Etextbook PDF For M Organizational Behavior 4th Edition
Etextbook PDF For M Organizational Behavior 4th Edition
Contents
part one Introduction 2
1 Introduction to the Field of Organizational Behavior 2
Indexes 341
vii
Contents
part one Introduction 2
viii
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT 91
Consequences of Affective and
Continuance Commitment 91
Building Organizational Commitment 92
WORK-RELATED STRESS AND ITS
MANAGEMENT 93
General Adaptation Syndrome 93
Consequences of Distress 94
Stressors: The Causes of Stress 94
Individual Differences in Stress 96
Managing Work-Related Stress 96
CONTENTS ix
JOB DESIGN 124 IDENTIFYING PROBLEMS AND EVALUATING DECISIONS 146
Job Design and Work Efficiency 124 OPPORTUNITIES 139 Escalation of Commitment 147
Scientific Management 125 Problems with Problem Identification 140 Evaluating Decision Outcomes More
Problems with Job Specialization 126 Identifying Problems and Opportunities Effectively 148
Job Design and Work Motivation 126 More Effectively 141
CREATIVITY 148
Job Design Practices That SEARCHING FOR, EVALUATING, AND The Creative Process 148
Motivate 128 CHOOSING ALTERNATIVES 141
Characteristics of Creative People 149
Problems with Goals 141 Organizational Conditions Supporting
6 Decision Making and Problems with Information Creativity 151
Creativity 136 Processing 141 Activities That Encourage
Problems with Maximization 143 Creativity 151
RATIONAL CHOICE DECISION
MAKING 137 Selecting Opportunities 144 EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT IN
Emotions and Making Choices 144 DECISION MAKING 152
Rational Choice Decision-Making
Process 139 Intuition and Making Choices 145 Benefits of Employee Involvement 153
Problems with Rational Choice Decision Making Choices More Effectively 145 Contingencies of Employee
Making 139 IMPLEMENTING DECISIONS 146 Involvement 153
x CONTENTS
COMMUNICATING THROUGH THE 10 Conflict and Negotiation
GRAPEVINE 204
in the Workplace 232
Grapevine Characteristics 204
THE MEANING AND CONSEQUENCES
Grapevine Benefits and
OF CONFLICT 233
Limitations 204
Is Conflict Good or Bad? 233
9 Power and Influence in THE EMERGING VIEW: TASK AND
RELATIONSHIP CONFLICT 235
the Workplace 210
Task Conflict 235
THE MEANING OF POWER 211 Relationship Conflict 235
SOURCES OF POWER IN Separating Task from Relationship
ORGANIZATIONS 212 Conflict 235
Legitimate Power 213 CONFLICT PROCESS MODEL 236
Reward Power 214 ©EllisDon Corporation
STRUCTURAL SOURCES OF CONFLICT
Coercive Power 214 IN ORGANIZATIONS 237
Expert Power 214 Incompatible Goals 237 TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP
Referent Power 215 Differentiation 237 PERSPECTIVE 258
CONTINGENCIES OF POWER 215 Interdependence 238 Develop and Communicate a Strategic
Scarce Resources 238 Vision 259
Substitutability 215
Ambiguous Rules 238 Model the Vision 260
Centrality 216
Communication Problems 238 Encourage Experimentation 260
Visibility 216
Build Commitment toward the
Discretion 216 INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT-
Vision 261
THE POWER OF SOCIAL HANDLING STYLES 239
Transformational Leadership and
NETWORKS 216 Choosing the Best Conflict-Handling
Charisma 261
Social Capital and Sources of Style 240
Evaluating the Transformational
Power 217 Cultural and Gender Differences in
Leadership Perspective 261
Gaining Power through Social Conflict-Handling Styles 242
MANAGERIAL LEADERSHIP
Networks 218 STRUCTURAL APPROACHES TO
PERSPECTIVE 262
CONSEQUENCES OF POWER 220 CONFLICT MANAGEMENT 242
Interdependence of Managerial and
Emphasizing Superordinate Goals 242
INFLUENCING OTHERS 221 Transformational Leadership 262
Reducing Differentiation 243
Types of Influence Tactics 221 Task-Oriented and People-Oriented
Improving Communication and Mutual
Consequences and Contingencies of Leadership 263
Understanding 243
Influence Tactics 224 Servant Leadership 263
Reducing Interdependence 244
ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS 226 Increasing Resources 244
PATH–GOAL AND LEADERSHIP
Minimizing Organizational SUBSTITUTES THEORIES 264
Clarifying Rules and Procedures 244
Politics 226 Path–Goal Leadership Theory 264
THIRD-PARTY CONFLICT
RESOLUTION 245 Leadership Substitutes Theory 266
CONTENTS xi
part four Organizational Processes 278
xii CONTENTS
What’s New
in the Fourth Edition
M: Organizational Behavior, Fourth Edition, has been significantly Chapter 4: Workplace Emotions, Attitudes,
revised, guided by useful feedback from reviewers and our active and Stress
monitoring of evidence-based literature. All chapters have new
examples and either new or revised factoids; most chapters have This edition significantly revises and updates discussion on four key
new conceptual content or literature foundation. The most workplace stressors, with new writing about organizational
substantial changes have occurred in Chapter 1 (introduction to OB), constraints and interpersonal conflict as stressors. In addition, there
Chapter 4 (workplace emotions, attitudes, and stress), Chapter 6 is new content on attitude–behavior contingencies.
