Human Development A Life Span View 8th Edition Ebook PDF

Human Development: A Life Span View
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Brief Contents
1 The Study of Human Development 3
part 1 Prenatal Development, Infancy, and Early Childhood 39

2 Biological Foundations: Heredity, Prenatal Development, and Birth 39
3 Tools for Exploring the World: Physical, Perceptual, and Motor Development 79
4 The Emergence of Thought and Language: Cognitive Development in Infancy
and Early Childhood 117
5 Entering the Social World: Socioemotional Development in Infancy and Early
Childhood 155
part 2 School-Age Children and Adolescents 189

6 Off to School: Cognitive and Physical Development in Middle Childhood 189
7 Expanding Social Horizons: Socioemotional Development in Middle Childhood 227
8 Rites of Passage: Physical and Cognitive Development in Adolescence 263
9 Moving into the Adult Social World: Socioemotional Development in Adolescence 289
part 3 Young and Middle Adulthood 317

10 Becoming an Adult: Physical, Cognitive, and Personality Development in Young
Adulthood 317
11 Being with Others: Relationships in Young and Middle Adulthood 355
12 Working and Relaxing 387
13 Making It in Midlife: The Biopsychosocial Challenges of Middle Adulthood 421
part 4 Late Adulthood 457

14 The Personal Context of Later Life: Physical, Cognitive, and Mental Health Issues 457
15 Social Aspects of Later Life: Psychosocial, Retirement, Relationship,
and Societal Issues 501
16 Dying and Bereavement 541
vii
Contents
About the Authors v
Preface xxi
To the Student xxxi
Neuroscience Index xxxv
Diversity Index xxxvii
1 The Study of Human Development 3
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Would You Want to Live to Be 142? 4

1.1 Thinking About Development 5
Recurring Issues in Human Development 5
Basic Forces in Human Development: The Biopsychosocial Framework 7
Neuroscience: A Window into Human Development 10
Real People Applying Human Development: Muhammad Ali 11
1.2 Developmental Theories 12
Psychodynamic Theory 12
Learning Theory 13
Cognitive-Developmental Theory 14
The Ecological and Systems Approach 17
Life-Span Perspective, Selective Optimization with Compensation, and
Life-Course Perspective 18
The Big Picture 21
1.3 Doing Developmental Research 22
Measurement in Human Development Research 23
General Designs for Research 26
Designs for Studying Development 28
Spotlight on Research The Stability of Intelligence from
Age 11 to Age 90 Years 29
Integrating Findings from Different Studies 31
Conducting Research Ethically 32
Communicating Research Results 33
Applying Research Results: Social Policy 33
Summary 34
Key Terms 36
part 1 Prenatal Development, Infancy, and Early Childhood 38
2 Biological Foundations: Heredity, Prenatal

Development, and Birth 39
2.1 In the Beginning: 23 Pairs of Chromosomes 40

Mechanisms of Heredity 40
ix
Genetic Disorders 43
Heredity, Environment, and Development 45
Real People Applying Human Development: Ben and Matt Pick
Their Niches 50
2.2 From Conception to Birth 51
Period of the Zygote (Weeks 1–2) 51
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Conception in the 21st Century 52
Period of the Embryo (Weeks 3–8) 53
Period of the Fetus (Weeks 9–38) 55
2.3 Influences on Prenatal Development 57
General Risk Factors 57
Teratogens: Drugs, Diseases, and Environmental Hazards 59
Drugs 59
How Teratogens Influence Prenatal Development 62
Prenatal Diagnosis and Treatment 64
2.4 Labor and Delivery 67
Stages of Labor 67
Approaches to Childbirth 68
Adjusting to Parenthood 69
Spotlight on Research Links Between Maternal Depression and Children’s
Behavior Problems 70
Birth Complications 71
Infant Mortality 72
Summary 74
Key Terms 76
3 Tools for Exploring the World: Physical, Perceptual,

and Motor Development 79
3.1 The Newborn 80

The Newborn’s Reflexes 80
Assessing the Newborn 80
The Newborn’s States 82
Temperament 85
3.2 Physical Development 87
Growth of the Body 87
The Emerging Nervous System 91
3.3 Moving and Grasping: Early Motor Skills 96
Locomotion 96
Fine Motor Skills 100
Spotlight on Research Benefits of Training Babies to Grasp 101
3.4 Coming to Know the World: Perception 102
Smell, Taste, and Touch 103
Hearing 103
Seeing 104
Integrating Sensory Information 108
3.5 Becoming Self-Aware 109
Origins of Self-Concept 110
Theory of Mind 111
Real People Applying Human Development: “Seeing Is Believing . . .”
for 3-Year-Olds 112
Summary 113
Key Terms 115
The Emergence of Thought and Language:

