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ORGANIZATIONAL
BEHAVIOR McSHANE | VON GLINOW

4th Edition
IN WHICH COUNTRIES INTROVERTS CAN WHAT IS YOUR

DO EMPLOYEES BE EFFECTIVE SOCIAL PREFERRED
HAVE THE HIGHEST NETWORKERS, TOO! MANAGERIAL
ORGANIZATIONAL CH 9 LEADERSHIP STYLE?
COMMITMENT? CH 11
CH 4
is Motivation. is Momentum. is Moving Forward. is McGraw-Hill.

Brief
Contents
part one Introduction 2
1 Introduction to the Field of Organizational Behavior 2
part two Individual Behavior and Processes 28

2 Individual Behavior, Personality, and 4 W
orkplace Emotions, Attitudes, and
Values 28 Stress 78
3 Perceiving Ourselves and Others in 5 Employee Motivation 106
Organizations 54 6 Decision Making and Creativity 136
part three Team Processes 160

7 Team Dynamics 160 10 C
onflict and Negotiation in the
8 Communicating in Teams and Workplace 232
Organizations 186 11 Leadership in Organizational Settings 256
9 Power and Influence in the Workplace 210
part four Organizational Processes 278

12 Designing Organizational Structures 278 14 Organizational Change 320
13 Organizational Culture 298
Indexes 341
vii
Contents
part one Introduction 2
1 Introduction to the ANCHORS OF ORGANIZATIONAL

BEHAVIOR KNOWLEDGE 10
Field of Organizational
Behavior 2 The Systematic Research Anchor 11
The Multidisciplinary Anchor 11
THE FIELD OF ORGANIZATIONAL The Contingency Anchor 12
BEHAVIOR 3 The Multiple Levels of Analysis
Historical Foundations of Anchor 12
Organizational Behavior 4 PERSPECTIVES OF ORGANIZATIONAL
Why Study Organizational EFFECTIVENESS 12
Behavior? 5
Open Systems Perspective 12
CONTEMPORARY DEVELOPMENTS Organizational Learning Perspective 14
FACING ORGANIZATIONS 6 High-Performance Work Practices
Technological Change 6 Perspective 16
Globalization 7 Stakeholder Perspective 18
Emerging Employment Connecting the Dots: An Integrative
Relationships 7 Model of Organizational
©Robert Kneschke/Shutterstock
Increasing Workforce Diversity 9 Behavior 20
Consequences of Diversity 9 THE JOURNEY BEGINS 21
part two Individual Behavior and Processes 28
2 Individual Behavior, TYPES OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR 32 Five-Factor Model of Personality 35

Personality, and Task Performance 32 Jungian Personality Theory
and the Myers-Briggs Type
Values 28 Organizational Citizenship 32
Indicator 38
Counterproductive Work Behaviors 33
MARS MODEL OF INDIVIDUAL Joining and Staying with the VALUES IN THE WORKPLACE 39
BEHAVIOR AND PERFORMANCE 29 Organization 33 Types of Values 40
Employee Motivation 29 Maintaining Work Attendance 33 Values and Individual Behavior 41
Ability 30 PERSONALITY IN ORGANIZATIONS 34 Values Congruence 42
Role Perceptions 30 Personality Determinants: Nature ETHICAL VALUES AND BEHAVIOR 42
Situational Factors 32 versus Nurture 35 Three Ethical Principles 43
viii
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT 91
Consequences of Affective and
Continuance Commitment 91
Building Organizational Commitment 92
WORK-RELATED STRESS AND ITS
MANAGEMENT 93
General Adaptation Syndrome 93
Consequences of Distress 94
Stressors: The Causes of Stress 94
Individual Differences in Stress 96
Managing Work-Related Stress 96
5 Employee Motivation 106

EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT 107
EMPLOYEE DRIVES AND NEEDS 108
Individual Differences in Needs 109
Four-Drive Theory 110
Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory 111
©PeopleImages/Digital Vision/Getty Images
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 112
Moral Intensity, Moral Sensitivity, and Attribution Theory 65 Learned Needs Theory 113
Situational Influences 43 Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 67 EXPECTANCY THEORY OF
Supporting Ethical Behavior 44 Other Perceptual Effects 68 MOTIVATION 114
VALUES ACROSS CULTURES 45 IMPROVING PERCEPTIONS 69 Applying Expectancy Theory 114
Individualism and Collectivism 45 Awareness of Perceptual Biases 69 ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
Power Distance 47 Improving Self-Awareness 69 MODIFICATION AND SOCIAL
Uncertainty Avoidance 47 COGNITIVE THEORY 116
Meaningful Interaction 70
Achievement-Nurturing Organizational Behavior
GLOBAL MINDSET: DEVELOPING
Orientation 47 Modification 116
PERCEPTIONS ACROSS BORDERS 71
Caveats about Cross-Cultural Social Cognitive Theory 117
Developing a Global Mindset 72
Knowledge 47 GOAL SETTING AND FEEDBACK 118
Characteristics of Effective Feedback 119
4 Workplace Emotions,
3 Perceiving Ourselves Sources of Feedback 120
Attitudes, and Stress 78
and Others in Evaluating Goal Setting and
Organizations 54 EMOTIONS IN THE WORKPLACE 79 Feedback 121
Types of Emotions 80 ORGANIZATIONAL JUSTICE 121
SELF-CONCEPT: HOW WE PERCEIVE
Emotions, Attitudes, and Behavior 81 Equity Theory 121
OURSELVES 55
Cognitive Dissonance 83 Procedural Justice 123
Self-Concept Complexity, Consistency,
Emotions and Personality 84
and Clarity 55
Self-Enhancement 57 MANAGING EMOTIONS AT WORK 85
Self-Verification 58 Emotional Display Norms across
Self-Evaluation 58 Cultures 85
The Social Self 59 Emotional Dissonance 85
Self-Concept and Organizational EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE 86
Behavior 60 Emotional Intelligence Outcomes and
PERCEIVING THE WORLD Development 87
AROUND US 61 JOB SATISFACTION 88
Perceptual Organization and Job Satisfaction and Work Behavior 88
Interpretation 62 Job Satisfaction and Performance 89
SPECIFIC PERCEPTUAL PROCESSES Job Satisfaction and Customer
AND PROBLEMS 63 Satisfaction 90
Stereotyping in Organizations 63 Job Satisfaction and Business Ethics 91 ©Elnur/Shutterstock
CONTENTS ix
JOB DESIGN 124 IDENTIFYING PROBLEMS AND EVALUATING DECISIONS 146
Job Design and Work Efficiency 124 OPPORTUNITIES 139 Escalation of Commitment 147
Scientific Management 125 Problems with Problem Identification 140 Evaluating Decision Outcomes More
Problems with Job Specialization 126 Identifying Problems and Opportunities Effectively 148
Job Design and Work Motivation 126 More Effectively 141
CREATIVITY 148
Job Design Practices That SEARCHING FOR, EVALUATING, AND The Creative Process 148
Motivate 128 CHOOSING ALTERNATIVES 141
Characteristics of Creative People 149
Problems with Goals 141 Organizational Conditions Supporting
6 Decision Making and Problems with Information Creativity 151
Creativity 136 Processing 141 Activities That Encourage
Problems with Maximization 143 Creativity 151
RATIONAL CHOICE DECISION
MAKING 137 Selecting Opportunities 144 EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT IN
Emotions and Making Choices 144 DECISION MAKING 152
Rational Choice Decision-Making
Process 139 Intuition and Making Choices 145 Benefits of Employee Involvement 153
Problems with Rational Choice Decision Making Choices More Effectively 145 Contingencies of Employee
Making 139 IMPLEMENTING DECISIONS 146 Involvement 153
part three Team Processes 160
7 Team Dynamics 160 TEAM PROCESSES 170 Workplace Communication through

Team Development 170 Social Media 191
TEAMS AND INFORMAL GROUPS 161 Nonverbal Communication 192
Team Norms 173
Informal Groups 162 CHOOSING THE BEST
Team Cohesion 174
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES Team Trust 175 COMMUNICATION CHANNEL 194
OF TEAMS 163 Synchronicity 194
SELF-DIRECTED TEAMS 176
The Challenges of Teams 164 Social Presence 194
Success Factors for Self-Directed
A MODEL OF TEAM Teams 176 Social Acceptance 194
EFFECTIVENESS 165 Media Richness 195
VIRTUAL (REMOTE) TEAMS 176
Organizational and Team Communication Channels and
Environment 166 Success Factors for Virtual
Persuasion 197
Teams 177
TEAM DESIGN ELEMENTS 167 COMMUNICATION BARRIERS
TEAM DECISION MAKING 178
Task Characteristics 167 (NOISE) 197
Constraints on Team Decision
Team Size 167 Information Overload 198
Making 178
Team Composition 168 CROSS-CULTURAL AND GENDER
Improving Creative Decision Making in
COMMUNICATION 199
Teams 179
Nonverbal Differences across
Cultures 200
Gender Differences in
8 Communicating in Teams
Communication 200
and Organizations 186
IMPROVING INTERPERSONAL
THE IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION 200
COMMUNICATION 187
Getting Your Message Across 201
A MODEL OF COMMUNICATION 188 Active Listening 201
Influences on Effective Encoding and IMPROVING COMMUNICATION
Decoding 189 THROUGHOUT THE HIERARCHY 202
COMMUNICATION CHANNELS 189 Workspace Design 202
Internet and Digital Internet-Based Organizational
Communication 190 Communication 203
Problems with Email and Other Digital Direct Communication with Top
©Moopixel/Shutterstock Message Channels 190 Management 203
x CONTENTS
COMMUNICATING THROUGH THE 10 Conflict and Negotiation
GRAPEVINE 204
in the Workplace 232
Grapevine Characteristics 204
THE MEANING AND CONSEQUENCES
Grapevine Benefits and
OF CONFLICT 233
Limitations 204
Is Conflict Good or Bad? 233
9 Power and Influence in THE EMERGING VIEW: TASK AND
RELATIONSHIP CONFLICT 235
the Workplace 210
Task Conflict 235
THE MEANING OF POWER 211 Relationship Conflict 235
SOURCES OF POWER IN Separating Task from Relationship
ORGANIZATIONS 212 Conflict 235
Legitimate Power 213 CONFLICT PROCESS MODEL 236
Reward Power 214 ©EllisDon Corporation
STRUCTURAL SOURCES OF CONFLICT
Coercive Power 214 IN ORGANIZATIONS 237
Expert Power 214 Incompatible Goals 237 TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP
Referent Power 215 Differentiation 237 PERSPECTIVE 258
CONTINGENCIES OF POWER 215 Interdependence 238 Develop and Communicate a Strategic
Scarce Resources 238 Vision 259
Substitutability 215
Ambiguous Rules 238 Model the Vision 260
Centrality 216
Communication Problems 238 Encourage Experimentation 260
Visibility 216
Build Commitment toward the
Discretion 216 INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT-
Vision 261
THE POWER OF SOCIAL HANDLING STYLES 239
Transformational Leadership and
NETWORKS 216 Choosing the Best Conflict-Handling
Charisma 261
Social Capital and Sources of Style 240
Evaluating the Transformational
Power 217 Cultural and Gender Differences in
Leadership Perspective 261
Gaining Power through Social Conflict-Handling Styles 242
MANAGERIAL LEADERSHIP
Networks 218 STRUCTURAL APPROACHES TO
PERSPECTIVE 262
CONSEQUENCES OF POWER 220 CONFLICT MANAGEMENT 242
Interdependence of Managerial and
Emphasizing Superordinate Goals 242
INFLUENCING OTHERS 221 Transformational Leadership 262
Reducing Differentiation 243
Types of Influence Tactics 221 Task-Oriented and People-Oriented
Improving Communication and Mutual
Consequences and Contingencies of Leadership 263
Understanding 243
Influence Tactics 224 Servant Leadership 263
Reducing Interdependence 244
ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS 226 Increasing Resources 244
PATH–GOAL AND LEADERSHIP
Minimizing Organizational SUBSTITUTES THEORIES 264
Clarifying Rules and Procedures 244
Politics 226 Path–Goal Leadership Theory 264
THIRD-PARTY CONFLICT
RESOLUTION 245 Leadership Substitutes Theory 266
Choosing the Best Third-Party IMPLICIT LEADERSHIP