(decision making and creativity), Chapter 8 (communication), and
Chapter 10 (conflict and negotiation). The authors personally
researched, selected, and wrote all of this content, thereby Chapter 5: Employee Motivation
providing superior integration of knowledge and ensuring that the
New to this edition is the topic of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation,
examples are relevant and recent. Here are the key changes we’ve
as well as the question of whether introducing extrinsic sources of
made to this fourth edition, broken out by chapter:
motivation reduces intrinsic motivation. We also have reorganized
and refined the writing on drives and needs, Maslow’s needs
hierarchy, and four-drive theory. The previous edition introduced
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Field of the social and information processing characteristics of jobs. This
Organizational Behavior edition further refines that emerging topic.
Technological change has been added in the section on
contemporary developments facing organizations. The section on
perspectives of organizational effectiveness has been streamlined. Chapter 6: Decision Making and Creativity
Most topics have updated content, particularly the text on the four This chapter has been substantially revised and updated in several
contemporary developments, why study OB, and several aspects of ways. Design thinking now receives more attention as a concept
organizational effectiveness. and practice to improve workplace creativity. The topic of problems
with information processing when choosing alternatives also has
been substantially updated. Additional updates have been made to
Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, solution-focused problems, problems with goals, implicit favorite
and Values bias, and satisficing (problems with maximization).
xiii
discusses four key factors (synchronicity, social presence, social Chapter 11: Leadership in Organizational
acceptance, and media richness) as well as associated
Settings
contingencies to consider when choosing a communication
channel. This edition continues to shift the focus toward various This chapter, substantially revised in the previous edition, includes
forms of digital communication (less focus on email alone). Another updates on the topics of transformational leadership, comparing
noticeable change is the updated discussion on the characteristics transformational with managerial leadership, and evaluating
and benefits of enterprise social media. path–goal theory.
xiv
Organizational
Behavior
PART 1 1 Introduction to the Field of
Organizational Behavior
©Robert Kneschke/Shutterstock
Learning Objectives After you read this chapter, you should be able to:
LO1-1 Define organizational behavior and LO1-2 Debate the organizational LO1-3 Discuss the anchors on which
organizations, and discuss the importance opportunities and challenges of organizational behavior knowledge is
of this field of inquiry. technological change, globalization, based.
emerging employment relationships, and LO1-4 Compare and contrast the four
workforce diversity. perspectives of organizational
effectiveness.
2
organizational behavior
(OB) the study of what
A
people think, feel, and do in
pple and Amazon are the two most admired compa- self-concept, attitudes, etc.) to
and around organizations
the complex interplay between
nies in the world, according to Fortune magazine’s
the organization’s structure organizations groups
annual list. Yet neither of these firms was on any- and culture and its external of people who work
one’s radar screen two decades ago. Apple was on life support in the environment. Along this jour- interdependently toward
ney, we emphasize why things some purpose
late 1990s, barely clinging to a few percentage points of market happen and what you can do
share in the computer industry. Amazon started selling books online to predict and guide organiza-
tional events.
in 1995, a few months after its founder, Jeff Bezos, took a course
We begin this chapter by introducing you to the field of or-
from the American Booksellers Association on how to start a ganizational behavior and why it is important to your career
bookstore!1 and to organizations. This is followed by an overview of four
major societal developments facing organizations: technologi-
cal change, globalization, emerging employment relationships,
and increasing workforce diversity. We then describe four an-
The dramatic growth of Apple and Amazon illustrates the many chors that guide the development of organizational behavior
workplace activities that contribute to success in today’s turbu- knowledge. The latter part of this chapter describes the “ulti-
lent economic environment. In every sector of the economy, or- mate dependent variable” in organizational behavior by pre-
ganizations need skilled and motivated people who can realize senting the four main perspectives of organizational
their potential, work in teams, and maintain a healthy lifestyle. effectiveness. The chapter closes with an integrative model of
They need leaders with foresight and vision, who support inno- organizational behavior, which serves as a road map to guide
vative work practices and make decisions that consider the in- you through the topics in this book.
terests of multiple stakeholders. In other words, the best
companies succeed through the concepts and practices that we
discuss in this organizational behavior book.