4 Cognitive Development in Infancy and Early
Childhood 117
4.1 The Onset of Thinking: Piaget’s Account 118
Basic Principles of Cognitive Development 118
Real People Applying Human Development: Learning About Butterflies:
Accommodation and Assimilation in Action 119
Sensorimotor Thinking 120
Preoperational Thinking 122
Evaluating Piaget’s Theory 125
Extending Piaget’s Account: Children’s Naïve Theories 126
Spotlight on Research Have a Heart! Preschoolers’ Essentialist
Thinking 129
4.2 Information Processing during Infancy and Early Childhood 130
General Principles of Information Processing 130
Attention 131
Learning 131
Memory 132
Learning Number Skills 134
4.3 Mind and Culture: Vygotsky’s Theory 136
The Zone of Proximal Development 137
Scaffolding 137
Private Speech 138
4.4 Language 139
The Road to Speech 139
First Words and Many More 142
Speaking in Sentences: Grammatical Development 146
Communicating with Others 149
Summary 151
Key Terms 153
5 Entering the Social World: Socioemotional

Development in Infancy and Early Childhood 155
5.1 Beginnings: Trust and Attachment 156

Erikson’s Stages of Early Psychosocial Development 156
The Growth of Attachment 157
What Determines Quality of Attachment? 160
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Attachment, Work, and Alternative Caregiving 161
Real People Applying Human Development: Lois, Bill, and Sarah 162
5.2 Emerging Emotions 163
The Function of Emotions 163
Experiencing and Expressing Emotions 164
Recognizing and Using Others’ Emotions 166
Regulating Emotions 167
5.3 Interacting with Others 168
The Joys of Play 169
Helping Others 172
5.4 Gender Roles and Gender Identity 176
Images of Men and Women: Facts and Fantasy 177
Spotlight on Research Reasoning About Gender-Related Properties 178
Gender Typing 180
Evolving Gender Roles 184
Summary 185
Key Terms 186
part 2 School-Age Children and Adolescents 189
6 Off to School: Cognitive and Physical Development

in Middle Childhood 189
6.1 Cognitive Development 190

More Sophisticated Thinking: Piaget’s Version 190
Real People Applying Human Development: Combinatorial Reasoning
Goes to the Races 191
Information-Processing Strategies for Learning and Remembering 192
6.2 Aptitudes for School 194
Theories of Intelligence 195
Binet and the Development of Intelligence Testing 198
Do Tests Work? 199
Hereditary and Environmental Factors 200
The Impact of Ethnicity and Socioeconomic Status 201
6.3 Special Children, Special Needs 204
Gifted Children 204
Children with Disability 204
Spotlight on Research Improving Children’s Knowledge
of the Structure of Words Enhances Their Reading
Comprehension 206
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 208
6.4 Academic Skills 209
Reading 209
Writing 212
Math Skills 213
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Real People Applying Human Development: Shin-Ying Loves School 214
Effective Schools, Effective Teachers 216
6.5 Physical Development 218
Growth 218
Development of Motor Skills 219
Physical Fitness 220
Participating in Sports 220
Summary 222
Key Terms 224
7 Expanding Social Horizons: Socioemotional

Development in Middle Childhood 227
7.1 Family Relationships 228

The Family as a System 228
Dimensions and Styles of Parenting 229
Siblings 235
Divorce and Remarriage 238
Parent–Child Relationships Gone Awry: Child Maltreatment 239
7.2 Peers 243
Friendships 243
Groups 245
Popularity and Rejection 246
Aggressive Children and Their Victims 248
7.3 Electronic Media 249
Television Programs 250
Video Games 251
Spotlight on Research Playing a Video Game Improves Children’s
Visual-Spatial Skill 251
Social Media 252
7.4 Understanding Others 253
Describing Others 253
Real People Applying Human Development: Tell Me About a Girl You
Like a Lot 254
Understanding What Others Think 254
Prejudice 256
Summary 258
Key Terms 260
8 Rites of Passage: Physical and Cognitive

Development in Adolescence 263
8.1 Pubertal Changes 264

Signs of Physical Maturation 264
Mechanisms of Maturation 266
Psychological Impact of Puberty 267
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8.2 Health 270
Nutrition 270
Spotlight on Research Evaluating a Program for Preventing Eating
Disorders 273
Physical Fitness 274
Threats to Adolescent Well-Being 275
8.3 Information Processing During Adolescence 276
Working Memory and Processing Speed 276
Content Knowledge, Strategies, and Metacognitive Skill 277
Problem-Solving and Reasoning 277
8.4 Reasoning About Moral Issues 279
Kohlberg’s Theory 280
Real People Applying Human Development: Schindler’s List 282
Evaluating Kohlberg’s Theory 282
Promoting Moral Reasoning 283
Summary 285
Key Terms 286
9 Moving into the Adult Social World:

Socioemotional Development in Adolescence 289
9.1 Identity and Self-Esteem 290

The Search for Identity 290
Ethnic Identity 293
Self-Esteem in Adolescence 294
The Myth of Storm and Stress 296
9.2 Romantic Relationships and Sexuality 297
Romantic Relationships 297
Sexual Behavior 298
Sexual Minority Youth 300
Dating Violence 300
9.3 The World of Work 302
Career Development 302
Real People Applying Human Development: “The Life of Lynne”:
A Drama in Three Acts 303
Part-Time Employment 305
9.4 The Dark Side 307
Drug Use 307
Depression 308
Spotlight on Research Does Racial Discrimination Lead to Depression? 309
Delinquency 310
WHAT DO YOU THINK? When Juveniles Commit Serious Crimes, Should
They Be Tried as Adults? 313
Summary 313
Key Terms 315
xiv
part 3 Young and Middle Adulthood 317
10 Becoming an Adult: Physical, Cognitive, and

