
and customer behavioral intentions. Data were collected from 352 employee– customer pairs in 169 retail
shoe stores in Taiwan. Results showed that the influence of employee affective delivery on customers’
willingness to return to the store and pass positive comments to friends was indirect through the
mediating processes of customer in-store positive moods and perceived friendliness. The study also
indicated that employee affective delivery influences customers’ time spent in store, which, in turn,
influences customer behavioral intentions.
An emerging literature examines affective delivery at work. our theory examines the influence of EAD on one actual customer
“Employee affective delivery” refers to an employee’s “act of behavior that has not yet been explored in the literature, namely,
expressing socially desired emotions during service transactions” customer time spent in store. The theoretical model is represented
(Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993, pp. 88 – 89). Employees in many in Figure 1, shown later.
service occupations, such as restaurant work and flight attendance,
are required to convey positive emotions (e.g., friendliness, EAD 3 In-Store Positive Moods 3 Customer
warmth). Past empirical evidence has indicated that employee Behavioral Intentions
affective delivery (EAD) can bring benefits to an organization.
These benefits include a higher level of customer satisfaction Tsai (2001) indicated that EAD may affect customer in-store
(Brown & Sulzer-Azaroff, 1994), better service quality evaluation positive moods, which in turn influence customer behavioral in-
(Pugh, 2001), and improvement in customer willingness to return tentions. Two mechanisms have been proposed to illustrate how
and recommend (Tsai, 2001). Although EAD has been shown to people come to feel what others are feeling. First, individuals may
lead to important organizational outcomes, the theoretical mecha- experience the feelings of others by consciously imagining how
nisms underlying these relationships are less clear. In this study, they would feel in the other’s position. Second, one’s emotional
we draw on theories in psychology, marketing, and the affect at experience may be influenced by the process of “primitive emo-
work literature (e.g., Brown & Sulzer-Azaroff, 1994; Pugh, 2001) tional contagion,” defined as an individual’s tendency to “mimic
to develop an explanatory model that specifies how and why EAD and synchronize facial expressions, vocalizations, postures, and
is related to customer behavioral intentions (i.e., intentions to movements with those of another person and, consequently, to
return and recommend). Specifically, we test propositions pro- converge emotionally” (Hatfield, Cacioppo, & Rapson, 1994, p.
posed by Tsai (2001) by empirically examining whether customer 5). Although it has been argued that these two mechanisms are
in-store positive moods and perceived friendliness will mediate the equally plausible to produce mood convergence among team mem-
relationship between EAD and customers’ willingness to return to bers (e.g., Bartel & Saavedra, 2000; Totterdell, Kellett, Teuch-
the store and pass positive comments to friends. In addition, unlike mann, & Briner, 1998), the former mechanism seems less likely to
past research linking EAD solely to customer perceptual reactions, function in service encounters. As argued by Hatfield et al. (1994),
individuals are more likely to engage in such conscious reasoning
and imagination when they love or when they identify with others
or share their goals. It seems that the employee– customer inter-
Wei-Chi Tsai, Department of Business Administration, National Taiwan actions in shoe stores (i.e., the context of the present study) do not
University of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan; Yin-Mei Huang, have such characteristics.
Department of Business Administration, National Chengchi University, The theory of primitive emotional contagion has been invoked
Taipei, Taiwan. to account for mood convergence between employees and custom-
An earlier version of this article was presented at the annual meeting of
ers. For example, Sutton (1991) indicated that bill collectors ex-
the Academy of Management in Washington, DC, August 2001. We thank
Cynthia D. Fisher and Paul R. Sackett for their helpful comments.