Intervention Strategy 245 PERSPECTIVE 267
RESOLVING CONFLICT THROUGH Prototypes of Effective
NEGOTIATION 246 Leaders 267
The Romance of Leadership 268
Distributive versus Integrative
Approaches to Negotiation 246 PERSONAL ATTRIBUTES PERSPECTIVE
Preparing to Negotiate 247 OF LEADERSHIP 268
The Negotiation Process 248 Most Important Leadership
The Negotiation Setting 249 Attributes 268
Gender and Negotiation 250 Authentic Leadership 270
Personal Attributes Perspective
Limitations and Practical
11 Leadership in Implications 271
Organizational Settings 256 CROSS-CULTURAL AND GENDER
WHAT IS LEADERSHIP? 257 ISSUES IN LEADERSHIP 271
©Hero Images/Getty Images Shared Leadership 257 Gender and Leadership 271
CONTENTS xi
part four Organizational Processes 278
12 Designing Organizational DECIPHERING ORGANIZATIONAL ORGANIZATIONAL

CULTURE THROUGH ARTIFACTS 302 SOCIALIZATION 313
Structures 278
Organizational Stories and Learning and Adjustment
DIVISION OF LABOR AND Legends 303 Process 313
COORDINATION 279 Organizational Language 303 Stages of Organizational
Division of Labor 279 Rituals and Ceremonies 304 Socialization 313
Coordination of Work Activities 280 Physical Structures and Improving the Socialization
ELEMENTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL Symbols 304 Process 314
STRUCTURE 282 IS ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
Span of Control 282 IMPORTANT? 305
14 Organizational
Centralization and Decentralization 284 Meaning and Potential Benefits of a
Change 320
Formalization 285 Strong Culture 305
Mechanistic versus Organic Contingencies of Organizational LEWIN’S FORCE FIELD ANALYSIS
Structures 285 Culture and Effectiveness 305 MODEL 321
FORMS OF DEPARTMENTALIZATION 286 Organizational Culture and Business UNDERSTANDING RESISTANCE TO
Ethics 307 CHANGE 322
Simple Structure 286
Functional Structure 286 MERGING ORGANIZATIONAL Why Employees Resist
CULTURES 308 Change 323
Divisional Structure 287
Team-Based Structure 289 Bicultural Audit 308 UNFREEZING, CHANGING, AND
Matrix Structure 290 Strategies for Merging Different REFREEZING 325
Organizational Cultures 308 Creating an Urgency for
CONTINGENCIES OF
ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN 292 CHANGING AND STRENGTHENING Change 325
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE 310 Reducing the Restraining
External Environment 292
Model Desired Culture through the Forces 327
Organizational Size 293
Actions of Founders and Refreezing the Desired
Technology 293 Conditions 329
Leaders 310
Organizational Strategy 293
Align Artifacts with the Desired LEADERSHIP, COALITIONS, AND
Culture 311 PILOT PROJECTS 329
13 Organizational Culture 298 Introduce Culturally Consistent Transformational Leadership and
ELEMENTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL Rewards and Recognition 311 Change 329
CULTURE 299 Support Workforce Stability and Coalitions, Social Networks, and
Communication 312 Change 329
Espoused versus Enacted Values 299
Use Attraction, Selection, and Pilot Projects and Diffusion of
Content of Organizational Culture 300
Socialization for Cultural Fit 312 Change 331
Organizational Subcultures 302
TWO APPROACHES TO
ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE 331
Action Research Approach 332
Appreciative Inquiry Approach 333
CROSS-CULTURAL AND ETHICAL
ISSUES IN ORGANIZATIONAL
CHANGE 335
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR: THE
JOURNEY CONTINUES 335
Organization Index 341

Name Index 343
Glossary/Subject Index 356
©Jacob Lund/Shutterstock
xii CONTENTS
What’s New
in the Fourth Edition
M: Organizational Behavior, Fourth Edition, has been significantly Chapter 4: Workplace Emotions, Attitudes,
revised, guided by useful feedback from reviewers and our active and Stress
monitoring of evidence-based literature. All chapters have new
examples and either new or revised factoids; most chapters have This edition significantly revises and updates discussion on four key
new conceptual content or literature foundation. The most workplace stressors, with new writing about organizational
substantial changes have occurred in Chapter 1 (introduction to OB), constraints and interpersonal conflict as stressors. In addition, there
Chapter 4 (workplace emotions, attitudes, and stress), Chapter 6 is new content on attitude–behavior contingencies.
(decision making and creativity), Chapter 8 (communication), and
Chapter 10 (conflict and negotiation). The authors personally
researched, selected, and wrote all of this content, thereby Chapter 5: Employee Motivation
providing superior integration of knowledge and ensuring that the
New to this edition is the topic of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation,
examples are relevant and recent. Here are the key changes we’ve
as well as the question of whether introducing extrinsic sources of
made to this fourth edition, broken out by chapter:
motivation reduces intrinsic motivation. We also have reorganized
and refined the writing on drives and needs, Maslow’s needs
hierarchy, and four-drive theory. The previous edition introduced
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Field of the social and information processing characteristics of jobs. This
Organizational Behavior edition further refines that emerging topic.
Technological change has been added in the section on
contemporary developments facing organizations. The section on
perspectives of organizational effectiveness has been streamlined. Chapter 6: Decision Making and Creativity
Most topics have updated content, particularly the text on the four This chapter has been substantially revised and updated in several
contemporary developments, why study OB, and several aspects of ways. Design thinking now receives more attention as a concept
organizational effectiveness. and practice to improve workplace creativity. The topic of problems
with information processing when choosing alternatives also has
been substantially updated. Additional updates have been made to
Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, solution-focused problems, problems with goals, implicit favorite
and Values bias, and satisficing (problems with maximization).
Several topics in this chapter have been updated, particularly

coverage of the five-factor model of personality and work
performance, values and individual behavior, and moral
Chapter 7: Team Dynamics
sensitivity. This edition refines discussion introduced in the previous edition
on the three characteristics that distinguish types of teams. It
also offers more detail about social loafing, team mental models
Chapter 3: Perceiving Ourselves and Others (as part of team development), and team development through
in Organizations team building.
This book pioneered the full model of self-concept and its

relevance to organizational behavior. This edition further Chapter 8: Communicating in Teams and
develops this important topic and provides new information on
the opposing motives for distinctiveness and inclusion. The
Organizations
section on stereotyping also incorporates the concept of This edition substantially revises and updates the important topic of
stereotype threat. choosing the best communication medium. Specifically, this topic
xiii
discusses four key factors (synchronicity, social presence, social Chapter 11: Leadership in Organizational
acceptance, and media richness) as well as associated
Settings
contingencies to consider when choosing a communication
channel. This edition continues to shift the focus toward various This chapter, substantially revised in the previous edition, includes
forms of digital communication (less focus on email alone). Another updates on the topics of transformational leadership, comparing
noticeable change is the updated discussion on the characteristics transformational with managerial leadership, and evaluating
and benefits of enterprise social media. path–goal theory.
Chapter 9: Power and Influence Chapter 12: Designing Organizational