Personality Development in Young Adulthood 317
10.1 Emerging Adulthood 318

Role Transitions Marking Adulthood 319
Neuroscience, Behavior, and Emerging Adulthood 320
Achieving Milestones: Education, Workforce, and Erikson’s Intimacy 321
So When Do People Become Adults? 323
Real People Applying Human Development: Does Being Rich and Famous
Mean You’re an Adult? 324
10.2 Physical Development and Health 325
Growth, Strength, and Physical Functioning 325
Lifestyle Factors in Health 325
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Healthcare Disparities in the United States 333
How Should We View Intelligence in Adults? 334
Primary and Secondary Mental Abilities 335
Spotlight on Research The Seattle Longitudinal Study 336
Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence 337
Neuroscience Research and Intelligence 339
Going Beyond Formal Operations: Thinking in Adulthood 340
Integrating Emotion and Logic in Emerging and Young Adulthood 342
10.4 Who Do You Want to Be? Personality in Young
Adulthood 345
Creating Life Stories 346
Possible Selves 347
Personal Control Beliefs 348
Summary 350
Key Terms 352
11 Being with Others: Relationships in Young

and Middle Adulthood 355
11.1 Relationship Types and Issues 356

Friendships 356
Love Relationships 358
Spotlight on Research Patterns and Universals of Romantic Attachment
Around the World 361
Violence in Relationships 363
11.2 Lifestyles and Relationships 365
Singlehood 365
Cohabitation 366
LGBTQ Relationships 367
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Marriage 368
Real People James Obergefell and John Arthur Make History 369
11.3 Family Dynamics and the Life Course 372
The Parental Role 372
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Paid Family Leave 374
Diverse Family Forms 376
11.4 Divorce and Remarriage 379
Divorce 379
Remarriage 382
Summary 384
Key Terms 385
12 Working and Relaxing 387
12.1 Occupational Selection and Development 388

The Meaning of Work 388
Occupational Choice Revisited 389
Occupational Development 392
Job Satisfaction 394
12.2 Gender, Ethnicity, and Discrimination Issues 397
Gender Differences in Occupational Selection 397
Women and Occupational Development 398
Ethnicity and Occupational Development 399
Bias and Discrimination 400
Gender Bias, Glass Ceilings, and Glass Cliffs 400
What Do You Think? Helping Women Lean In 401
12.3 Occupational Transitions 404
Retraining Workers 404
Occupational Insecurity 405
Coping with Unemployment 405
Real People The Politics of Unemployment 406
12.4 Work and Family 408
The Dependent Care Dilemma 408
Juggling Multiple Roles 410
12.5 Taking Time to Relax: Leisure Activities 413
Types of Leisure Activities 413
Developmental Changes in Leisure 414
Spotlight on Research Long-Term Effects of Leisure
Activities 415
Consequences of Leisure Activities 415
Summary 417
Key Terms 419
xvi
13 Making It in Midlife: The Biopsychosocial
Challenges of Middle Adulthood 421
13.1 Physical Changes and Health 422

Changes in Appearance 422
Changes in Bones and Joints 423
Reproductive Changes 427
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Menopausal Hormone Therapy 429
Stress and Health 430
Exercise 434
Practical Intelligence 436
Becoming an Expert 438
Lifelong Learning 439
Spotlight on Research Designing Software for Middle-Aged
and Older Nonexperts 440
13.3 Personality 441
The Five-Factor Trait Model 441
Changing Priorities in Midlife 443
13.4 Family Dynamics and Middle Age 447
Letting Go: Middle-Aged Adults and Their Children 447
Giving Back: Middle-Aged Adults and Their Aging Parents 448
Real People Applying Human Development: Taking Care of Mom 448
Grandparenthood 450
Summary 453
Key Terms 454
part 4 Late Adulthood 457
14 The Personal Context of Later Life: Physical,

Cognitive, and Mental Health Issues 457
14.1 What Are Older Adults Like? 458

The Demographics of Aging 458
Longevity 461
The Third–Fourth Age Distinction 464
14.2 Physical Changes and Health 465
Biological Theories of Aging 466
Physiological Changes 468
Chronic Disease and Lifestyle Health Issues 475
Real People The “Angelina Jolie Effect” 477
14.3 Cognitive Processes 479
Information Processing 479
xvii
Memory 481
Creativity and Wisdom 485
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Does Creativity Exist? 486
14.4 Mental Health and Intervention 488
Depression 488
Anxiety Disorders 490
Dementia 491
Spotlight on Research Training Persons with Dementia to Be Group
Activity Leaders 496
Summary 497
Key Terms 499
15 Social Aspects of Later Life: Psychosocial,

Retirement, Relationship, and Societal Issues 501
15.1 Theories of Psychosocial Aging 502