Our purpose is to help you understand what goes on in orga- LO1-1 Define organizational behavior and organizations,
nizations. We examine the factors that make companies effec- and discuss the importance of this field of inquiry.
tive, improve employee well-being, and drive successful
collaboration among co-workers. We look at organizations from
numerous and diverse perspectives, from the deepest founda-
tions of employee thoughts and behavior (personality,
THE FIELD OF
The World’s Most ORGANIZATIONAL
Admired
The World’s Companies
Most Admired Companies2
BEHAVIOR
Organizational behavior (OB) is the study of what people
9b 1
think, feel, and do in and around organizations. It looks at
employee behavior, decisions, perceptions, and emotional re-
Microsoft (tied)
Apple
sponses. It examines how individuals and teams in organiza-
9a 2 tions relate to each other and to their counterparts in other
Amazon.com
Facebook (tied) organizations. OB also encompasses the study of how organi-
zations interact with their external environments, particularly
in the context of employee behavior and decisions. OB re-
8 3 searchers systematically study these topics at multiple levels of
Starbucks
Southwest Airlines analysis, namely, the individual, team (including interper-
sonal), and organization.3
The definition of organizational behavior begs the question:
7 4 What are organizations? Organizations are groups of people who
Berkshire Hathaway
General Electric work interdependently toward some purpose.4 Notice that organi-
zations are not buildings or government-registered entities. In
6 5 fact, many organizations exist with neither physical walls nor gov-
Disney
Alphabet (Google) ernment documentation to confer their legal status. Organizations
have existed for as long as people have worked together. Massive
temples dating back to 3500 bc were constructed through the
people without direction or unifying force. So, whether they are leadership, and the Chinese philosopher Confucius (500 bc)
designing and marketing the latest communication technology extolled the virtues of ethics and leadership. Economist Adam
at Apple or selling almost anything on the Internet at Amazon, Smith (late 1700s) discussed the benefits of job specialization
people working in organizations do have some sense of collec- and division of labor. German sociologist Max Weber (early
tive purpose. 1900s) wrote about rational organizations, the work ethic, and
charismatic leadership. Around the same time, industrial engi-
neer Frederick Winslow Taylor proposed systematic ways to or-
Historical Foundations of ganize work processes and motivate employees through goal
Organizational Behavior setting and rewards.9
Organizational behavior emerged as a distinct field sometime Political scientist Mary Parker Follett (1920s) offered new
around the early 1940s.8 During that decade, a few researchers ways of thinking about constructive conflict, team dynamics,
began describing their research as organizational (rather than power, and leadership. Harvard professor Elton Mayo and his
sociological or psychological). And by the late 1940s, Harvard colleagues (1930s and 1940s) established the “human relations”
4 PART 1 | Introduction
school of management, which pioneered re- Comprehend and Predict Workplace Events
search on employee attitudes, formal team Everyone has an inherent drive to make sense of
dynamics, informal groups, and supervisor what is going on around him or her.12 This need is
leadership style. American executive and Harvard particularly strong in organizations because they
associate Chester Barnard (1930s) wrote insight- are highly complex and ambiguous contexts that
ful views regarding organizational communica- have a profound effect on our lives. The field of
tion, coordination, leadership and authority, organizational behavior uses scientific research to
organizations as open systems, and team dynam- discover systematic relationships, which give us a
ics.10 This brief historical tour indicates that OB valuable foundation for comprehending organiza-
has been around for a long time; it just wasn’t tional life.13 This knowledge satisfies our curiosity
organized into a unified discipline until around about why events occur and reduces our anxiety
World War II. about circumstances that would otherwise be unex-
pected and unexplained. Furthermore, OB knowl-
Why Study Organizational edge improves our ability to predict and anticipate
Behavior? future events so we can get along with others,
achieve our goals, and minimize unnecessary
In all likelihood, you are reading this book as
career risks.
part of a required course in organizational be-
havior. Apart from degree or diploma require-
ments, why should you learn the ideas and Adopt More Accurate Personal Theories A
practices discussed in this book? After all, who Frederick Winslow Taylor frequent misunderstanding is that OB is common
©Paul Fearn/Alamy Stock Photo
ever heard of a career path leading to a “vice sense. Of course, some OB knowledge is very simi-
president of OB” or a “chief OB officer”? Our lar to the theories you have developed through per-
answer to this question begins with survey findings that stu- sonal experience. But personal theories are usually not quite as
dents who have been in the workforce for some time typically precise as they need to be. Perhaps they explain and predict some
point to OB as one of their most valuable courses. Why? Be- situations, but not others. For example, one study found that
cause they have learned through experience that OB does make when liberal arts students and chief executive officers were asked
a difference to one’s career success.11 There are three main rea- to choose the preferred organizational structure in various situa-
sons why OB theories and practices are personally important tions, their commonsense answers were typically wrong because
to you (see Exhibit 1.1). they oversimplified well-known theory and evidence on that
topic.14 (We discuss organizational structures in
Chapter 12.) Throughout this book you also will
Exhibit 1.1 Importance of Organizational Behavior discover that OB research has debunked some
ideas that people thought were “common sense.”
Overall, we believe the OB knowledge you will
gain by reading this book will help you challenge
and refine your personal theories, and give you
Comprehend and more accurate and complete perspectives of
Influence
predict work events
organizational events organizational events.