in the Workplace Structures
This chapter has been revised to include updates on span of
This chapter contains updates on topics including legitimate power,
control, problems with flatter structures, and types of divisional
visibility, and organizational politics.
structure. It also includes numerous new in-text examples of
companies that apply various forms of departmentalization.
Chapter 10: Conflict and Negotiation
in the Workplace Chapter 13: Organizational Culture
This edition substantially reorganizes and updates the entire In addition to replacing most examples and updating references, this
section on resolving conflict through negotiation. The new or chapter has revised content on the topics of espoused versus enacted
revised topics include distributive and integrative approaches values, content of organizational culture, types of organizational culture
to bargaining, understanding needs, bargaining zone dynamics, artifacts, adaptive cultures, the integration strategy for merging
how BATNA increases bargaining power, the importance of cultures, and how founders and leaders shape and strengthen culture.
listening, and strategies for making concessions. This edition
also introduces recent evidence about gender differences in
negotiation. Elsewhere in this chapter, we update the topics of
Chapter 14: Organizational Change
task and relationship conflict and problems resulting from This edition includes updates on understanding resistance to
relationship conflict. We also revised portions on the topic of change, social networks and viral change, and appreciative inquiry.
whether conflict is good or bad. As with other chapters, it also has several new real-world examples.
xiv
Organizational
Behavior
PART 1 1 Introduction to the Field of
Organizational Behavior
©Robert Kneschke/Shutterstock
Learning Objectives After you read this chapter, you should be able to:
LO1-1 Define organizational behavior and LO1-2 Debate the organizational LO1-3 Discuss the anchors on which
organizations, and discuss the importance opportunities and challenges of organizational behavior knowledge is
of this field of inquiry. technological change, globalization, based.
emerging employment relationships, and LO1-4 Compare and contrast the four
workforce diversity. perspectives of organizational
effectiveness.
2
organizational behavior
(OB) the study of what
A
people think, feel, and do in
pple and Amazon are the two most admired compa- self-concept, attitudes, etc.) to
and around organizations
the complex interplay between
nies in the world, according to Fortune magazine’s
the organization’s structure organizations groups
annual list. Yet neither of these firms was on any- and culture and its external of people who work
one’s radar screen two decades ago. Apple was on life support in the environment. Along this jour- interdependently toward
ney, we emphasize why things some purpose
late 1990s, barely clinging to a few percentage points of market happen and what you can do
share in the computer industry. Amazon started selling books online to predict and guide organiza-
tional events.
in 1995, a few months after its founder, Jeff Bezos, took a course
We begin this chapter by introducing you to the field of or-
from the American Booksellers Association on how to start a ganizational behavior and why it is important to your career
bookstore!1 and to organizations. This is followed by an overview of four
major societal developments facing organizations: technologi-
cal change, globalization, emerging employment relationships,
and increasing workforce diversity. We then describe four an-
The dramatic growth of Apple and Amazon illustrates the many chors that guide the development of organizational behavior
workplace activities that contribute to success in today’s turbu- knowledge. The latter part of this chapter describes the “ulti-
lent economic environment. In every sector of the economy, or- mate dependent variable” in organizational behavior by pre-
ganizations need skilled and motivated people who can realize senting the four main perspectives of organizational
their potential, work in teams, and maintain a healthy lifestyle. effectiveness. The chapter closes with an integrative model of
They need leaders with foresight and vision, who support inno- organizational behavior, which serves as a road map to guide
vative work practices and make decisions that consider the in- you through the topics in this book.
terests of multiple stakeholders. In other words, the best
companies succeed through the concepts and practices that we
discuss in this organizational behavior book.
Our purpose is to help you understand what goes on in orga- LO1-1 Define organizational behavior and organizations,
nizations. We examine the factors that make companies effec- and discuss the importance of this field of inquiry.
tive, improve employee well-being, and drive successful
collaboration among co-workers. We look at organizations from
numerous and diverse perspectives, from the deepest founda-
tions of employee thoughts and behavior (personality,
THE FIELD OF
The World’s Most ORGANIZATIONAL
Admired
The World’s Companies
Most Admired Companies2
BEHAVIOR
Organizational behavior (OB) is the study of what people
9b 1
think, feel, and do in and around organizations. It looks at
employee behavior, decisions, perceptions, and emotional re-
Microsoft (tied)
Apple
sponses. It examines how individuals and teams in organiza-
9a 2 tions relate to each other and to their counterparts in other
Amazon.com
Facebook (tied) organizations. OB also encompasses the study of how organi-
zations interact with their external environments, particularly
in the context of employee behavior and decisions. OB re-
8 3 searchers systematically study these topics at multiple levels of
Starbucks
Southwest Airlines analysis, namely, the individual, team (including interper-
sonal), and organization.3
The definition of organizational behavior begs the question:
7 4 What are organizations? Organizations are groups of people who
Berkshire Hathaway
General Electric work interdependently toward some purpose.4 Notice that organi-
zations are not buildings or government-registered entities. In
6 5 fact, many organizations exist with neither physical walls nor gov-
Disney
Alphabet (Google) ernment documentation to confer their legal status. Organizations
have existed for as long as people have worked together. Massive
temples dating back to 3500 bc were constructed through the
CHAPTER 1 | Introduction to the Field of Organizational Behavior 3

organized actions of multitudes of
people. Craftspeople and mer-
chants in ancient Rome formed
guilds, complete with elected man-
agers. More than 1,000 years ago,
Chinese factories were producing
125,000 tons of iron each year.5
One key feature of all organi-
zations throughout history is that
they are collective entities.6 They
consist of human beings—typically,
but not necessarily, employees—
who interact with each other in
an organized way. This organized
relationship requires communica-
tion, coordination, and collabora-
tion to achieve organizational
objectives. As such, all organiza-
tional members have degrees of
interdependence; they accom-
plish goals by sharing materials,
information, or expertise with
coworkers. One key feature of all organizations is that they consist of human beings who interact with each
A second key feature of orga- other in an organized way.
©Image Source
nizations is that their members
have a collective sense of pur-
pose. This collective purpose isn’t always well defined or agreed had changed the name of its MBA human relations course to
on. Most companies have vision and mission statements, but “Organizational Behavior.”
they are sometimes out of date or don’t describe what employ- Although the field of OB is recent, experts in other fields
ees actually try to achieve. Still, imagine an organization without have been studying organizations for many centuries. The Greek
a collective sense of purpose. It would be an assemblage of philosopher Plato (400 bc) wrote about the essence of
A company is one of humanity’s most amazing

inventions. . . . [It’s] this abstract construct we’ve
invented, and it’s incredibly powerful.7
—Steve Jobs, Apple and Pixar Animation cofounder
people without direction or unifying force. So, whether they are leadership, and the Chinese philosopher Confucius (500 bc)
designing and marketing the latest communication technology extolled the virtues of ethics and leadership. Economist Adam
at Apple or selling almost anything on the Internet at Amazon, Smith (late 1700s) discussed the benefits of job specialization
people working in organizations do have some sense of collec- and division of labor. German sociologist Max Weber (early
tive purpose. 1900s) wrote about rational organizations, the work ethic, and
charismatic leadership. Around the same time, industrial engi-
neer Frederick Winslow Taylor proposed systematic ways to or-
Historical Foundations of ganize work processes and motivate employees through goal
Organizational Behavior setting and rewards.9
Organizational behavior emerged as a distinct field sometime Political scientist Mary Parker Follett (1920s) offered new
around the early 1940s.8 During that decade, a few researchers ways of thinking about constructive conflict, team dynamics,
began describing their research as organizational (rather than power, and leadership. Harvard professor Elton Mayo and his
sociological or psychological). And by the late 1940s, Harvard colleagues (1930s and 1940s) established the “human relations”
4 PART 1 | Introduction
school of management, which pioneered re- Comprehend and Predict Workplace Events
search on employee attitudes, formal team Everyone has an inherent drive to make sense of
dynamics, informal groups, and supervisor what is going on around him or her.12 This need is
leadership style. American executive and Harvard particularly strong in organizations because they
associate Chester Barnard (1930s) wrote insight- are highly complex and ambiguous contexts that
ful views regarding organizational communica- have a profound effect on our lives. The field of
tion, coordination, leadership and authority, organizational behavior uses scientific research to
organizations as open systems, and team dynam- discover systematic relationships, which give us a
ics.10 This brief historical tour indicates that OB valuable foundation for comprehending organiza-
has been around for a long time; it just wasn’t tional life.13 This knowledge satisfies our curiosity
organized into a unified discipline until around about why events occur and reduces our anxiety
World War II. about circumstances that would otherwise be unex-
pected and unexplained. Furthermore, OB knowl-
Why Study Organizational edge improves our ability to predict and anticipate
Behavior? future events so we can get along with others,
achieve our goals, and minimize unnecessary
In all likelihood, you are reading this book as
career risks.
part of a required course in organizational be-
havior. Apart from degree or diploma require-
ments, why should you learn the ideas and Adopt More Accurate Personal Theories A
practices discussed in this book? After all, who Frederick Winslow Taylor frequent misunderstanding is that OB is common
©Paul Fearn/Alamy Stock Photo
ever heard of a career path leading to a “vice sense. Of course, some OB knowledge is very simi-
president of OB” or a “chief OB officer”? Our lar to the theories you have developed through per-
answer to this question begins with survey findings that stu- sonal experience. But personal theories are usually not quite as
dents who have been in the workforce for some time typically precise as they need to be. Perhaps they explain and predict some
point to OB as one of their most valuable courses. Why? Be- situations, but not others. For example, one study found that
cause they have learned through experience that OB does make when liberal arts students and chief executive officers were asked
a difference to one’s career success.11 There are three main rea- to choose the preferred organizational structure in various situa-
sons why OB theories and practices are personally important tions, their commonsense answers were typically wrong because
to you (see Exhibit 1.1). they oversimplified well-known theory and evidence on that
topic.14 (We discuss organizational structures in
Chapter 12.) Throughout this book you also will
Exhibit 1.1 Importance of Organizational Behavior discover that OB research has debunked some
ideas that people thought were “common sense.”
Overall, we believe the OB knowledge you will
gain by reading this book will help you challenge
and refine your personal theories, and give you
Comprehend and more accurate and complete perspectives of
Influence
predict work events
organizational events organizational events.
• Work well with others • Satisfy curiosity
• Accomplish personal • Reduce anxiety
and organizational
• Predict future events Influence Organizational Events Proba-
goals bly the greatest value of OB knowledge is that
Why Study it helps us get things done in the workplace by
Organizational influencing organizational events.15 By defini-
Behavior? tion, organizations are people who work to-
gether to accomplish things, so we need a
toolkit of knowledge and skills to work suc-
cessfully with others. Studies consistently ob-
Adopt more accurate
serve that the most important knowledge and
personal theories
skills that employers desire in employees re-
• Confirm and refine personal
theories
late to the topics we discuss in this book, such
• Correct false common sense as building teams, motivating coworkers, han-
dling workplace conflicts, making decisions,
and changing employee behavior. No matter
what career path you choose, you’ll find that