The Goal of Healthy Aging 502
Competence and Environmental Press 503
Preventive and Corrective Proactivity Model 505
Real People Applying Human Development: Katherine Johnson: Human
Computer for NASA 507
15.2 Personality, Social Cognition, and Spirituality 508
Integrity Versus Despair 508
Well-Being and Emotion 509
Spotlight on Research The Aging Emotional Brain 510
Spirituality in Later Life 512
15.3 I Used to Work at . . . : Living in Retirement 514
What Does Being Retired Mean? 514
Why Do People Retire? 515
Adjustment to Retirement 516
Employment and Volunteering 516
15.4 Friends and Family in Late Life 519
Friends, Siblings, and Socioemotional Selectivity 519
Marriage and Same-Sex Partnerships 521
Caring for a Partner 523
Widowhood 523
Great-Grandparenthood 524
15.5 Social Issues and Aging 525
Frail Older Adults 526
Housing Options 528
Elder Abuse and Neglect 532
Social Security and Medicare 533
WHAT DO YOU THINK? What to Do About Social Security and
Medicare? 535
Summary 536
Key Terms 538
xviii
16 Dying and Bereavement 541
16.1 Definitions and Ethical Issues 542

Sociocultural Definitions of Death 543
Legal and Medical Definitions 544
Ethical Issues 544
WHAT DO YOU THINK? The Brittany Maynard Case 547
16.2 Thinking About Death: Personal Aspects 548
A Life-Course Approach to Dying 549
Real People Randy Pausch’s Last Lecture 549
Dealing with One’s Own Death 550
Death Anxiety 551
16.3 End-of-Life Issues 554
Creating a Final Scenario 554
The Hospice Option 556
Making Your End-of-Life Intentions Known 558
16.4 Surviving the Loss: The Grieving Process 560
The Grief Process 561
Typical Grief Reactions 563
Coping with Grief 564
Ambiguous Loss 566
Complicated or Prolonged Grief Disorder 567
Spotlight on Research The Costs of Holding in Grief for the Sake
of One’s Partner 568
Disenfranchised Grief 568
16.5 Dying and Bereavement Experiences Across the Life Span 569
Childhood 570
Adolescence 571
Adulthood 572
Late Adulthood 574
Conclusion 575
Summary 576
Key Terms 578
Glossary 580
References 588
Name Index 653
Subject Index 667
xix
Preface
“W hat do you want to be when you grow up?” “Where do you see yourself in the
next 5 or 10 years?” “What kind of person do you want to become?” These
and other questions about “becoming” confront us across our lives. Answering them
requires us to understand ourselves in very thorough ways. It requires us to understand
how we develop.
Human development is both the most fascinating and the most complex science
there is. Human Development: A Life-Span View, Eighth Edition, introduces you to the
issues, forces, and outcomes that make us who we are.
Contemporary research and theory on human development consistently emphasize
the multidisciplinary approach needed to describe and explain how people change (and
how they stay the same) over time. Moreover, the great diversity of people requires an
appreciation for individual differences throughout development. Human Development:
A Life-Span View, Eighth Edition, incorporates both and aims to address three specific
goals:
■■ To provide a comprehensive, yet highly readable, account of human development
across the life span.
■■ To provide theoretical and empirical foundations that enable students to become
educated and critical interpreters of developmental information.
■■ To provide a blend of basic and applied research, as well as controversial topics
and emergent trends, to demonstrate connections between the laboratory and
life and the dynamic science of human development.
Organization
A Modified Chronological Approach
The great debate among authors and instructors in the field of human development is
whether to take a chronological approach (focusing on functioning at specific stages of
the life span, such as infancy, adolescence, and middle adulthood) or a topical approach
(following a specific aspect of development, such as personality, throughout the life span).
Both approaches have their merits. We have chosen a modified chronological approach that
combines the best aspects of both. The overall organization of the text is chronological: We
trace development from conception through late life in sequential order and dedicate sev-
eral chapters to topical issues pertaining to particular points in the life span (such as infancy
and early childhood, adolescence, young adulthood, middle adulthood, and late life).
Because the developmental continuity of such topics as social and cognitive devel-
opment gets lost with narrowly defined, artificial age-stage divisions, we dedicate some
chapters to tracing their development over larger segments of the life span. These chap-
ters provide a much more coherent description of important developmental changes,
emphasize the fact that development is not easily divided into “slices,” and provide stu-
dents with understandable explications of developmental theories.
Balanced Coverage of the Entire Life Span

A primary difference between Human Development: A Life-Span View, Eighth Edition,
and similar texts is that this book provides a much richer and more complete descrip-
tion of adult development and aging. Following the introductory chapter, the remaining
xxi
15 chapters of the text are evenly divided between childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and
aging. This balanced treatment reflects not only the rapid emergence of adult development
and aging as a major emphasis in the science of human development but also recognizes
that roughly three-fourths of a person’s life occurs beyond adolescence.
As a reflection of our modified chronological approach, Human Development:
A Life-Span View, Eighth Edition, is divided into four main parts. After an introduction
to the science of human development (Chapter 1), Part One includes a discussion of
the biological foundations of life (Chapter 2) and development during infancy and early
childhood (Chapters 3–5). Part Two focuses on development during middle childhood and
adolescence (Chapters 6–9). Part Three (Chapters 10–13) focuses on young and middle
adulthood. Part Four examines late adulthood (Chapters 14 and 15) and concludes with a
consideration of dying and bereavement (Chapter 16).
Content and Approach: The Biopsychosocial Emphasis