pressed an emotion of urgency through their vocal tones to make
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Wei-Chi debtors feel anxious and consequently pay off their debts. Simi-
Tsai, who is now at the Institute of Business and Management, National larly, Pugh (2001) showed that when bank tellers smiled more,
Chiao Tung University, 4F, 114 Chung Hsiao W. Road, Section 1, Taipei increased eye contact, displayed more gratitude, and extended
100, Taiwan. E-mail: [email protected] more greetings to customers, the customers would experience
1001
more positive moods. Thus, we expect that sales clerks’ affective customers would give higher evaluations on service quality. The
delivery create inner cues that contribute to customers’ experienc- evaluation of service quality involves customer perceptions of the
ing of positive moods. Hence, the following is proposed: excellence of actual service performance (Gotlieb, Grewal, &
Brown, 1994). The present study focuses only on customer per-
Hypothesis 1: EAD will be positively related to customer ceptions of employees’ displays of warmth and friendliness (i.e.,
in-store positive moods. the empathy and assurance components) and does not take into
account other components of the service quality construct, such as
Marketing research has shown a positive link between customer
reliability (performing service dependably and accurately) and
positive moods and their behavioral intentions. For example, Don-
tangibles (good physical facilities and equipment). In other words,
ovan and Rossiter (1982) found that customers in pleasant moods
this study looks at the variable “perceived friendliness” rather than
were more willing to return to the store. Gardner (1985) indicated
the whole service quality construct. Thus, we expect that when an
that when individuals are in positive moods, they tend to look at
employee expresses more positive emotions, customers will per-
the world through rose-colored glasses and see the bright sides of
things (Clark & Teasdale, 1982). Following this argument, cus- ceive that the employee is more friendly.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
Hypothesis 5: Customer in-store positive moods will be pos- Customers staying a bit longer in the store could not only
itively related to perceived employee friendliness. maintain their own positive moods but also bring benefits to the
store. Customers receive more in-store product information as a
Alternatively, people may argue that the reverse direction of result of their stays, thus triggering their new purchase needs
causality, running from perceived friendliness to in-store positive (Park, Iyer, & Smith, 1989). We argue that customers with new
moods, is more plausible. As mood is often manipulated by giving purchase needs may not make an immediate purchase in shoe
subjects a small gift (e.g., Isen et al., 1978), customers’ positive stores due to price (e.g., they cannot afford to buy the shoes they
perceptions of service friendliness may act as a positive mood- like then) or other considerations (e.g., the right shoe size is
inducing stimulus, suggesting that perceived friendliness may have unavailable). Instead, they may develop good intentions toward the
an influence on customer in-store positive moods. Swinyard store (e.g., intentions toward future visits).
(1993) manipulated the store experience (good vs. bad experience)
and found that the quality of shopping experience influenced Hypothesis 8: Customer time spent in store will be positively
subjects’ moods. Kelloway (1996) highlighted the needs for a related to customer behavioral intentions.
structural equation modeling research to test alternative models
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This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
that are conceptually compelling. Thus, we will examine the Control Variables
plausibility of this alternative model.
We treat “customer prior positive moods” as the control variable
EAD 3 Time Spent in Store when the effect of EAD on customer in-store positive moods is
assessed. Holbrook and Gardner (2000) indicated that customers’
Time is one of the key resources customers bring to the ex- moods reflect the combined influences of their prior moods and the
change transaction. Customers allocate their time resources in recent consumption experiences. Thus, by controlling for prior
order to maximize overall utility (Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982). positive moods, it becomes more likely that the observed in-store
Spies et al. (1997) argued that in addition to buying products, mood variations are really due to differences in EAD.
customers visit a store to enjoy their shopping and gain a pleasant Following the lead of environmental psychologists, marketing
experience, suggesting “time spent in store” may be one important researchers have included “store atmosphere” as one important
customer behavior that is worth studying. In fact, marketing re- antecedent of customers’ moods. Thus, we treat it as another
search has classified this and other variables as “approach behav- control variable. Store atmosphere refers to the physical properties
ior” (e.g., Donovan & Rossiter, 1982; Sherman, Mathur, & Smith, of the retail environment, such as music, lighting, and layout
1997), defined as “all positive behaviors that might be directed at (Engel, Blackwell, & Miniard, 1995). Empirical evidence suggests
a particular place, such as desire to stay, explore, and affiliate” that when these environmental stimuli are perceived as more
(Bitner, 2000, p. 47). attractive, customers will experience more positive moods (Sher-
There are two reasons for theorizing a linkage between EAD man et al., 1997; Yoo, Park, & MacInnis, 1998). For example,
and time spent in store. First, following Hypothesis 1, EAD should Sherman et al. (1997) asked fashion store shoppers to evaluate the
influence time spent in store indirectly through customer in-store attractiveness of the store’s atmosphere and their own moods.
positive moods. Carlson, Charlin, and Miller (1988) indicated that They found that store atmosphere had a positive influence on
people have a motive to maintain a positive mood. They also customers’ positive moods. Why does store atmosphere correlate
suggested that positive moods would cause people to perceive positively with customer positive moods? Spies et al. (1997)
stimuli in a more positive light. As staying in a store is viewed suggested that pleasant store atmosphere reminds customers of
favorably by customers, customers in positive moods are more other positive experiences (e.g., interesting events occurred in
likely to spend more time in stores to maintain or prolong their leisure time), which in turn induce positive moods on the part of
positive moods. Empirical evidence by Donovan and colleagues customers.