• Work well with others • Satisfy curiosity
• Accomplish personal • Reduce anxiety
and organizational
• Predict future events Influence Organizational Events Proba-
goals bly the greatest value of OB knowledge is that
Why Study it helps us get things done in the workplace by
Organizational influencing organizational events.15 By defini-
Behavior? tion, organizations are people who work to-
gether to accomplish things, so we need a
toolkit of knowledge and skills to work suc-
cessfully with others. Studies consistently ob-
Adopt more accurate
serve that the most important knowledge and
personal theories
skills that employers desire in employees re-
• Confirm and refine personal
theories
late to the topics we discuss in this book, such
• Correct false common sense as building teams, motivating coworkers, han-
dling workplace conflicts, making decisions,
and changing employee behavior. No matter
what career path you choose, you’ll find that
Organizational Behavior Is
for Everyone Organizational
behavior is discussed by some
writers as a topic for managers.
Effective management does de-
pend on OB concepts and prac-
tices, but this book pioneered the
broader view that OB is valuable
for everyone who works in and
around organizations. Whether
you are a software engineer, cus-
tomer service representative, for-
eign exchange analyst, or chief Probably the greatest value of OB knowledge is that it helps us get things done in the workplace
executive officer, you need to by influencing organizational events.
understand and apply the many ©ColorBlind Images/Blend Images LLC
organizational behavior topics
that are discussed in this book. In fact, OB knowledge is probably
more valuable than ever before because employees increas- LO1-2 Debate the organizational opportunities and
ingly need to be proactive, self-motivated, and able to work challenges of technological change, globalization, emerging
effectively with coworkers without management intervention. employment relationships, and workforce diversity.
In the words of one forward-thinking OB writer more than four
decades ago: Everyone is a manager.16
6 PART 1 | Introduction
globalization economic,
social, and cultural
connectivity with people in
such as the telegraph, smartphone, and the Internet, have in- globalize when they actively
other parts of the world
creased productivity but also altered work relationships and pat- participate in other countries
terns of behavior with coworkers, clients, and suppliers. Still and cultures. Although busi- work–life balance
other technologies aim to improve health and well-being, such as nesses have traded goods the degree to which a person
the development of better medicines and medical equipment, across borders for centuries, minimizes conflict between
new leisure apparatus, and environmentally safer materials. the degree of globalization to- work and nonwork demands
Information technology is one of the most significant forms day is unprecedented because
of technological change in recent times.20 As we discuss in information technology and
Chapter 8, communication patterns and power dynamics have transportation systems allow a much more intense level of con-
substantially changed due to the introduction of email and nectivity and interdependence around the planet.22
other forms of digital messaging. Social media and other col- Globalization offers numerous benefits to organizations in
laboration technologies are slowly replacing email, and will fur- terms of larger markets, lower costs, and greater access to
ther reshape how people associate and coordinate with each knowledge and innovation. At the same time, there is consider-
other. Some OB experts argue that information technology able debate about whether globalization benefits developing na-
gives employees a stronger voice through direct communica- tions and the extent to which it is responsible for increasing
tion with executives and broader distribution of their opinions work intensification, reduced job security, and poor work–life
to coworkers and beyond. balance in developed countries.23
Information technology also has created challenges, such as The field of organizational behavior focuses on the effects of
tethering people to their jobs for longer hours, reducing their globalization on organizations and how to lead and work effec-
attention spans at work, and increasing techno-stress. We dis- tively in this emerging reality. Throughout this book, we will refer
cuss these concerns below and in Chapter 4 (workplace stress). to the effects of globalization on teamwork, diversity, cultural val-
At a macro-level, information technology has reconfigured en- ues, organizational structure, leadership, and other themes. Glo-
tire organizations by integrating suppliers and other external balization has brought more complexity and new ways of working
entities into the transformation process. Eventually, technology to the workplace. It also requires additional knowledge and skills
may render organizations less of a place where people work and that we will discuss in this book, such as emotional intelligence, a
more of a process or network where people collaborate across global mindset, nonverbal communication, and conflict handling.
space and time (see Chapter 12).
42%
and others to easily and quickly com-
46 % of 9,908 information
workers polled across 32 countries say
of 9,908
information workers polled across
municate with employees beyond their
traditional workday.
that social media tools have somewhat 32 countries say that social media
Little wonder that one of the most im-
or greatly increased their productivity. tools have resulted in more portant employment issues over the past
workplace collaboration. decade has been work–life balance.
Work–life balance occurs when people
are able to minimize conflict between
60
their work and nonwork demands.24
% of 2,186 American hiring and human resource Most employees lack this balance be-
managers say they use social media sites to research job cause they spend too many hours each
candidates (up from 52% the previous year and 11% in 2006). week performing or thinking about their
(photo): ©pictafolio/E+/Getty Images job, whether at the workplace, at home,
Telecommuting The best-known form of remote work is several potential benefits and risks (see Exhibit 1.2).27 One ad-
telecommuting (also called teleworking) whereby information vantage is that telecommuters usually experience better work–
technology enables employees to work from home one or more life balance because they have more time and somewhat more
workdays per month rather than commute to the office. An esti- control to juggle work with family obligations. For example, a
mated 37 percent of U.S. workers telecommute, with almost study of 25,000 IBM employees found that female telecommut-
one-third of them working from home at least six days each ers with children were able to work 40 hours per week, whereas
month. The U.S. government reports that 23 percent of employ- female employees with children who work solely at the office
ees perform some or all of their work at home (but that includes could manage only 30 hours before feeling work–life balance
taking work home after attending the office, not just tension. Work–life balance is less likely to improve when tele-
telecommuting).26 commuters lack sufficient workspace and privacy at home and
Is telecommuting good for employees and organizations? have increased family responsibilities on telecommuting days.