Our text provides comprehensive, up-to-date coverage of research and theory from con-
ception to old age and death. We explicitly adopt the biopsychosocial framework as an
organizing theme, describing it in depth in Chapter 1, then integrating it throughout the
text—often in combination with other developmental theories.
An Engaging Personal Style

On several occasions, we communicate our personal involvement with the issues being
discussed by providing examples from our own experiences as illustrations of how human
development plays itself out in people’s lives. Additionally, every major section of a chapter
opens with a short vignette, helping to personalize a concept just before it is discussed.
Other rich examples are integrated throughout the text narrative and showcased in the
Real People features.
Emphasis on Inclusiveness
In content coverage, in the personalized examples used, and in the photo program, we
emphasize diversity—within the United States and around the world—in ethnicity, gender,
race, age, ability, and sexual orientation.
Changes in the Eighth Edition

The eighth edition has been updated with new graphics and several hundred new refer-
ence citations to work from the past 3 years. Of particular note are these content additions,
updates, and revisions:
Chapter 1
■■ New Real People feature on Muhammad Ali
Chapter 2
■■ Much revised What Do You Think? feature on conception in the 21st century
■■ Much revised coverage of the period of the fetus
■■ Much revised coverage of nutrition during pregnancy
■■ New material about noninvasive prenatal testing
xxii
Chapter 3
■■ Much revised coverage of co-sleeping
■■ Much revised coverage of breastfeeding
■■ New Spotlight on Research feature on infant reaching
■■ Much revised coverage of handedness
Chapter 4
■■ Much revised description of young children’s naïve theories of biology
■■ New Spotlight on Research on preschool children’s essentialist thinking
■■ Much revised description of memory
■■ Much revised description of infants’ number skills
■■ Much revised coverage of infant-directed speech
■■ New coverage on the benefits of touchscreen devices for children’s word learning
Chapter 5
■■ Much revised coverage of pretend play and solitary play
■■ Much revised coverage of father–infant relationships
■■ Much revised coverage of the impact of child care
■■ Much revised coverage of emotion regulation
Chapter 6
■■ New Spotlight on Research feature on impaired reading comprehension
■■ Much revised coverage of ADHD
■■ New material on children’s mastery of conceptual and procedural knowledge of math
Chapter 7
■■ New coverage of impact of quality of sibling relationships
■■ New coverage of open adoptions
■■ Much revised coverage of divorce
■■ Much revised coverage of maltreatment
■■ Much revised coverage of groups
■■ Much revised coverage of bullying
■■ Much revised coverage of electronic media, including new Spotlight on Research feature
Chapter 8
■■ Much revised material on evaluating Kohlberg’s theory, including new material on
adolescents’ balancing of fairness with group loyalty
■■ Much revised coverage of analytic and heuristic solutions in problem-solving
Chapter 9
■■ Revised coverage of adolescent storm and stress
■■ Much revised coverage of dating violence
■■ Much revised coverage of sexual minority youth
■■ New material on social cognitive career theory
■■ Much revised coverage of adolescent depression, including new Spotlight on Research
feature
xxiii
Chapter 10
■■ Revised Emerging Adulthood section that now includes subsections on Neurosci-
ence, Behavior, and Emerging Adulthood; and Achieving Milestones: Education,
Workforce, and Erikson’s Intimacy
■■ Expanded discussion of relation between educational attainment and employment
■■ Expanded discussion of quarter-life crisis, including Robinson’s reframing of
Erikson’s intimacy-isolation to commitment-independence and the addition of an
emerging adult transition phase.
■■ Revised discussion on binge drinking, sexual assault, and alcohol use disorder.
■■ Revised nutrition discussion to reflect new dietary guidelines and work with Native
American tribes
■■ New discussions of emotional intelligence and impression formation
Chapter 11
■■ Discussion of Social Baseline Theory to explain how the brain activity reveals how
people seek social relationships to mitigate risk
■■ New Real People feature on James Obergefell and John Arthur
■■ Inclusion of millennial generation lifestyles, including their likely much lower rates of
marriage and likelihood of being less well off than their parents
■■ Rewritten discussion of LGBTQ adults
■■ New What Do You Think? feature on paid family leave
Chapter 12
■■ New chapter introduction focusing on the shift to the “gig economy” and its impact
on the meaning of work
■■ Differentiation of mentoring and coaching
■■ Mention of burnout effects on the brain
■■ Reduced redundancy in parenting and work–family conflict sections
■■ New Spotlight on Research feature on the long-term health effects of leisure activities
■■ New Real People feature on the politics of unemployment
Chapter 13
■■ Revised discussion of treatments for arthritis
■■ Revised discussion of the effects of stress on physical health
■■ Addition of the TESSERA (Triggering situations, Expectancy, States/State Expres-
sions, and Reactions model in the discussion of personality traits
Chapter 14
■■ Expanded discussion of international demographics of older adults
■■ Reorganized and revised section on biological theories of aging
■■ Revised discussion of the role of beta-amyloid protein in brain aging and as a bio-
marker of Alzheimer’s disease
■■ New Real People feature on the “Angelina Jolie effect” on breast cancer screening
■■ Revised discussion on divided attention
■■ Expanded discussion of neuroimaging research on creativity and aging