OB concepts play an important
role in performing your job and
working more effectively within
organizations.
Organizational Behavior Is
for Everyone Organizational
behavior is discussed by some
writers as a topic for managers.
Effective management does de-
pend on OB concepts and prac-
tices, but this book pioneered the
broader view that OB is valuable
for everyone who works in and
around organizations. Whether
you are a software engineer, cus-
tomer service representative, for-
eign exchange analyst, or chief Probably the greatest value of OB knowledge is that it helps us get things done in the workplace
executive officer, you need to by influencing organizational events.
understand and apply the many ©ColorBlind Images/Blend Images LLC
organizational behavior topics
that are discussed in this book. In fact, OB knowledge is probably
more valuable than ever before because employees increas- LO1-2 Debate the organizational opportunities and
ingly need to be proactive, self-motivated, and able to work challenges of technological change, globalization, emerging
effectively with coworkers without management intervention. employment relationships, and workforce diversity.
In the words of one forward-thinking OB writer more than four
decades ago: Everyone is a manager.16
OB and the Bottom Line Up to this point, our answer to CONTEMPORARY

DEVELOPMENTS
the question “Why study OB?” has focused on how organiza-
tional behavior knowledge benefits you as an individual.
However, OB is also vital to the organization’s survival and
success.17 For instance, the best 100 companies to work for in FACING ORGANIZATIONS
America (i.e., companies with the highest levels of employee Organizations are experiencing unprecedented change. Techno-
satisfaction) enjoy significantly higher financial performance logical developments, consumer expectations, global competi-
than other businesses within the same industry. Companies tion, and many other factors have substantially altered business
with higher levels of employee engagement have higher sales strategy and everyday workplace activities. The field of organiza-
and profitability (see Chapter 5). OB practices also are asso- tional behavior plays a vital role in guiding organizations
ciated with various indicators of hospital performance, such through this continuous turbulence. As we will explain in more
as lower patient mortality rates and higher patient satisfac- detail later in this chapter, organizations are deeply affected by
tion. Other studies have consistently found a positive rela- the external environment. Consequently, they need to maintain
tionship between the quality of leadership and the company’s a good organization–environment fit by anticipating and adjust-
financial performance. ing to changes in society. Over the next few pages, we introduce
The bottom-line value of organizational behavior is four major environmental developments facing organizations:
supported by research into the best predictors of investment technological change, globalization, emerging employment rela-
portfolio performance. These investigations suggest that tionships, and increasing workforce diversity.
leadership, performance-based rewards, employee develop-
ment, employee attitudes, and other specific OB characteris- Technological Change
tics are important “positive screens” for selecting companies Technological change has always been a disruptive force in orga-
with the highest and most consistent long-term investment nizations, as well as in society.19 Waterwheels, cotton gins, steam
gains.18 Overall, the organizational behavior concepts, theo- engines, microprocessors (such as in automated systems and
ries, and practices presented throughout this book make a artificial intelligence), and many other innovations dramatically
positive difference to you personally, to the organization, and boost productivity, but also usually displace employees and ren-
ultimately to society. der obsolete entire occupational groups. Other technologies,
globalization economic,
social, and cultural
connectivity with people in
such as the telegraph, smartphone, and the Internet, have in- globalize when they actively
other parts of the world
creased productivity but also altered work relationships and pat- participate in other countries
terns of behavior with coworkers, clients, and suppliers. Still and cultures. Although busi- work–life balance
other technologies aim to improve health and well-being, such as nesses have traded goods the degree to which a person
the development of better medicines and medical equipment, across borders for centuries, minimizes conflict between
new leisure apparatus, and environmentally safer materials. the degree of globalization to- work and nonwork demands
Information technology is one of the most significant forms day is unprecedented because
of technological change in recent times.20 As we discuss in information technology and
Chapter 8, communication patterns and power dynamics have transportation systems allow a much more intense level of con-
substantially changed due to the introduction of email and nectivity and interdependence around the planet.22
other forms of digital messaging. Social media and other col- Globalization offers numerous benefits to organizations in
laboration technologies are slowly replacing email, and will fur- terms of larger markets, lower costs, and greater access to
ther reshape how people associate and coordinate with each knowledge and innovation. At the same time, there is consider-
other. Some OB experts argue that information technology able debate about whether globalization benefits developing na-
gives employees a stronger voice through direct communica- tions and the extent to which it is responsible for increasing
tion with executives and broader distribution of their opinions work intensification, reduced job security, and poor work–life
to coworkers and beyond. balance in developed countries.23
Information technology also has created challenges, such as The field of organizational behavior focuses on the effects of
tethering people to their jobs for longer hours, reducing their globalization on organizations and how to lead and work effec-
attention spans at work, and increasing techno-stress. We dis- tively in this emerging reality. Throughout this book, we will refer
cuss these concerns below and in Chapter 4 (workplace stress). to the effects of globalization on teamwork, diversity, cultural val-
At a macro-level, information technology has reconfigured en- ues, organizational structure, leadership, and other themes. Glo-
tire organizations by integrating suppliers and other external balization has brought more complexity and new ways of working
entities into the transformation process. Eventually, technology to the workplace. It also requires additional knowledge and skills
may render organizations less of a place where people work and that we will discuss in this book, such as emotional intelligence, a
more of a process or network where people collaborate across global mindset, nonverbal communication, and conflict handling.
space and time (see Chapter 12).
Emerging Employment Relationships

Globalization Technology, globalization, and several other developments
Globalization refers to economic, social, and cultural connectiv- have substantially altered the employment relationship in most
ity with people in other parts of the world. Organizations countries. Before the digital age, most employees would finish
work after eight or nine hours and
could separate their personal time from
Social Media Technology Reshapes the Workplace21 their employment. Today, they are
more likely to be connected to work on
21% of 2,027 employed

American adults say they spend between
58% of 1,000 American
employees polled say they would
a 24/7 schedule. Globalization in-
creases competitive pressure to work
longer and creates a 24-hour schedule
1 and 6 hours using social media tools or prefer to work at a company that because coworkers, suppliers, and cli-
mobile applications to help get their job uses internal (enterprise) social
ents work in different time zones. Infor-
done. media.
mation technology enables employers
42%
and others to easily and quickly com-
46 % of 9,908 information
workers polled across 32 countries say
of 9,908
information workers polled across
municate with employees beyond their
traditional workday.
that social media tools have somewhat 32 countries say that social media
Little wonder that one of the most im-
or greatly increased their productivity. tools have resulted in more portant employment issues over the past
workplace collaboration. decade has been work–life balance.
Work–life balance occurs when people
are able to minimize conflict between
60
their work and nonwork demands.24
% of 2,186 American hiring and human resource Most employees lack this balance be-
managers say they use social media sites to research job cause they spend too many hours each
candidates (up from 52% the previous year and 11% in 2006). week performing or thinking about their
(photo): ©pictafolio/E+/Getty Images job, whether at the workplace, at home,

telecommuting an
arrangement whereby,
supported by information
or on vacation. This focus on
technology, employees work
work leaves too little time to Exhibit 1.2 Potential Benefits and Risks of
from home one or more work
fulfill nonwork needs and obli- Telecommuting
days per month rather than
commute to the office gations. Our discussion of
work-related stress (Chapter 4) Potential Benefits Potential Risks
will examine work–life bal- • B
etter employee work–life • More social isolation
ance issues in more detail. balance • Lower team cohesion
Another employment relationship trend is for employees to • A
ttractive benefit for job • Weaker organizational culture
work away from the organization’s traditional common work applicants
site.25 One form of this remote work arrangement involves per- • M
ore stressful due to home
• Low employee turnover space and roles
forming most job duties at client sites throughout the day. Re- • Higher employee productivity
pair technicians and management consultants regularly work at
• R
educed greenhouse gas
client sites, for example. Longer-term remote work occurs emissions
where employees are assigned to partner organizations. For in-
• R
educed corporate real
stance, biotechnology firm Anteo Diagnostics dispatches its estate and office costs
scientists for several weeks or months to partner companies
around the world, where they jointly investigate the effective-
ness of Anteo’s patented nano glue products on the partner
firm’s point-of-care technology.
Telecommuting The best-known form of remote work is several potential benefits and risks (see Exhibit 1.2).27 One ad-
telecommuting (also called teleworking) whereby information vantage is that telecommuters usually experience better work–
technology enables employees to work from home one or more life balance because they have more time and somewhat more
workdays per month rather than commute to the office. An esti- control to juggle work with family obligations. For example, a
mated 37 percent of U.S. workers telecommute, with almost study of 25,000 IBM employees found that female telecommut-
one-third of them working from home at least six days each ers with children were able to work 40 hours per week, whereas
month. The U.S. government reports that 23 percent of employ- female employees with children who work solely at the office
ees perform some or all of their work at home (but that includes could manage only 30 hours before feeling work–life balance
taking work home after attending the office, not just tension. Work–life balance is less likely to improve when tele-
telecommuting).26 commuters lack sufficient workspace and privacy at home and
Is telecommuting good for employees and organizations? have increased family responsibilities on telecommuting days.
This question continues to be debated because it produces Job applicants—particularly millennials—identify telecommut-
ing as an attractive job feature, and turnover is usually lower
among telecommuting employees. Research also indicates that
telecommuters have higher productivity than nontelecommuters,
likely because they experience less stress and tend to transfer
some former commuting time to work time. Telecommuting also
improves productivity by enabling employees to work at times
when the weather or natural disasters block access to the office.
Several companies report that telecommuting has reduced
greenhouse gas emissions and office expenses. For instance,
health insurer Aetna estimates that its telecommuting employ-
ees (31 percent of the workforce) annually avoid using two mil-
lion gallons of gas, thereby reducing carbon dioxide emissions
by more than 23,000 metric tons. With many employees work-
ing from home, Aetna also has been able to reduce its real estate
and related costs by between 15 and 25 percent.28
Telecommuting also has several disadvantages.29 Telecom-
muters frequently report more social isolation. They also receive
less word-of-mouth information, which may have implications
for promotional opportunities and workplace relations. Tele-
Most employees lack work–life balance because they spend
commuting also tends to weaken relationships among cowork-
too many hours each week performing or thinking about their ers, resulting in lower team cohesion. Organizational culture is
job, whether at the workplace, at home, or on vacation. also potentially weaker when most employees work from home
©ALMAGAMI/Shutterstock for a significant part of their workweek.
surface-level diversity
the observable demographic
or physiological differences in
Telecommuting success depends on several characteristics of (currently 18 percent), 14 percent
people, such as their race,
the employee, job, and organization.30 Employees who work will be of Asian descent (cur-
ethnicity, gender, age, and
effectively from home typically have higher self-motivation, self- rently 6 percent), and 13 per- physical disabilities
organization, need for autonomy, and information technology cent will be African American
skills. Those who telecommute most of the time also fulfill their (currently 14 percent).32 deep-level diversity
social needs more from sources outside the workplace. Jobs are Diversity also includes dif- differences in the
better suited to telecommuting when the tasks do not require ferences in personalities, be- psychological characteristics
resources at the workplace, the work is performed independently liefs, values, and attitudes.33 of employees, including
from coworkers, and task performance is measurable. We can’t directly see this deep- personalities, beliefs, values,
and attitudes
Organizations improve telecommuting success by rewarding level diversity, but it is evident
and promoting employees based on their performance rather in a person’s choices, words,
than their presence in the office (face time). Effective compa- and actions. Deep-level diver-
nies also help telecommuters maintain sufficient cohesion with sity is revealed when employees have different perceptions and
their team and psychological connectedness with the organiza- attitudes about the same situation (see Chapter 10) and when
tion. This occurs by limiting the number of telecommuting days, they form like-minded informal social groups (see
having special meetings or events where all employees assemble Chapter 7). Some deep-level diversity is associated with surface-
at the workplace, and regularly using video communication and level attributes. For example, studies report significant differ-
other technology that improves personal relatedness. ences between men and women regarding their preference of
Employees who work effectively from home typically have