(1994) suggested that customers’ positive moods significantly Employees generally spend a longer period of time in the store
influence their time spent in store, even controlling for the effects than customers; thus store atmosphere should also have an effect
of price and product characteristics. Thus, the following is pro- on employee positive moods (Bitner, 1992). Van Maanen and
posed: Kunda (1989) indicated that employees who are in positive moods
are more likely to display positive emotions because such expres-
Hypothesis 6: Customer in-store positive moods will be pos- sions often take less effort on the part of the employees. When the
itively related to time spent in store. store atmosphere induces positive moods in employees, employees
are likely to express positive emotions. Thus, we add a link from
Second, EAD may influence time spent in store due to the norm
store atmosphere to EAD.
of reciprocity (Gouldner, 1960). If an employee expressed positive
emotions to the customer, and the customer did not repay the
employee with a purchase, the customer might feel guilty. Thus, Method
the customer feels the need to remain in the store, to at least repay
the employee with a good faith effort to find a pair of shoes, or Participants
repay with valuable time. Thus, we add a direct link from EAD to To test our model, we used a different data collection than in our
time spent in store. previous study (Tsai, 2001), although the instrumentation involved in the
two studies was quite similar. Sales clerks and customers of 169 retail shoe
Hypothesis 7: There will be a direct positive relationship stores in northern Taiwan were included in this study. Of the 169 shoe
between EAD and time spent in store. stores, the majority (i.e., 132 stores) were independent businesses, while
the remaining were chain stores belonging to 14 different organizations. In-store positive moods. Four positive affect terms (i.e., contented,
The sample comprised 352 clerk– customer interactions involving 352 excited, pleased, and satisfied) from Yoo et al. (1998) were used to
sales clerks and 352 customers. One hundred and three of the 352 sales measure this construct. These terms had been developed to characterize
clerks (29.3%) were men. Customers’ mean age was 23.30 (SD ⫽ 6.27), customer retail experiences rather than general human emotions. Custom-
and 89 of them (25.3%) were men. In general, three clerk– customer ers were asked to recall the extent to which each of the terms described
interactions were observed in each store. how they had felt while they were in the store on a 4-point Likert-type
scale. The sum of the four terms was computed to represent customers’
in-store positive moods (␣ ⫽ .87). As we asked customers to complete this
Procedure measure just a minute or so after leaving the store, the retrospective recall
of in-store moods should be quite accurate.
Ten research assistants were recruited for this study and were grouped
Prior positive moods. The same four positive affect terms (see above)
into five teams. Each team consisted of two people who acted as observers
were used to measure this construct. Customers were asked to recall the
to collect information on store atmosphere and EAD as well as to solicit
extent to which each of the terms described how they had felt prior to their
opinions from customers. In general, each of the five teams shared data
entry into the store (␣ ⫽ .79). In this study, nearly ninety percent of the
collection duties. To reduce error variance caused by data collector heter-
participants stayed in the stores for less than 10 min. Thus, accurately
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
Table 1
Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlation Matrix Among Variables
Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
The hypothesized structural model displayed in Figure 1 fits the EAD and customer behavioral intentions. Results showed that the
data well, 2 (9, N ⫽ 352) ⫽ 9.24, p ⬎ .05; RMSR ⫽ .02; GFI ⫽ fit of this model was not significantly better than the hypothesized
.99; AGFI ⫽ .98; NFI ⫽ .98; CFI ⫽ 1.00. Figure 1 shows the path model, ⌬2 ⫽ 0.57, p ⬎ .05. Moreover, the direct link between
coefficients for this analysis. All hypothesized paths were statis- EAD and customer behavioral intentions was not statistically
tically significant (either at p ⬍ .01 or p ⬍ .05 levels) and in the significant ( ⫽ .05, p ⬎ .05). This suggests that customer in-store
predicted directions, offering support for all eight hypotheses. positive moods and perceived friendliness (as well as time spent in
With respect to control variables, store atmosphere was found to store) do account for the relationship between EAD and customer
correlate significantly with EAD ( ⫽ .23, p ⬍ .01) but not to behavioral intentions.
correlate with customer in-store positive moods ( ⫽ .03, p ⬎
.05). Furthermore, there was a significant link between customer Post Hoc Analysis
prior positive moods and customer in-store positive moods ( ⫽
There may be concerns about the reported relationship between
.66, p ⬍ .01).