This question continues to be debated because it produces Job applicants—particularly millennials—identify telecommut-
ing as an attractive job feature, and turnover is usually lower
among telecommuting employees. Research also indicates that
telecommuters have higher productivity than nontelecommuters,
likely because they experience less stress and tend to transfer
some former commuting time to work time. Telecommuting also
improves productivity by enabling employees to work at times
when the weather or natural disasters block access to the office.
Several companies report that telecommuting has reduced
greenhouse gas emissions and office expenses. For instance,
health insurer Aetna estimates that its telecommuting employ-
ees (31 percent of the workforce) annually avoid using two mil-
lion gallons of gas, thereby reducing carbon dioxide emissions
by more than 23,000 metric tons. With many employees work-
ing from home, Aetna also has been able to reduce its real estate
and related costs by between 15 and 25 percent.28
Telecommuting also has several disadvantages.29 Telecom-
muters frequently report more social isolation. They also receive
less word-of-mouth information, which may have implications
for promotional opportunities and workplace relations. Tele-
Most employees lack work–life balance because they spend
commuting also tends to weaken relationships among cowork-
too many hours each week performing or thinking about their ers, resulting in lower team cohesion. Organizational culture is
job, whether at the workplace, at home, or on vacation. also potentially weaker when most employees work from home
©ALMAGAMI/Shutterstock for a significant part of their workweek.
8 PART 1 | Introduction
surface-level diversity
the observable demographic
or physiological differences in
Telecommuting success depends on several characteristics of (currently 18 percent), 14 percent
people, such as their race,
the employee, job, and organization.30 Employees who work will be of Asian descent (cur-
ethnicity, gender, age, and
effectively from home typically have higher self-motivation, self- rently 6 percent), and 13 per- physical disabilities
organization, need for autonomy, and information technology cent will be African American
skills. Those who telecommute most of the time also fulfill their (currently 14 percent).32 deep-level diversity
social needs more from sources outside the workplace. Jobs are Diversity also includes dif- differences in the
better suited to telecommuting when the tasks do not require ferences in personalities, be- psychological characteristics
resources at the workplace, the work is performed independently liefs, values, and attitudes.33 of employees, including
from coworkers, and task performance is measurable. We can’t directly see this deep- personalities, beliefs, values,
and attitudes
Organizations improve telecommuting success by rewarding level diversity, but it is evident
and promoting employees based on their performance rather in a person’s choices, words,
than their presence in the office (face time). Effective compa- and actions. Deep-level diver-
nies also help telecommuters maintain sufficient cohesion with sity is revealed when employees have different perceptions and
their team and psychological connectedness with the organiza- attitudes about the same situation (see Chapter 10) and when
tion. This occurs by limiting the number of telecommuting days, they form like-minded informal social groups (see
having special meetings or events where all employees assemble Chapter 7). Some deep-level diversity is associated with surface-
at the workplace, and regularly using video communication and level attributes. For example, studies report significant differ-
other technology that improves personal relatedness. ences between men and women regarding their preference of
Baby Millennials
Boomers (Gen Y)
Generation X
10 PART 1 | Introduction
evidence-based
management the practice
of making decisions and
The Systematic Research Anchor see if they actually work. In- taking actions based on
A key feature of OB knowledge is that it should be deed, some management research evidence
based on systematic research, which typically in- concepts have become pop-
volves forming research questions, systematically ular (some have even found their way into OB textbooks!)
collecting data, and testing hypotheses against those because of heavy marketing, not because of any evidence that
data.43 Systematic research investigation is the ba- they are valid. A fourth reason is that human beings are
sis for evidence-based management, which affected by several perceptual errors and decision-
involves making decisions and taking ac- making biases, as we will learn in Chapter 3 and
tions guided by research evidence. It Chapter 6. For instance, decision makers have a
makes perfect sense that management natural tendency to look for evidence
practice should be founded on the best that supports their pet beliefs and ig-
available systematic knowledge. Yet many nore evidence that opposes those
of us who study organizations using sys- beliefs.