higher self-motivation, self-organization, need for autonomy,
and information technology skills.
conflict-handling styles, ethical

principles, and approaches to
communicating with other
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1.1: Are You a Good Telecommuter? people in various situations.34
Telecommuting is an increasingly popular workplace relationship, and it An example of deep-level di-
potentially offers benefits for both companies and telecommuters. However, some versity is the variations in beliefs
people are better suited than others to telecommuting and other forms of remote and expectations across genera-
work. You can discover how well you adjust to telecommuting and remote work tions.35 Exhibit 1.3 illustrates the
by locating this self-assessment in Connect if it is assigned by your instructor. distribution of the American
workforce by major generational
cohorts: Baby Boomers (born
from 1946 to 1964), Generation
Increasing Workforce Diversity Xers (born from 1965 to 1980), and Millennials (also called Genera-
Immigrants to the United States and many other countries have tion Yers, born between 1981 and 1997).
much more multicultural origins than a few decades ago, result- Generational deep-level diversity does exist to some extent, but
ing in a much more diverse workforce in most organizations. In it tends to be subtler than the popular press would suggest. Also,
addition, globalization has increased the diversity of people em- some generational differences are actually due to age, not co-
ployees interact with in partner organizations (suppliers, clients, hort.37 For instance, Millennials have a stronger motivation for
etc.) located elsewhere in the world. personal development, advancement, and recognition, whereas
When discussing workforce diversity, we usually think about Baby Boomers are more motivated by interesting and meaningful
surface-level diversity—the observable demographic and other work. Research indicates that as Millennials age, their motivation
overt differences among members of a group, such as their race, for learning and advancement will wane and their motivation for
ethnicity, gender, age, and physical capabilities.31 Surface-level di- interesting and meaningful work will increase.
versity in the United States and many other countries has in-
creased substantially over the past few decades. For instance, Consequences of Diversity
people with non-Caucasian or Hispanic origin currently represent Workforce diversity offers numerous advantages to organiza-
almost 40 percent of the American population. Within the next tions.38 Teams with high informational diversity—members have
50 years, an estimated one-quarter of Americans will be Hispanic different knowledge and skills—tend to be more creative and

Exhibit 1.3 America’s Multigenerational Workforce36 OB THEORY TO PRACTICE
Generation Z Silents
(Linkster) Diversity as Competitive Advantage
at MasterCard
Baby Millennials
Boomers (Gen Y)
Generation X
©Pau Barrena/Bloomberg/Getty Images
Supporting workforce diversity is the right thing to do as well as a source

Note: Percentage of U.S. workforce by age group, based on data of competitive advantage at MasterCard Incorporated. “Our culture of
from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. “Silents” represent the inclusion has established us as a global company of empowered em-
generation of employees born before 1946. Generation Zers (also ployees who use their diversity of thought, experience and background
called Linksters) were born after 1997. to advance innovation and MasterCard’s contributions to society,” says
MasterCard president and CEO Ajay Banga (shown in this photo).
Banga personally chairs MasterCard’s Global Diversity and Inclu-
sion Council and meets several times each year with its eight Busi-
ness Resource Groups. More than half of MasterCard’s employees
make better decisions in complex situations compared to teams participate in these diversity-based groups, which serve as internal
with less informational diversity. A workforce with surface- and business consultants to guide the company on consumer prefer-
deep-level diversity is also more representative of most commu- ences, cultural insights, and access to networks. “By valuing a culture
nities, so companies are better able to recognize and address of inclusion, we gain additional insights and perspectives that allow
community needs. These and other benefits may explain why us to make the best decisions for our business and customers,” ex-
plains Donna Johnson, MasterCard’s chief diversity officer.41
companies that win diversity awards have higher financial re-
turns, at least in the short run.39
Diversity also poses challenges in the workplace.40 One prob-
lem is that employees with diverse backgrounds usually take lon-
ger to perform effectively together because they experience LO1-3 Discuss the anchors on which organizational
numerous communication problems and create “faultlines” in behavior knowledge is based.
informal group dynamics (see Chapter 7). Some forms of diver-
sity also increase the risk of dysfunctional conflict, which re-
duces information sharing and satisfaction with coworkers (see
Chapter 10). Research suggests that these problems can offset
ANCHORS OF
the advantages of diversity in some situations. ORGANIZATIONAL
But even with these challenges, companies need to make diver-
sity a priority because surface-level diversity and some forms of BEHAVIOR KNOWLEDGE
deep-level diversity are moral and legal imperatives. Companies Technological change, globalization, emerging employment re-
that offer an inclusive workplace are, in essence, fulfilling the ethi- lationships, and increasing workforce diversity are just a few of
cal standard of fairness in their decisions regarding employment the societal changes that make organizational behavior knowl-
and the allocation of rewards. Inclusive workplace practices im- edge more useful than ever before. To understand these and
prove the quality of hiring and promotion, and increase employee other topics, the field of organizational behavior relies on a set
satisfaction and loyalty. Companies that create an inclusive work- of basic beliefs or knowledge structures (see Exhibit 1.4). These
place also nurture a culture of respect, which, in turn, improves conceptual anchors represent the principles on which OB
cooperation and coordination among employees. knowledge is developed and refined.42
evidence-based
management the practice
of making decisions and
The Systematic Research Anchor see if they actually work. In- taking actions based on
A key feature of OB knowledge is that it should be deed, some management research evidence
based on systematic research, which typically in- concepts have become pop-
volves forming research questions, systematically ular (some have even found their way into OB textbooks!)
collecting data, and testing hypotheses against those because of heavy marketing, not because of any evidence that
data.43 Systematic research investigation is the ba- they are valid. A fourth reason is that human beings are
sis for evidence-based management, which affected by several perceptual errors and decision-
involves making decisions and taking ac- making biases, as we will learn in Chapter 3 and
tions guided by research evidence. It Chapter 6. For instance, decision makers have a
makes perfect sense that management natural tendency to look for evidence
practice should be founded on the best that supports their pet beliefs and ig-
available systematic knowledge. Yet many nore evidence that opposes those
of us who study organizations using sys- beliefs.
tematic methods are amazed at how often OB experts have identified several ways to
corporate leaders and other staff embrace create a more evidence-based organization.45
fads, untested consulting models, and First, be skeptical of hype, which is apparent
their own pet beliefs without bothering when so-called experts say the idea is “new,”
to find out if they actually work!44 “revolutionary,” and “proven.” In reality, most
Why don’t decision makers consis- management ideas are adaptations, evolutionary,
tently apply evidence-based management? and never proven (science can disprove but never
One reason is that they are bombarded with prove; it can only find evidence to support a prac-
ideas from consultant reports, popular business tice). Second, the company should embrace collec-
books, newspaper articles, and other sources, tive expertise rather than rely on charismatic stars
which makes it difficult to figure out which and management gurus. Third, stories provide
ones are based on good evidence. A second useful illustrations and possibly preliminary evi-
reason is that good OB research is necessarily dence of a useful practice, but they should never
generic; it is rarely described in the context of become the main foundation to support manage-
a specific problem in a specific organi- ment action. Instead, rely on more sys-
zation. Decision makers therefore A key feature of OB knowledge is that it should tematic investigation with a larger
have the difficult task of figuring out be based on systematic research, which sample. Finally, take a neutral stance
which theories are relevant to their becomes the foundation for evidence-based toward popular trends and ideologies.
unique situation. management. Executives tend to get caught up in
©Wavebreakmedia Ltd PH26L/Alamy Stock Photo
A third reason why organizational what their counterparts at other com-
leaders follow popular management panies are doing without determining
fads that lack research evidence is because the sources of these the validity of those trendy practices or their relevance to their
fads are rewarded for marketing their ideas, not for testing to own organizations.
Exhibit 1.4 Anchors of Organizational Behavior Knowledge The Multidisciplinary

Systematic research Study organizations using systematic research
Anchor
anchor methods Another organizational behavior anchor is
that the field should welcome theories and
knowledge from other disciplines, not just
Multidisciplinary Import knowledge from other disciplines, not just from its own isolated research base. For in-
anchor create its own knowledge stance, psychological research has aided our
understanding of individual and interper-
sonal behavior. Sociologists have contrib-
Contingency Recognize that the effectiveness of an action may uted to our knowledge of team dynamics,
anchor depend on the situation organizational socialization, organizational
power, and other aspects of the social sys-
tem. OB knowledge also has benefited from
Multiple levels of Understand OB events from three levels of
knowledge in emerging fields such as com-
analysis anchor analysis: individual, team, organization
munications, marketing, and information
systems.