■■ New What Do You Think? feature on the question of whether creativity exists
■■ Revised discussions about genetics and dementia, and about the beta-amyloid cas-
cade hypothesis
xxiv
Chapter 15
■■ Revised discussion of healthy aging and connection with selective optimization with
compensation framework
■■ New discussion of the preventive and corrective proactivity model
■■ New Real People feature on Katherine Johnson
■■ Revised discussion of spirituality in later life
■■ Revised discussion on LGBT long-term relationships
■■ Expanded and revised discussion of frailty and disability in late life, especially related
to socioeconomic factors, and global issues
■■ Revised discussion of financial exploitation of older adults and the role of financial
institutions in preventing it
Chapter 16
■■ Table with most frequent causes of death by age
■■ Discussion of updated brain death criteria and implementation issues
■■ New What Do You Think? featuring the Brittany Maynard case
■■ Discussion of death doulas
■■ New Real People feature with focus on Randy Pausch’s last lecture
■■ Discussion of the model of adaptive grieving dynamics
■■ Discussion of disenfranchised grief
■■ Added discussion of ambiguous grief
Special Features
Three special features are a significant reason why this textbook is unique. These features
are woven seamlessly into the narrative—not boxed off from the flow of the chapter. Each
box appears in nearly every chapter. The three features are:
Spotlight on Research These features emphasize a fuller understanding of the
science and scope of life-span development.
What Do You Think? These features ask students to think critically about
social and developmental issues.
Real People These features illustrate the everyday applications of
Applying Human Development life-span development issues.
Pedagogical Features
Among the most important aspects of Human Development: A Life-Span View, Eighth
Edition, is its exceptional integration of pedagogical features, designed to help students
maximize their learning.
■■ Section-by-Section Pedagogy. Each major section of a chapter (every chapter has
four or five) has been carefully crafted: It opens with a set of learning objectives,
a vignette, typically includes one or more Think About It questions in the margin
encouraging critical thinking, and ends with a set of questions called Test Yourself
that reinforces key elements of the section. For easy assignment and to help readers
visually organize the material, major units within each chapter are numbered.
■■ Chapter-by-Chapter Pedagogy. Each chapter opens with a table of contents and con-
cludes with a bulleted, detailed Summary (broken down by learning objective within
each major section), followed by a list of Key Terms (with page references).
In sum, we believe that our integrated pedagogical system will give the student all the
tools she or he needs to comprehend the material and study for tests.
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MindTap®
MindTap® for Human Development: A Life-Span View engages and empowers students to
produce their best work—consistently. By seamlessly integrating course material with vid-
eos, activities, apps, and much more, MindTap® creates a unique learning path that fosters
increased comprehension and efficiency.
For students:
■■ MindTap® delivers real-world relevance with activities and assignments that help stu-
dents build critical thinking and analytic skills that will transfer to other courses and
their professional lives.
■■ MindTap® helps students stay organized and efficient with a single destination that
reflects what’s important to the instructor, along with the tools students need to
master the content.
■■ MindTap® empowers and motivates students with information that shows where they
stand at all times—both individually and compared to the highest performers in class.
Additionally, for instructors, MindTap® allows you to:
■■ Control what content students see and when they see it with a learning path that can
be used as-is or matched to your syllabus exactly.
■■ Create a unique learning path of relevant readings and multimedia and activities that
move students up the learning taxonomy from basic knowledge and comprehension
to analysis, application, and critical thinking.
■■ Integrate your own content into the MindTap® Reader using your own documents or
pulling from sources such as RSS feeds, YouTube videos, websites, Googledocs, and
more.
■■ Use powerful analytics and reports that provide a snapshot of class progress, time in
course, engagement, and completion.
In addition to the benefits of the platform, MindTap® for Human Development: A Life-Span
View includes:
■■ Formative assessments at the conclusion of each chapter.
■■ Interactive activities drawn from the What Do You Think? and Real People text fea-
tures that foster student participation through polls, photo shares, and discussion
threads.
■■ Illustrative video embedded in the MindTap® Reader to highlight key concepts for
the students.
■■ Investigate Development enables students to observe, evaluate, and make decisions
about human development so they see the implications of research on a personal level.
Students interact with simulated case studies of milestones in a person’s development,
observing and analyzing audiovisual cues, consulting research, and making decisions.
Instead of rote memorization of isolated concepts, Investigate Development compels
students to think critically about research and brings human development to life.
Supplements for the Instructor

Online PowerPoint® Slides
These vibrant Microsoft® PowerPoint® lecture slides for each chapter assist you with your
lecture by providing concept coverage using images, figures, and tables directly from the
textbook.
Online Instructor's Manual