tematic methods are amazed at how often OB experts have identified several ways to
corporate leaders and other staff embrace create a more evidence-based organization.45
fads, untested consulting models, and First, be skeptical of hype, which is apparent
their own pet beliefs without bothering when so-called experts say the idea is “new,”
to find out if they actually work!44 “revolutionary,” and “proven.” In reality, most
Why don’t decision makers consis- management ideas are adaptations, evolutionary,
tently apply evidence-based management? and never proven (science can disprove but never
One reason is that they are bombarded with prove; it can only find evidence to support a prac-
ideas from consultant reports, popular business tice). Second, the company should embrace collec-
books, newspaper articles, and other sources, tive expertise rather than rely on charismatic stars
which makes it difficult to figure out which and management gurus. Third, stories provide
ones are based on good evidence. A second useful illustrations and possibly preliminary evi-
reason is that good OB research is necessarily dence of a useful practice, but they should never
generic; it is rarely described in the context of become the main foundation to support manage-
a specific problem in a specific organi- ment action. Instead, rely on more sys-
zation. Decision makers therefore A key feature of OB knowledge is that it should tematic investigation with a larger
have the difficult task of figuring out be based on systematic research, which sample. Finally, take a neutral stance
which theories are relevant to their becomes the foundation for evidence-based toward popular trends and ideologies.
unique situation. management. Executives tend to get caught up in
©Wavebreakmedia Ltd PH26L/Alamy Stock Photo
A third reason why organizational what their counterparts at other com-
leaders follow popular management panies are doing without determining
fads that lack research evidence is because the sources of these the validity of those trendy practices or their relevance to their
fads are rewarded for marketing their ideas, not for testing to own organizations.
12 PART 1 | Introduction
organizational
effectiveness a broad
concept represented by
organizations.53 Indeed, the other major organizational effec- availability of future inputs,
several perspectives,
tiveness perspectives mainly provide more detail to specific sec- and the appropriateness of the including the organization’s fit
tions of the open systems model. This perspective views transformation process. with the external environment,
organizations as complex organisms that “live” within an exter- internal subsystems’
nal environment, as Exhibit 1.5 illustrates. The word open de- Organization–Environment configuration for high
scribes this permeable relationship, whereas closed systems Fit The open systems perspec- performance, emphasis on
operate without dependence on or interaction with an external tive states that organizations are organizational learning, and
environment. effective when they maintain a ability to satisfy the needs of
As open systems, organizations depend on the external envi- good “fit” with their external en- key stakeholders
ronment for resources, including raw materials, job applicants, vironment.55 Good fit exists
open systems a
financial resources, information, and equipment. The external when the organization’s inputs, perspective that holds that
environment also consists of rules and expectations, such as processes, and outputs are organizations depend on the
laws and cultural norms, that place demands on how organiza- aligned with the external envi- external environment for
tions should operate. Some resources (e.g., raw materials) are ronment’s needs, expectations, resources, affect that
imported from the external environment, are transformed into and resources. Organizations environment through their
product or services, and then become outputs exported to the maintain a good environmental output, and consist of internal
external environment. Other resources (e.g., job applicants, fit in three ways: subsystems that transform
equipment) become subsystems in the transformation process. inputs to outputs
• Adapt to the environment: Effec-
Inside the organization are numerous subsystems, such as tive organizations closely and
departments, teams, informal groups, information systems, continuously monitor the environ-
work processes, and technological processes.54 These subsys- ment for emerging conditions that pose a threat or opportunity. Then
tems are dependent on each other as they transform inputs they reconfigure their internal subsystems to align more closely with that
into outputs. Some outputs (e.g., products and services) may shifting environment. There are many ways that companies are adaptive
be valued by the external environment, whereas other outputs (called their dynamic capability), such as by changing the type or
(e.g., employee layoffs, pollution) are undesirable by-products volume of products produced, shifting to different input resources
that may have adverse effects on the environment and the or- that are more plentiful or reliable, and designing better production
ganization’s relationship with that environment. Throughout (transformation) processes.
this process, organizations receive feedback from the external • Influence the environment: Effective organizations don’t merely re-
environment regarding the value of their outputs, the spond to emerging conditions; they actively try to influence their
Subsystem
Accounting
Technological subsystem
tem
subsystem
sys
Sub
b
• Raw materials m
Su
yste
syst
Subs • Products/services
e
Engineering
Su
• Information
ys
te
• Community support
m
• Equipment
as m
ing
em
yst
bs ural
Production Su Cult tem
subsystem ys
subs
Socia
liza
subsy tion
stem
Feedback Feedback
environment. For instance, businesses rely on marketing to increase de- coordinating mechanisms to maintain an efficient, adaptive, and
mand for their products or services. Some firms gain exclusive rights to innovative transformation process (see Chapter 12).