Although OB research and writing peg each variable within
OB THEORY TO PRACTICE one of these levels of analysis, most variables are understood
best by thinking of them from all three levels of analysis.49 Com-
Creating an Evidence-Based munication is located in this book as a team (interpersonal) pro-
cess, for instance, but it also includes individual and
Management Organization
organizational processes. Therefore, you should try to think
1. Be skeptical of hyped management practices (“new,” “revolu- about each OB topic at the individual, team, and organizational
tionary,” “proven”). levels, not just at one of these levels.
2. Embrace collective expertise, not charismatic stars or manage-
ment gurus.
3. Use stories as examples and ideas, not conclusive evidence.
LO1-4 Compare and contrast the four perspectives of
4. Take a neutral stance to popular trends and ideologies. organizational effectiveness.
This practice of borrowing theory from other disciplines is

inevitable. Organizations have central roles in society, so they
are studied in many social sciences. Furthermore, organizations
PERSPECTIVES OF
consist of people who interact with each other, so there is an
inherent intersection between OB and most disciplines that
ORGANIZATIONAL
study human beings. However, by relying too much on theories EFFECTIVENESS
developed in other fields, OB faces the risk of lagging rather Almost all organizational behavior theories have the implicit or
than leading in knowledge production. In contrast, OB-bred explicit objective of making organizations more effective.50 In
theories allow researchers to concentrate on the quality and use- fact, organizational effectiveness is considered the “ultimate
fulness of the theory, and be the first to understand and apply dependent variable” in organizational behavior.51 This means
that knowledge.46 that organizational effectiveness is the outcome that most OB
theories are ultimately trying to achieve. Many theories use dif-
The Contingency Anchor ferent labels—organizational performance, success, goodness,
People and their work environments are complex, and the field health, competitiveness, excellence—but they are basically pre-
of organizational behavior recognizes this by stating that the ef- senting models and recommendations that help organizations to
fect of one variable on another variable often depends on the be more effective.
characteristics of the situation or people involved. In practice, Many years ago, OB experts thought the best indicator of a
this means that we can’t count on having the same result in ev- company’s effectiveness was how well it achieved its stated ob-
ery situation when we apply an intervention. Instead, a particu- jectives. According to this definition, Delta Air Lines would be
lar action may have different consequences under different an effective organization if it met or exceeded its annual sales
conditions.47 For example, earlier in this chapter we said that and profit targets. Today, we know that this goal perspective
the success of telecommuting depends on specific characteris- might not indicate organizational effectiveness at all. Any lead-
tics of the employee, job, and organization. Contingencies are ership team could set corporate goals that are easy to achieve,
identified in many OB theories, such as the best leadership style, yet the company would be left in the dust by competitors’ more
the best conflict-handling style, and the best organizational aggressive objectives. Worse still, some goals might ultimately
structure. Of course, it would be so much simpler if we could put the company out of business. For example, they may focus
rely on “one best way” theories, in which a particular concept or employees on reducing costs whereas success may require more
practice has the same results in every situation. OB experts do focus on product or service quality.
try to keep theories as simple as possible, but the contingency The best yardstick of organizational effectiveness is a compos-
anchor is always on their mind.48 ite of four perspectives: open systems, organizational learning,
high-performance work practices, and stakeholders.52 Organiza-
The Multiple Levels of Analysis Anchor tions are effective when they have a good fit with their external
Organizational behavior recognizes that what goes on in organi- environment, are learning organizations, have efficient and adap-
zations can be placed into three levels of analysis: individual, tive internal subsystems (i.e., high-performance work practices),
team (including interpersonal), and organization. In fact, ad- and satisfy the needs of key stakeholders. Over the next few
vanced empirical research currently being conducted carefully pages, we examine each of these perspectives in more detail.
identifies the appropriate level of analysis for each variable in
the study and then measures at that level of analysis. For exam- Open Systems Perspective
ple, team norms and cohesion are measured as team variables, The open systems perspective of organizational effectiveness is
not as characteristics of individuals within each team. one of the earliest and most-entrenched ways of thinking about
organizational
effectiveness a broad
concept represented by
organizations.53 Indeed, the other major organizational effec- availability of future inputs,
several perspectives,
tiveness perspectives mainly provide more detail to specific sec- and the appropriateness of the including the organization’s fit
tions of the open systems model. This perspective views transformation process. with the external environment,
organizations as complex organisms that “live” within an exter- internal subsystems’
nal environment, as Exhibit 1.5 illustrates. The word open de- Organization–Environment configuration for high
scribes this permeable relationship, whereas closed systems Fit The open systems perspec- performance, emphasis on
operate without dependence on or interaction with an external tive states that organizations are organizational learning, and
environment. effective when they maintain a ability to satisfy the needs of
As open systems, organizations depend on the external envi- good “fit” with their external en- key stakeholders
ronment for resources, including raw materials, job applicants, vironment.55 Good fit exists
open systems a
financial resources, information, and equipment. The external when the organization’s inputs, perspective that holds that
environment also consists of rules and expectations, such as processes, and outputs are organizations depend on the
laws and cultural norms, that place demands on how organiza- aligned with the external envi- external environment for
tions should operate. Some resources (e.g., raw materials) are ronment’s needs, expectations, resources, affect that
imported from the external environment, are transformed into and resources. Organizations environment through their
product or services, and then become outputs exported to the maintain a good environmental output, and consist of internal
external environment. Other resources (e.g., job applicants, fit in three ways: subsystems that transform
equipment) become subsystems in the transformation process. inputs to outputs
• Adapt to the environment: Effec-
Inside the organization are numerous subsystems, such as tive organizations closely and
departments, teams, informal groups, information systems, continuously monitor the environ-
work processes, and technological processes.54 These subsys- ment for emerging conditions that pose a threat or opportunity. Then
tems are dependent on each other as they transform inputs they reconfigure their internal subsystems to align more closely with that
into outputs. Some outputs (e.g., products and services) may shifting environment. There are many ways that companies are adaptive
be valued by the external environment, whereas other outputs (called their dynamic capability), such as by changing the type or
(e.g., employee layoffs, pollution) are undesirable by-products volume of products produced, shifting to different input resources
that may have adverse effects on the environment and the or- that are more plentiful or reliable, and designing better production
ganization’s relationship with that environment. Throughout (transformation) processes.
this process, organizations receive feedback from the external • Influence the environment: Effective organizations don’t merely re-
environment regarding the value of their outputs, the spond to emerging conditions; they actively try to influence their
Exhibit 1.5 Open Systems Perspective of Organizations

External Environment External Environment
Subsystem
Accounting
Technological subsystem
tem
subsystem
sys
Sub
b
• Raw materials m
Su
yste
syst
Subs • Products/services
e
• Human resources Organization

m
Engineering
Su
subsystem • Shareholder dividends

Transforming inputs to outputs
bs
• Information
ys
te
• Community support
m
• Financial resources Managerial Marketing/Sales

Pu bsys
Subsystem subsystem subsystem • Waste/pollution

su
rch te
• Equipment
as m
ing
em
yst
bs ural
Production Su Cult tem
subsystem ys
subs
Socia
liza
subsy tion
stem
Feedback Feedback

energy. Another indicator is their adaptability. Organizations
need to adapt to their external environment, and this usually in-
cludes a transformation process that adapts to new products
and sometimes new ways of making those products. A third in-
dicator of an effective transformation process is innovativeness.
Innovation involves the discovery, design, and creation of prod-
ucts and work processes that are superior to what competitors
can offer.
An important feature of an effective transformation process is
how well the internal subsystems coordinate with each
other.58 Coordination is one of the most important OB concepts
because organizations consist of people working together to
achieve collective goals. As companies grow, they develop in-
creasingly complex subsystems, which makes coordination more
and more difficult. Complexity increases the risk that informa-
tion gets lost, ideas and resources are hoarded, messages are mis-
interpreted, and rewards are distributed unfairly. Subsystems are
The open systems perspective states that organizations are interconnected, so small work practice changes in one subsystem
effective when they maintain a good “fit” with their external may ripple through the organization and undermine the effective-
environment. ness of other subsystems. Consequently, organizations rely on
©Palto/Getty Images
An important feature of an effective transformation

process is how well the internal subsystems
coordinate with each other.
environment. For instance, businesses rely on marketing to increase de- coordinating mechanisms to maintain an efficient, adaptive, and
mand for their products or services. Some firms gain exclusive rights to innovative transformation process (see Chapter 12).
particular resources (e.g., sole provider of a popular brand) or restrict
competitor access to valued resources. Still others lobby for legislation
that strengthens their position in the marketplace or try to delay legisla-
Organizational Learning Perspective
tion that would disrupt their business activities. The open systems perspective has traditionally focused on physi-
cal resources that enter the organization and are processed into
• Move to a more favorable environment: Sometimes the current envi- physical goods (outputs). But whether their outputs are physical
ronment becomes so challenging that organizations cannot adapt or in- or cognitive, successful companies rely on knowledge as a key
fluence it enough to survive. For instance, the current environment might
ingredient to success. This second perspective of organizational
have extreme resource scarcity, too many competitors, too little demand
for the firm’s products, or onerous rules that make the transformation
effectiveness, called organizational learning, states that the best
process too expensive. Under these circumstances, organizations often organizations find ways to acquire, share, use, and store knowl-
move to a more benevolent environment that can support their future. edge. Knowledge is a resource or asset, called intellectual capital,
For example, Target closed its Canadian business after a few years be- that exists in three forms: human capital, structural capital, and
cause it underestimated the competition, stumbled on the transforma- relationship capital.59
tion process (distribution and inventory challenges), and mismatched
• Human capital: Human capital refers to the knowledge, skills, and
consumer expectations (location, pricing).56
abilities that employees carry around in their heads. It is a competitive
advantage because employees are essential for the organization’s sur-
Effective Transformation Process In addition to maintain- vival and success, and their talents are difficult to find, to copy, and to
ing a good fit with the external environment, effective organiza- replace with technology.61 Human capital is also a huge risk for most or-
tions have a transformation process that does well at converting ganizations because it literally leaves the organization every day when
inputs to outputs.57 The most common indicator of effective in- employees go home!62
ternal subsystems is their efficiency. Efficient organizations pro- • Structural capital: Even if every employee left the organization, some
duce more goods or services with less labor, materials, and intellectual capital remains as structural capital. It includes the
organizational intellectual capital a human capital the stock structural capital relationship capital
learning a perspective company’s stock of of knowledge, skills, and knowledge embedded in the value derived from an
that holds that organizational knowledge, including abilities among employees an organization’s systems organization’s relationships
effectiveness depends on human capital, structural that provide economic and structures with customers, suppliers,
the organization’s capacity capital, and relationship value to the organization and others
to acquire, share, use, and capital
store valuable knowledge
knowledge captured and retained in an organization’s systems and An organization’s intellectual capital develops and is main-
structures, such as the documented work procedures, physical layout of tained through the four organizational learning processes shown
production and office space, and the finished products (which can be in Exhibit 1.6: acquiring, sharing, using, and storing knowledge.65
reverse engineered to discover how they were made).63
• Relationship capital: Relationship capital is the value derived from
Acquiring Knowledge Acquiring knowledge refers to bring-
an organization’s relationships with customers, suppliers, and others
ing in knowledge from the external environment as well as
who provide added mutual value for the organization. It includes the or- through discovery. It occurs daily when employees casually ob-
ganization’s goodwill, brand image, and combination of relationships serve changes in the external environment as well as when they
that organizational members have with people outside the receive formal training from sources outside the organization.
organization.64 Knowledge acquisition also occurs through environmental
An organization’s ability to learn, and translate that

learning into action rapidly, is the ultimate
competitive advantage.60
—Jack Welch, former CEO of General Electric
scanning, such as actively