This detailed manual provides sample syllabi, course guidelines, in-class exercises, and
chapter objectives to assist instructors in teaching the course.
xxvi
Cengage Learning Testing, powered by Cognero®
Instant Access
Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero® is a flexible, online system that allows you
to: import, edit, and manipulate content from the text's test bank or elsewhere, including
your own favorite test questions; create multiple test versions in an instant; and deliver tests
from your LMS, your classroom, or wherever you want.
Acknowledgments
Textbook authors do not produce books on their own. We owe a debt of thanks to
many people who helped take this project from a first draft to a bound book. Thanks
to Jim Brace-Thompson, for his enthusiasm, good humor, and sage advice at the begin-
ning of this project; to Nedah Rose for taking the reins and guiding the eighth edition;
and to Andrew Ginsberg, Product Manager; Ruth Sakata-Corley, Content Production
Manager; and Vernon Boes, Art Director, for their work in bringing this edition to life.
We would also like to thank the many reviewers who generously gave their time
and effort to help us sharpen our thinking about human development and, in so doing,
shape the development of this text.
Past Reviewers of Human Development: A Life-Span View

GARY L. ALLEN PAUL ANDERER CASTILLO
University of South Carolina State University of New York, Canton
POLLY APPLEFIELD LISA DAVIDSON
University of North Carolina at Northern Illinois University
Wilmington CATHERINE DEERING
ANN M. B. AUSTIN Clayton College and State University
Utah State University CHARLES TIMOTHY DICKEL
KENNETH E. BELL Creighton University
University of New Hampshire JUDITH DIETERLE
DANIEL R. BELLACK Daytona Beach Community College
Trident Technical College SHELLEY M. DRAZEN
MAIDA BERENBLATT SUNY, Binghamton
Suffolk County Community College SANDY EGGERS
University of Memphis
L. RENÉ BERGERON
University of New Hampshire KENNETH ELLIOTT
University of Maine, Augusta
BELINDA BEVINS-KNABE
University of Arkansas at Little Rock MARTHA ELLIS
Collin County Community College
DAVID BISHOP
Luther College NOLEN EMBRY
Lexington Community College
ELIZABETH M. BLUNK WILLIAM FABRICIUS
Southwest Texas State University Arizona State University
JOSETTE BONEWITZ STEVE FINKS
Vincennes University University of Tennessee
JANINE P. BUCKNER LINDA FLICKINGER
Seton Hall University St. Clair County Community College
CYNTHIA B. CALHOUN DOUGLAS FRIEDRICH
Southwest Tennessee Community College University of West Florida
LANTHAN D. CAMBLIN, JR. REBECCA GLOVER
University of Cincinnati University of North Texas
xxvii
J. A. GREAVES AMY LANDERS
Jefferson State Community College Old Dominion University
TRESMAINE R. GRIMES KIRSTEN D. LINNEY
Iona College University of Northern Iowa
PATRICIA GUTH BLAKE TE-NEIL LLOYD
Westmoreland County Community College University of South Carolina
LANA-LEE HARDACRE SANFORD LOPATER
Conestoga College Christopher Newport University
JULIE A. HASELEU NANCY MACDONALD
Kirkwood Community College University of South Carolina, Sumter
PHYLLIS HEATH SUSAN MAGUN-JACKSON
Central Michigan University University of Memphis
MYRA HEINRICH MARION G. MASON
Mesa State College Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania
BRETT HEINTZ MICHAEL JASON MCCOY
Delgado Community College Cape Fear Community College
SANDRA HELLYER LISA MCGUIRE
Indiana University–Purdue University at Allegheny College
Indianapolis JULIE ANN MCINTYRE
SHIRLEY-ANNE HENSCH Russell Sage College
University of Wisconsin Center BILL MEREDITH
THOMAS HESS University of Nebraska at Omaha
North Carolina State University EDWARD J. MORRIS
HEATHER M. HILL Owensboro Community College
University of Texas, San Antonio MARTIN D. MURPHY
SUSAN HORTON University of Akron
Mesa Community College JANET D. MURRAY
ALYCIA M. HUND University of Central Florida
Illinois State University MARY ANNE O’NEILL
KATHLEEN HURLBURT Rollins College Hamilton Holt School
University of Massachusetts–Lowell JOHN W. OTEY
JENEFER HUSMAN Southern Arkansas University
University of Alabama SHANA PACK
KAREN IHNEN Western Kentucky University
St. Cloud Technical and Community MARIBETH PALMER-KING
College Broome Community College
HEIDI INDERBITZEN ELLEN E. PASTORINO
University of Nebraska at Lincoln Valencia Community College
ERWIN J. JANEK IAN PAYTON
Henderson State University Bethune-Cookman College
WAYNE JOOSE JOHN PFISTER
Calvin College Dartmouth College
RICHARD KANDUS BRADFORD PILLOW
Mt. San Jacinto College Northern Illinois University
MARGARET D. KASIMATIS GARY POPOLI
Carroll College Hartford Community College
MICHELLE L. KELLEY ROBERT PORESKY
Old Dominion University Kansas State University
JOHN KLEIN JOSEPH M. PRICE
Castleton State College San Diego State University
WENDY KLIEWER HARVE RAWSON
Virginia Commonwealth University Franklin College
xxviii
CATHERINE HACKETT RENNER KELLI W. TAYLOR
West Chester University Virginia Commonwealth University
ROSEMARY ROSSER LORRAINE C. TAYLOR
University of Arizona University of South Carolina
LISA ROUTH VIRGINIA TOMPKINS
Pikes Peak Community College Ohio State University
ROBERT F. RYCEK BARBARA TURNAGE
University of Nebraska at Kearney University of Central Florida
JEFF SANDOZ YOLANDA VAN ECKE
University of Louisiana at Lafayette Mission College
BRIAN SCHRADER ANNE WATSON
Emporia State University West Virginia University
CAROLYN A. SHANTZ CAROL G. WEATHERFORD
Wayne State University Clemson University
STACIE SHAW FRED A. WILSON
Presentation College Appalachian State University
TIMOTHY O. SHEARON CAITLIN WILLIAMS
Albertson College of Idaho San Jose State University
CYNTHIA K. SHINABARGER REED NANCI STEWART WOODS
Tarrant County College Austin Peay State University
MARCIA SOMER SANDY WURTELE
University of Hawaii-Kapiolani University of Colorado at Colorado Springs
Community College VIRGINIA WYLY
LINDA SPERRY State University of New York College at
Indiana State University Buffalo
TRACY L. SPINRAD KAREN YANOWITZ
Arizona State University Arkansas State University
CARRIE SWITZER CHRISTINE ZIEGLER
University of Illinois, Springfield Kennesaw State University
SUSAN D. TALLEY
Utah State University
xxix
To the Student
Human Development: A Life-Span View is written with you, the student, in mind. In the
next few pages, we describe several features of the book that will make it easier for you to
learn. Please don’t skip this material; it will save you time in the long run.
Learning and Study Aids