store atmosphere and EAD (r ⫽ .18; see Table 1) being inflated by
In addition, we examined the plausibility of an alternative
common method variance, as the two variables were both rated by
model. The alternative model differs from the hypothesized model
observers. Thus, we computed the correlation using Observer A’s
in the causal direction between two mediating variables. As indi-
rating for store atmosphere and Observer B’s rating for EAD and
cated before, it is possible that customers experience more positive
obtained a value of .17 ( p ⬍ .01). We then computed it the other
moods due to a higher level of perceived friendliness, suggesting
way (Observer B’s rating for store atmosphere and Observer A’s
a causal path from perceived friendliness to customer in-store
rating for EAD) and obtained a value of .15 ( p ⬍ .01). As the
positive moods. Results showed that the fit of this model was
magnitudes of these two correlations were similar to that of the
significantly worse than the hypothesized model, ⌬2 ⫽ 22.74,
reported relationship, common method variance may have little
p ⬍ .01; RMSR ⫽ .06; GFI ⫽ .98; AGFI ⫽ .91; NFI ⫽ .92; CFI ⫽
influence on the result.
.94, offering support for the superiority of our hypothesized model.
Although not specifically hypothesized, we wonder whether the
Discussion
proposed mediating variables can fully account for the relationship
between EAD and customer behavioral intentions. Thus, we esti- The present study found that the influence of EAD on customer
mated an alternative model that included a direct link between behavioral intentions was indirect through the mediating processes
Figure 1. Standardized parameter estimates for the hypothesized model. * p ⬍ .05. ** p ⬍ .01.
of customer in-store positive moods and perceived friendliness. way, EAD could produce higher perceived friendliness, which in
These results extend the findings of Brown and Sulzer-Azaroff turn would lead to higher customer behavioral intentions.
(1994) and Tsai (2001) by providing some explanations as to how Moreover, EAD was found to have a positive influence on
and why EAD influences customer behavioral intentions. As more amount of time spent by customers in stores, beyond the effects of
research suggests that EAD can lead to organizational benefits, it customer in-store positive moods. This suggests that customers
becomes increasingly important that research provides theories to may stay longer in the store due to factors other than their positive
help explain these results. This study contributes to the literature moods. As indicated earlier, it is possible that customers stay for
by filling this research gap. the purpose of reciprocating employees’ affective delivery. Em-
Results of this study showed that customer in-store positive ployees’ expressions of positive emotions to customers create
moods mediated the relationship between EAD and customer almost a debt which the customers can repay with their purchase
behavioral intentions. Similarly, Pugh (2001) found that bank decisions. If customers do not purchase, their obligations can be
tellers’ affective delivery influenced customer evaluations on ser- discharged by staying in the store for a longer period of time.
vice quality through the mediating process of customer positive Our previous study (i.e., Tsai, 2001) showed that EAD did not
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
moods. Gutek and colleagues (1999) made a distinction between increase the likelihood of shoe purchases by customers. It is likely
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
service encounters and service relationships. In a service encoun- that marketing factors such as price and product characteristics
ter, neither the provider nor the customer expects to interact with produced stronger effects on purchase decisions. In contrast, the
the other party in the future (e.g., buying a hamburger at a fast food present study found that EAD was able to influence how customers
restaurant). In contrast, customers who receive service in a rela- allocate their time resources in the store and their subsequent
tionship can identify a particular person as their service provider. behavioral intentions. These findings suggest that EAD produces
Through repeated interaction, customers and providers get to know long-term rather than immediate benefits for the organization.
each other, sometimes as acquaintances or even friends (e.g., a As expected, this study found a positive linkage between store
relationship with hairstylists). It seems that service delivered in atmosphere and EAD. However, store atmosphere was shown to
both shoe stores and banks falls into the category of service have no direct effect on customer in-store moods. Perhaps a
encounters, although the interactions in shoe stores are slightly pleasant store atmosphere influences employees’ moods and their
more intense and diversified. subsequent affective delivery and thus has an indirect influence on
Employees’ affective delivery appears to be contagious in ser- customer moods and reactions. Employees obviously inhabit the
vice encounters. Can it also occur in service relationships? Bartel store much more extensively than do customers. Note that for the
and Saavedra (2000) indicated that the possibility of emotional purpose of minimizing shared method variance between store
contagion will be higher when individuals are more socially inter- atmosphere and customer in-store moods, we asked observers to
connected. In addition, Bernieri and colleagues (1988) found that evaluate store atmosphere. Consequently, the level of store atmo-
mothers showed greater behavioral synchrony (and consequently sphere as rated by observers may not match the perceptions of the
more mood convergence) with their own children than with unre- employee nor the customer.