Exhibit 1.6 Four Organizational Learning Processes monitoring consumer
trends, proposed govern-
Acquiring Knowledge ment legislation, and com-
• Individual learning (external) petitor activities. A third
⊲ Training method is to hire skilled
⊲ Observing staff and buy complemen-
• Environment scanning tary businesses (called
• Grafting grafting). Finally, knowl-
• Experimentation edge acquisition occurs
through experimentation—
generating new ideas and
Storing Knowledge Sharing Knowledge products through creative
• Human memory • Communication discovery and testing.
• Documents/databases • Individual learning (internal)
• Knowledge transfer ⊲ Training Sharing Knowledge
• Systems/practices/habits ⊲ Observing Sharing knowledge refers to
• Information systems distributing knowledge
throughout the organiza-
tion. This mainly occurs
Using Knowledge through formal and infor-
• Sensemaking mal communication with
• Requisite skills coworkers, as well as
• Autonomy through various forms of
• Learning orientation in-house learning (training,
observation, etc.). Compa-
nies encourage informal
communication through

O B T H E O R Y T O P R A C T I C E
Having a Hoot with Organizational

Learning
Hootsuite relies on organizational learning practices to retain its leader-
ship in social media technology. The leading provider of social media
management and analytics acquires knowledge by actively hiring new
employees and buying entire companies (grafting). “Maybe the only per-
son we can find is already within a startup. We want to get that person
over, so we have to buy the company,” says Hootsuite CEO Ryan Holmes.
Hootsuite encourages experimentation through Hoot-Hackathons,
intensive two-day events during which employees work together to build
new products. The company encourages knowledge sharing through
open-space offices and a supportive culture. It also holds a monthly
“parliament”—a social gathering hosted by two departments. “The real
point [of parliament] is that team members from different departments
collaborate in the creative process, building ties that carry over to more ©Chaay Tee/Shutterstock
serious stuff,” says Holmes.67
their organizational structure, workspace design, corporate cul- and patterns of behavior that are no longer appropriate.70 Un-
ture, and social activities.66 Company intranets and digital infor- learning removes knowledge that no longer adds value and, in
mation repositories also support knowledge sharing. fact, may undermine the organization’s effectiveness. Some
forms of unlearning involve replacing dysfunctional policies,
Using Knowledge Knowledge is a competitive advantage procedures, and routines. Other forms of unlearning erase atti-
only when it is applied to improve organizational processes. To tudes, beliefs, and assumptions that are no longer valid. Organi-
use knowledge, employees need a mental map (sense making) zational unlearning is particularly important for organizational
so they are aware the knowledge exists and know where to find change, which we discuss in Chapter 14.
it in the organization. Knowledge use also requires employees
with sufficient prerequisite knowledge and skills. For example, High-Performance Work
financial analysts need foundation knowledge in mathematics
and financial products to use new knowledge on asset valuation Practices Perspective
methods. Autonomy is another important condition for knowl- The open systems perspective states that successful companies
edge use; employees must have enough freedom to try out new are efficient and adaptive at transforming inputs into outputs.
ideas. Knowledge use also flourishes where workplace norms However, it does not offer guidance about specific subsystem
strongly support organizational learning. These beliefs and characteristics or organizational practices that make the trans-
norms represent a learning orientation, which we discuss fur- formation process more effective. These details are addressed by
ther on the topics of creativity (Chapter 6) and organizational another perspective of organizational effectiveness, called high-
culture (Chapter 13).68 performance work practices (HPWPs). The HPWP perspective
is founded on the belief that human capital—the knowledge,
Storing Knowledge Storing knowledge is the process of re- skills, and abilities that employees possess—is an important
taining knowledge for later retrieval. Stored knowledge, often source of competitive advantage for organizations.71 Motivated
called organizational memory, includes knowledge that employ- and skilled employees offer competitive advantage by transform-
ees recall as well as knowledge embedded in the organization’s ing inputs to outputs better, by being more sensitive to the exter-
systems and structures.69 Effective organizations also retain nal environment, and by having better relations with key
knowledge in human capital by motivating employees to stay stakeholders.
with the company. Furthermore, organizations encourage em- The HPWP perspective identifies specific ways to generate
ployees to share what they know so valuable knowledge is held the most value from human capital. The four most frequently
by coworkers when an employee does quit or retire. Another identified HPWP practices are employee involvement, job au-
strategy is to actively document knowledge when it is created by tonomy, competency development, and rewards for perfor-
debriefing teams on details of their knowledge of clients or prod- mance and competency development.72 Each of these four work
uct development. practices alone improves organizational effectiveness, but stud-
One last point about the organizational learning perspective: ies suggest that they have a stronger effect when bundled
effective organizations not only learn; they also unlearn routines together.73
learning orientation
beliefs and norms that support
the acquisition, sharing, and
The first two factors—
use of knowledge as well as
involving employees in decision
work conditions that nurture
making and giving them more these learning processes
autonomy over their work
activities—strengthen employee high-performance work
motivation as well as improve practices (HPWPs) a
decisions, organizational re- perspective that holds that
sponsiveness, and commitment effective organizations
to change. In high-performance incorporate several workplace
practices that leverage the
workplaces, employee involve-
potential of human capital
ment and job autonomy often
take the form of self-directed
teams (see Chapter 7). The
third factor, employee competency development, refers to recruit-
ing, selecting, and training so employees are equipped with the
relevant knowledge and skills. The fourth high-performance work
practice is linking performance and skill development to various
The four most frequently identified HPWP practices are employee financial and nonfinancial rewards valued by employees.
involvement, job autonomy, competency development, and High-performance work practices improve an organization’s
rewards for performance and competency development. effectiveness in three ways.75 First, as we mentioned earlier,
©OPOLJA/Shutterstock
High Performance Work Practices in Selected OECD and

Partner Countries74
Sweden 3.0
Denmark 3.0
Norway 2.9
New Zealand 2.9
Austria 2.9
United States 2.8
Spain 2.8 Average composite score on

high-performance work practices
Japan 2.8 reported by employees in
selected countries. Higher scores
Germany 2.8 indicate higher HPWP practices
in that country. This scale
Singapore 2.7 represents “work organization”
HPWP practices, which exclude
Turkey 2.6 rewards but include work
flexibility/autonomy, planning
Italy 2.6 one’s own work, cooperating
and sharing information with
France 2.6 coworkers, and training others.
Data were collected from more
Korea 2.5 than 215,000 adults in OECD and
partner countries with a minimum
Greece 2.5 4,000 respondents per country.
This chart shows a selection of
2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 the 34 countries measured in the
OECD HPWP Work Organization Score study.