particular resources (e.g., sole provider of a popular brand) or restrict
competitor access to valued resources. Still others lobby for legislation
that strengthens their position in the marketplace or try to delay legisla-
Organizational Learning Perspective
tion that would disrupt their business activities. The open systems perspective has traditionally focused on physi-
cal resources that enter the organization and are processed into
• Move to a more favorable environment: Sometimes the current envi- physical goods (outputs). But whether their outputs are physical
ronment becomes so challenging that organizations cannot adapt or in- or cognitive, successful companies rely on knowledge as a key
fluence it enough to survive. For instance, the current environment might
ingredient to success. This second perspective of organizational
have extreme resource scarcity, too many competitors, too little demand
for the firm’s products, or onerous rules that make the transformation
effectiveness, called organizational learning, states that the best
process too expensive. Under these circumstances, organizations often organizations find ways to acquire, share, use, and store knowl-
move to a more benevolent environment that can support their future. edge. Knowledge is a resource or asset, called intellectual capital,
For example, Target closed its Canadian business after a few years be- that exists in three forms: human capital, structural capital, and
cause it underestimated the competition, stumbled on the transforma- relationship capital.59
tion process (distribution and inventory challenges), and mismatched
• Human capital: Human capital refers to the knowledge, skills, and
consumer expectations (location, pricing).56
abilities that employees carry around in their heads. It is a competitive
advantage because employees are essential for the organization’s sur-
Effective Transformation Process In addition to maintain- vival and success, and their talents are difficult to find, to copy, and to
ing a good fit with the external environment, effective organiza- replace with technology.61 Human capital is also a huge risk for most or-
tions have a transformation process that does well at converting ganizations because it literally leaves the organization every day when
inputs to outputs.57 The most common indicator of effective in- employees go home!62
ternal subsystems is their efficiency. Efficient organizations pro- • Structural capital: Even if every employee left the organization, some
duce more goods or services with less labor, materials, and intellectual capital remains as structural capital. It includes the
14 PART 1 | Introduction
organizational intellectual capital a human capital the stock structural capital relationship capital
learning a perspective company’s stock of of knowledge, skills, and knowledge embedded in the value derived from an
that holds that organizational knowledge, including abilities among employees an organization’s systems organization’s relationships
effectiveness depends on human capital, structural that provide economic and structures with customers, suppliers,
the organization’s capacity capital, and relationship value to the organization and others
to acquire, share, use, and capital
store valuable knowledge
knowledge captured and retained in an organization’s systems and An organization’s intellectual capital develops and is main-
structures, such as the documented work procedures, physical layout of tained through the four organizational learning processes shown
production and office space, and the finished products (which can be in Exhibit 1.6: acquiring, sharing, using, and storing knowledge.65
reverse engineered to discover how they were made).63
• Relationship capital: Relationship capital is the value derived from
Acquiring Knowledge Acquiring knowledge refers to bring-
an organization’s relationships with customers, suppliers, and others
ing in knowledge from the external environment as well as
who provide added mutual value for the organization. It includes the or- through discovery. It occurs daily when employees casually ob-
ganization’s goodwill, brand image, and combination of relationships serve changes in the external environment as well as when they
that organizational members have with people outside the receive formal training from sources outside the organization.
organization.64 Knowledge acquisition also occurs through environmental
their organizational structure, workspace design, corporate cul- and patterns of behavior that are no longer appropriate.70 Un-
ture, and social activities.66 Company intranets and digital infor- learning removes knowledge that no longer adds value and, in
mation repositories also support knowledge sharing. fact, may undermine the organization’s effectiveness. Some
forms of unlearning involve replacing dysfunctional policies,
Using Knowledge Knowledge is a competitive advantage procedures, and routines. Other forms of unlearning erase atti-
only when it is applied to improve organizational processes. To tudes, beliefs, and assumptions that are no longer valid. Organi-
use knowledge, employees need a mental map (sense making) zational unlearning is particularly important for organizational
so they are aware the knowledge exists and know where to find change, which we discuss in Chapter 14.
it in the organization. Knowledge use also requires employees
with sufficient prerequisite knowledge and skills. For example, High-Performance Work
financial analysts need foundation knowledge in mathematics
and financial products to use new knowledge on asset valuation Practices Perspective
methods. Autonomy is another important condition for knowl- The open systems perspective states that successful companies
edge use; employees must have enough freedom to try out new are efficient and adaptive at transforming inputs into outputs.
ideas. Knowledge use also flourishes where workplace norms However, it does not offer guidance about specific subsystem
strongly support organizational learning. These beliefs and characteristics or organizational practices that make the trans-
norms represent a learning orientation, which we discuss fur- formation process more effective. These details are addressed by
ther on the topics of creativity (Chapter 6) and organizational another perspective of organizational effectiveness, called high-
culture (Chapter 13).68 performance work practices (HPWPs). The HPWP perspective
is founded on the belief that human capital—the knowledge,
Storing Knowledge Storing knowledge is the process of re- skills, and abilities that employees possess—is an important
taining knowledge for later retrieval. Stored knowledge, often source of competitive advantage for organizations.71 Motivated
called organizational memory, includes knowledge that employ- and skilled employees offer competitive advantage by transform-
ees recall as well as knowledge embedded in the organization’s ing inputs to outputs better, by being more sensitive to the exter-
systems and structures.69 Effective organizations also retain nal environment, and by having better relations with key
knowledge in human capital by motivating employees to stay stakeholders.