lated ones. As employee-customer interactions in service relation- People may wonder if male and female clerks’ affective delivery
ships may develop into an acquaintanceship or even a friendship, had different customer outcomes. Thus, hierarchical regressions of
we expect that EAD would be more contagious in service rela- the outcome variable (customer behavioral intentions or time spent
tionships than in encounters. Future research is needed to test this in store) on EAD, three gender variables (sex of clerk, sex of
hypothesis. customer, same sex of clerk– customer pair), and three interaction
Results of this study also showed that EAD correlated weakly terms (Gender Variables ⫻ EAD) were performed. Results showed
with perceived friendliness (r ⫽ .28), suggesting that sales clerks’ that across the two regressions, none of the interaction terms (nor
mechanical presentations of verbal and nonverbal cues, such as the gender variables) significantly predict outcome variables, in-
smiling, thanking, and rhythmic tone of voice, may not be suffi- dicating that positive benefits generated by EAD may not be
cient for creating a sense of perceived friendliness on the part of influenced by the gender makeup of the employee– customer
customers.2 The literature on emotional labor (e.g., Ashforth & dyads.
Humphrey, 1993; Grandey, 2000) suggests the importance of There may also be concerns about cultural differences in EAD.
“genuine” emotional displays in service work. Hochschild (1983) Matsumoto and Ekman (1989) asked American and Asian students
argued that service employees may engage in two forms of acting to rate the facial expressions on a set of pictures and found that
to meet the requirement of the organization’s display rules. Em- subjects from different cultures had similar accuracy of recogni-
ployees who engage in “deep acting” consciously work on their tion for emotions such as happiness. Winsted (1997) found that
feelings so that they can actually feel the emotions they wish to employee service behaviors such as greeting, smiling, and estab-
display. Employees who are surface acting, however, focus di- lishing eye contact were viewed favorably by both American and
rectly on their outward behavior without modifying the internal
state. Although both surface and deep acting techniques may result 2
Another potential explanation is the gender differences between ob-
in the required emotional expression, past research has demon-
servers and customers. For this reason, we computed two correlations
strated that employees who are deep acting are likely to be per-
between EAD and perceived friendliness, one for cases where observer and
ceived as more sincere and friendly (Grandey, in press). Thus, customer were of the same sex and the other where observer and customer
managers should train employees how to use various deep acting were of opposite sex. Results showed that the magnitudes of the two
strategies in performing their service roles (e.g., thinking about correlations were not different from one another (.284 vs. .296), suggesting
events that induce positive emotions; see Grandey, 2000). In this that this explanation should be ruled out.
Asian customers. Thus, it appears that the present sample Donovan, R. J., & Rossiter, J. R. (1982). Store atmosphere: An environ-
in Taiwan would perceive EAD similarly to the American mental psychology approach. Journal of Retailing, 58, 34 –57.
customers.3 Donovan, R. J., Rossiter, J. R., Marcoolyn, G., & Nesdale, A. (1994). Store
A few limitations of this study should be noted. First, in order to atmosphere and purchase behavior. Journal of Retailing, 70, 283–294.
avoid the possibility of common method bias, we made efforts to Engel, J. F., Blackwell, R. D., & Miniard, P. W. (1995). Consumer
behavior (8th ed.). Orlando, FL: Dryden.
collect the data with multiple sources. For example, we asked
Friedman, H. S., Prince, L. M., Riggio, R. E., & DiMatteo, M. R. (1980).
observers to rate EAD, whereas customers evaluated their own Understanding and assessing nonverbal expressiveness: The affective
moods. Despite this effort, not all variables in our theoretical communication test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39,
model can be measured by any sources. For example, variables 333–351.
such as customer in-store moods and customer behavioral inten- Gardner, M. P. (1985). Mood states and consumer behavior: A critical
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This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
Second, as one purpose of this study was to extend Tsai’s (2001) Gouldner, A. W. (1960). The norm of reciprocity: A preliminary statement.
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The present study has one strength. As opposed to survey deep acting as determinants of emotional exhaustion and peer-rated
studies, we have measured the customer’s behavioral intentions service delivery. Academy of Management Journal.
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