stakeholders
individuals, groups, and other
entities that affect, or are
these activities develop em- perspective offers more specific information and guidance by
affected by, the organization’s
ployee skills and knowledge focusing on the organization’s relationships with stakeholders.
objectives and actions
(human capital), which directly Stakeholders include organizations, groups, and other entities
improve individual behavior that affect, or are affected by, the company’s objectives and ac-
and performance. Second, com- tions.76 The stakeholder perspective personalizes the open sys-
panies with superior human capital tend to adapt better to tems perspective; it identifies specific social entities in the
rapidly changing environments. This adaptability occurs because external environment as well as employees and others within the
employees are better at performing diverse tasks in unfamiliar organization (the internal environment). This perspective also
situations when they are highly skilled and have more freedom to recognizes that stakeholder relations are dynamic; they can be
perform their work. A third explanation is that HPWP practices negotiated and influenced, not just taken as a fixed condition. In
strengthen employee motivation and positive attitudes toward general, the stakeholder perspective states that organizations are
the employer. HPWPs represent the company’s investment in its more effective when they understand, manage, and satisfy stake-
workforce, which motivates employees to reciprocate through holder needs and expectations.77
greater effort in their jobs and assistance to coworkers. There are many types of stakeholders, and they are continu-
The HPWP perspective is still developing, but it already re- ously evolving. Consider the key stakeholders identified by
veals important information about specific organizational prac- CSL Limited in Exhibit 1.7. The global leader in blood-related
tices that improve an organization’s effectiveness through its products and vaccines pays attention to more than a dozen
employees. Still, this perspective offers an incomplete picture of groups, and likely others that aren’t included in this diagram.
organizational effectiveness. The remaining gaps are filled by Understanding, managing, and satisfying the interests of stake-
the stakeholder perspective of organizational effectiveness. holders is challenging because they have conflicting interests
and organizations lack sufficient resources to satisfy everyone.
Therefore, organizational leaders need to decide how much pri-
Stakeholder Perspective ority to give to each group.78 Research has identified several
The open systems perspective says that effective organizations factors that influence the prioritization of stakeholders, includ-
adapt to the external environment. However, it doesn’t offer ing the entity’s power and urgency for action, its legitimate
much detail about the external environment. The stakeholder claim to organizational resources, how executives perceive the
Exhibit 1.7 CSL Limited’s Key Organizational Stakeholders
Patients
Customers Employees
Plasma
partners Stockholders
Health
professionals Suppliers
Research
CSL™
institutes Media
License Interest
partners groups
In-license Regulators
partners
Politicians Policy
makers
Source: CSL Limited
values relatively stable, ethics the study of moral corporate social
evaluative beliefs that principles or values that responsibility
guide a person’s determine whether actions (CSR) organizational
organization’s environment, the organization’s
preferences for outcomes are right or wrong and activities intended to
culture, and the personal values of the corpo- or courses of action in a outcomes are good or bad benefit society and the
rate board and CEO. variety of situations environment beyond the
firm’s immediate financial
Values, Ethics, and Corporate Social interests or legal
Responsibility The stakeholder perspective obligations
provides valuable details about features of the
external environment that are missing from the
open systems perspective. Equally important, the stakeholder of earlier writing on those two topics. Ethics refers to the study
perspective incorporates values, ethics, and corporate social re- of moral principles or values that determine whether actions
sponsibility into the organizational effectiveness equation. As are right or wrong and outcomes are good or bad. We rely on
mentioned, personal values influence how corporate boards and our ethical values to determine “the right thing to do.” Ethical
CEOs allocate organizational resources to stakeholders.79 behavior is driven by the moral principles we use to make deci-
Values are relatively stable, evaluative beliefs that guide our sions. These moral principles represent fundamental values.
preferences for outcomes or courses of action in a variety of sit- One recent survey of 7,700 employed Millennials in 29 coun-
uations.80 Values help us know what is tries reported that 87 percent believe
right or wrong, or good or bad, in the “the success of a business should be
world. Chapter 2 explains how values Corporate social measured in terms of more than just
anchor our thoughts and to some extent its financial performance.” However,
motivate our actions.
responsibility is the view only 58 percent of them believe that
Although values exist within individ- that companies have a businesses “behave in an ethical man-
uals, groups of people often hold simi- contract with society, ner.”82 Chapter 2 discusses the main
lar values, so we tend to ascribe these influences on ethical decisions and be-
shared values to the team, department, in which they must havior in the workplace.
organization, profession, or entire soci- serve stakeholders Corporate social responsibility
ety. For example, Chapter 13 discusses (CSR) consists of organizational activi-
the importance and dynamics of organi-
beyond stockholders ties intended to benefit society and the
zational culture, which includes shared and customers. environment beyond the firm’s immedi-
values across the company. Many firms ate financial interests or legal obliga-
strive to become values-driven organizations.83 It is the view that companies
tions, whereby employee decisions and behavior are guided have a contract with society, in which they must serve stakeholders
mainly by the collective values identified as critical to the orga- beyond stockholders and customers. In some situations, the inter-
nization’s success.81 ests of the firm’s stockholders should be secondary to those of
By focusing on values, the stakeholder perspective also other stakeholders.84 As part of CSR, many companies have ad-
highlights the importance of ethics and corporate social re- opted the triple-bottom-line philosophy: They try to support or
sponsibility. In fact, the stakeholder perspective emerged out “earn positive returns” in the economic, social, and environmen-
tal spheres of sustainability. Firms
that adopt the triple bottom line
aim to survive and be profitable
High Expectations for Corporate Social Responsibility 86 in the marketplace (economic),
but they also intend to maintain
89% of more than 2,000 executives

surveyed say companies have a moral
64% of 1,409 CEOs surveyed
across 83 countries say that corporate
or improve conditions for society
(social) as well as the physical
environment.85
responsibility to address societal and social responsibility is core to their Not everyone agrees that orga-
environmental issues that go beyond business (not just a stand-alone
nizations need to cater to a wide
legal requirements. program).
variety of stakeholders. Many
years ago, economist Milton
17% of 1,200 American

consumers surveyed say they
80
globally say it is somewhat or very
Friedman pronounced that “there
% of 18,150 adults surveyed is one and only one social respon-
sibility of business—to use its re-
would not consider working for a
company they believe is not socially
important for their own employer to sources and engage in activities
be responsible to society and the
responsible, even if they were designed to increase its prof-
environment.
well-qualified and the job pays well. its.” 87 Friedman is highly re-
(photo): ©CostinT/Getty Images spected for developing economic

theory, but few writers take this extreme view today. Almost all relationship between organizational effectiveness and other OB
Fortune 500 companies publish sustainability reports, and the variables is shown in Exhibit 1.8. This diagram is an integrative
view among most executives is that corporate social responsibil- road map for the field of organizational behavior, and for the
ity is critically important to being competitive in today’s market- structure of this book. It is a meta-model of the various OB top-
place. The emerging evidence is that companies with a positive ics and concepts, each of which has its own explanatory mod-
CSR reputation tend to have better financial performance, more els. For instance, you will learn about employee motivation
loyal employees (stronger organizational identification), and theories and practices in Chapter 5 and leadership theories and
better relations with customers, job applicants, and other skills in Chapter 11. Exhibit 1.8 gives you a bird’s-eye view of
stakeholders.88 the book and its various topics, to see how they fit together.
As Exhibit 1.8 illustrates, individual inputs and processes in-
fluence individual outcomes, which in turn have a direct effect
Connecting the Dots: An Integrative on the organization’s effectiveness. For example, how well orga-
Model of Organizational Behavior nizations transform inputs to outputs and satisfy key stakehold-
Open systems, organizational learning, high-performance work ers is dependent on how well employees perform their jobs and
practices, and stakeholders represent the four perspectives of make logical and creative decisions. Individual inputs, processes,
organizational effectiveness. Organizational effectiveness is the and outcomes are identified in the two left-side boxes of our in-
ultimate dependent variable in organizational behavior, so it is tegrating OB model and are the center of attention in Part 2 of this
directly or indirectly predicted by all other OB variables. The book. After introducing a model of individual behavior and results,
we will learn about personality and
values—two of the most important
individual characteristics—and
Exhibit 1.8 An Integrative Model of Organizational Behavior later examine various individual
processes, such as self-concept,
Organizational Inputs and Processes perceptions, emotions, attitudes,
• Organizational structure • Organizational change motivation, and self-leadership.
• Organizational culture • Human resource practices Part 3 of this book directs our
• Organizational technology • Organizational strategy attention to team and interper-
sonal inputs, processes, and out-
comes. These topics are found in
the two boxes on the right side of
Individual Team/Interpersonal Exhibit 1.8. The chapter on team
Inputs and Processes Inputs and Processes dynamics (Chapter 7) offers an in-
• Personality/values/competencies • Team tasks/size/composition tegrative model for that specific
• Self-concept/perceptions/mindset • Team development/trust/cohesion topic, which shows how team in-
• Emotions/attitudes • Communication puts (i.e., team composition, size,
• Motivation • Leadership (team/organization) and other team characteristics) in-
• Self-leadership • Power/influence/politics
fluence team processes (team de-
• Conflict/negotiation
velopment, cohesion, and others),
which then affect team perfor-
mance and other outcomes. Later
chapters in Part 3 examine specific
Individual Team/Interpersonal interpersonal and team processes
Outcomes Outcomes listed in Exhibit 1.8, including
• Behavior/performance • Team performance communication, power and influ-
• Organizational citizenship • Team decisions ence, conflict, and leadership.
• Well-being (low distress) • Collaboration/mutual support Exhibit 1.8 illustrates that team
• Decisions/creativity • Social networks processes and outcomes affect indi-
vidual processes and outcomes. As
an example, employee personal
well-being is partly affected by the
mutual support received from team
Organizational Outcomes (Effectiveness)
members and other coworkers. The
• Open systems fit • Human capital development (HPWPs)
opposite is also true; individual pro-
• Organizational learning • Satisfied stakeholders/ethical conduct
cesses affect team and interper-
sonal dynamics in organizations.
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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Behavior 4th Edition

BEHAVIOR McSHANE | VON GLINOW

IN WHICH COUNTRIES INTROVERTS CAN WHAT IS YOUR

is Motivation. is Momentum. is Moving Forward. is McGraw-Hill.

part two Individual Behavior and Processes 28

part three Team Processes 160

part four Organizational Processes 278

1 Introduction to the ANCHORS OF ORGANIZATIONAL

part two Individual Behavior and Processes 28

2 Individual Behavior, TYPES OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR 32 Five-Factor Model of Personality 35

5 Employee Motivation 106

part three Team Processes 160

7 Team Dynamics 160 TEAM PROCESSES 170 Workplace Communication through

Choosing the Best Third-Party IMPLICIT LEADERSHIP

12 Designing Organizational DECIPHERING ORGANIZATIONAL ORGANIZATIONAL

Organization Index 341

Several topics in this chapter have been updated, particularly

This book pioneered the full model of self-concept and its

Chapter 9: Power and Influence Chapter 12: Designing Organizational

CHAPTER 1 | Introduction to the Field of Organizational Behavior 3

A company is one of humanity’s most amazing

CHAPTER 1 | Introduction to the Field of Organizational Behavior 5

OB and the Bottom Line Up to this point, our answer to CONTEMPORARY

Emerging Employment Relationships

21% of 2,027 employed

CHAPTER 1 | Introduction to the Field of Organizational Behavior 7

Employees who work effectively from home typically have

conflict-handling styles, ethical

CHAPTER 1 | Introduction to the Field of Organizational Behavior 9

©Pau Barrena/Bloomberg/Getty Images

Supporting workforce diversity is the right thing to do as well as a source

Exhibit 1.4 Anchors of Organizational Behavior Knowledge The Multidisciplinary

CHAPTER 1 | Introduction to the Field of Organizational Behavior 11

This practice of borrowing theory from other disciplines is

Exhibit 1.5 Open Systems Perspective of Organizations

• Human resources Organization

subsystem • Shareholder dividends

• Financial resources Managerial Marketing/Sales

Subsystem subsystem subsystem • Waste/pollution

CHAPTER 1 | Introduction to the Field of Organizational Behavior 13

An important feature of an effective transformation

An organization’s ability to learn, and translate that

scanning, such as actively

CHAPTER 1 | Introduction to the Field of Organizational Behavior 15

Having a Hoot with Organizational

High Performance Work Practices in Selected OECD and

New Zealand 2.9

United States 2.8

Spain 2.8 Average composite score on

CHAPTER 1 | Introduction to the Field of Organizational Behavior 17

Exhibit 1.7 CSL Limited’s Key Organizational Stakeholders

Source: CSL Limited

89% of more than 2,000 executives

17% of 1,200 American

CHAPTER 1 | Introduction to the Field of Organizational Behavior 19

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I