with the company. Furthermore, organizations encourage em- The HPWP perspective identifies specific ways to generate
ployees to share what they know so valuable knowledge is held the most value from human capital. The four most frequently
by coworkers when an employee does quit or retire. Another identified HPWP practices are employee involvement, job au-
strategy is to actively document knowledge when it is created by tonomy, competency development, and rewards for perfor-
debriefing teams on details of their knowledge of clients or prod- mance and competency development.72 Each of these four work
uct development. practices alone improves organizational effectiveness, but stud-
One last point about the organizational learning perspective: ies suggest that they have a stronger effect when bundled
effective organizations not only learn; they also unlearn routines together.73
16 PART 1 | Introduction
learning orientation
beliefs and norms that support
the acquisition, sharing, and
The first two factors—
use of knowledge as well as
involving employees in decision
work conditions that nurture
making and giving them more these learning processes
autonomy over their work
activities—strengthen employee high-performance work
motivation as well as improve practices (HPWPs) a
decisions, organizational re- perspective that holds that
sponsiveness, and commitment effective organizations
to change. In high-performance incorporate several workplace
practices that leverage the
workplaces, employee involve-
potential of human capital
ment and job autonomy often
take the form of self-directed
teams (see Chapter 7). The
third factor, employee competency development, refers to recruit-
ing, selecting, and training so employees are equipped with the
relevant knowledge and skills. The fourth high-performance work
practice is linking performance and skill development to various
The four most frequently identified HPWP practices are employee financial and nonfinancial rewards valued by employees.
involvement, job autonomy, competency development, and High-performance work practices improve an organization’s
rewards for performance and competency development. effectiveness in three ways.75 First, as we mentioned earlier,
©OPOLJA/Shutterstock
Sweden 3.0
Denmark 3.0
Norway 2.9
Austria 2.9
Patients
Customers Employees
Plasma
partners Stockholders
Health
professionals Suppliers
Research
CSL™
institutes Media
License Interest
partners groups
In-license Regulators
partners
Politicians Policy
makers
18 PART 1 | Introduction
values relatively stable, ethics the study of moral corporate social
evaluative beliefs that principles or values that responsibility
guide a person’s determine whether actions (CSR) organizational
organization’s environment, the organization’s
preferences for outcomes are right or wrong and activities intended to
culture, and the personal values of the corpo- or courses of action in a outcomes are good or bad benefit society and the
rate board and CEO. variety of situations environment beyond the
firm’s immediate financial
Values, Ethics, and Corporate Social interests or legal
Responsibility The stakeholder perspective obligations
provides valuable details about features of the
external environment that are missing from the
open systems perspective. Equally important, the stakeholder of earlier writing on those two topics. Ethics refers to the study
perspective incorporates values, ethics, and corporate social re- of moral principles or values that determine whether actions
sponsibility into the organizational effectiveness equation. As are right or wrong and outcomes are good or bad. We rely on
mentioned, personal values influence how corporate boards and our ethical values to determine “the right thing to do.” Ethical
CEOs allocate organizational resources to stakeholders.79 behavior is driven by the moral principles we use to make deci-
Values are relatively stable, evaluative beliefs that guide our sions. These moral principles represent fundamental values.
preferences for outcomes or courses of action in a variety of sit- One recent survey of 7,700 employed Millennials in 29 coun-
uations.80 Values help us know what is tries reported that 87 percent believe
right or wrong, or good or bad, in the “the success of a business should be
world. Chapter 2 explains how values Corporate social measured in terms of more than just
anchor our thoughts and to some extent its financial performance.” However,
motivate our actions.
responsibility is the view only 58 percent of them believe that
Although values exist within individ- that companies have a businesses “behave in an ethical man-
uals, groups of people often hold simi- contract with society, ner.”82 Chapter 2 discusses the main
lar values, so we tend to ascribe these influences on ethical decisions and be-
shared values to the team, department, in which they must havior in the workplace.
organization, profession, or entire soci- serve stakeholders Corporate social responsibility
ety. For example, Chapter 13 discusses (CSR) consists of organizational activi-
the importance and dynamics of organi-
beyond stockholders ties intended to benefit society and the
zational culture, which includes shared and customers. environment beyond the firm’s immedi-
values across the company. Many firms ate financial interests or legal obliga-
strive to become values-driven organiza- tions.83 It is the view that companies
tions, whereby employee decisions and behavior are guided have a contract with society, in which they must serve stakeholders
mainly by the collective values identified as critical to the orga- beyond stockholders and customers. In some situations, the inter-
nization’s success.81 ests of the firm’s stockholders should be secondary to those of
By focusing on values, the stakeholder perspective also other stakeholders.84 As part of CSR, many companies have ad-
highlights the importance of ethics and corporate social re- opted the triple-bottom-line philosophy: They try to support or
sponsibility. In fact, the stakeholder perspective emerged out “earn positive returns” in the economic, social, and environmen-
tal spheres of sustainability. Firms
that adopt the triple bottom line
aim to survive and be profitable
High Expectations for Corporate Social Responsibility 86 in the marketplace (economic),
but they also intend to maintain
20 PART 1 | Introduction
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.