Each chapter includes several distinctive features to help you learn the material and orga-
nize your studying.
■■ Each chapter opens with an overview of the main topics and a detailed outline.
■■ Each major section within a chapter begins with a set of learning objectives. There
is also a brief vignette introducing one of the topics to be covered in that section and
providing an example of the developmental issues people face.
■■ When key terms are introduced in the text, they appear in bold, orange type and are
defined in the margin. This should make key terms easy to find and learn.
■■ Key developmental theories are introduced in Chapter 1 and are referred to through-
out the text.
■■ Critical thinking questions appear in the margins. These Think About It questions
are designed to help you make connections across sections within a chapter or across
chapters.
■■ The end of each section includes a feature called Test Yourself, which will help you
check your knowledge of major ideas you just read about. The Test Yourself ques-
tions serve two purposes. First, they give you a chance to spot-check your under-
standing of the material. Second, the questions will relate the material you have
just read to other facts, theories, or the biopsychosocial framework you read about
earlier.
■■ Text features expand or highlight a specific topic. This book includes the following
three features:
■■ Spotlight on Research elaborates a specific research study discussed in the text
and provides more details on the design and methods used.
■■ What Do You Think? offers thought-provoking discussions about current issues
affecting development.
■■ Real People: Applying Human Development is a case study that illustrates how an
issue in human development discussed in the chapter is manifested in the life of
a real person.
■■ The end of each chapter includes several special study tools. A Summary organized
by learning objective within major section headings provides a review of the key
ideas in the chapter. Next is a list of Key Terms that appear in the chapter.
We strongly encourage you to take advantage of these learning and study aids as you
read the book. We have also left room in the margins for you to make notes to yourself on
the material, so you can more easily integrate the text with your class and lecture material.
Your instructor will probably assign about one chapter per week. Don’t try to read an
entire chapter in one sitting. Instead, on the first day, preview the chapter. Read the intro-
duction and notice how the chapter fits into the entire book; then page through the chapter,
reading the learning objectives, vignettes, and major headings. Also read the italicized
sentences and the boldfaced terms. Your goal is to get a general overview of the entire
chapter—a sense of what it’s all about.
xxxi
Now you’re ready to begin reading. Go to the first major section and preview it again,
reminding yourself of the topics covered. Then start to read. As you read, think about what
you’re reading. Every few paragraphs, stop briefly. Try to summarize the main ideas in your
own words; ask yourself if the ideas describe your own experience or that of others you know;
tell a friend about something interesting in the material. In other words, read actively—get
involved in what you’re reading. Don’t just stare glassy-eyed at the page!
Continue this pattern—reading, summarizing, thinking—until you finish the section.
Then answer the Test Yourself questions to determine how well you’ve learned what you’ve
read. If you’ve followed the read-summarize-think cycle as you worked your way through
the section, you should be able to answer most of the questions.
The next time you sit down to read (preferably the next day), start by reviewing the
second major section. Then complete it with the read-summarize-think cycle. Repeat this
procedure for all the major sections.
When you’ve finished the last major section, wait a day or two and then review each
major section. Pay careful attention to the italicized sentences, the boldfaced terms, and
the Test Yourself questions. Also, use the study aids at the end of the chapter to help you
integrate the ideas in the chapters.
With this approach, it should take several 30- to 45-minute study sessions to com-
plete each chapter. Don’t be tempted to rush through an entire chapter in a single session.
Research consistently shows that you learn more effectively by having daily (or nearly daily)
study sessions devoted to both reviewing familiar material and taking on a relatively small
amount of new material.
Terminology
A few words about terminology before we embark. We use certain terms to refer to dif-
ferent periods of the life span. Although you may already be familiar with the terms, we
want to clarify how they will appear in this text. The following terms will refer to a specific
range of ages:
Newborn: birth to 1 month
Infant: 1 month to 1 year
Toddler: 1 year to 2 years
Preschooler: 2 years to 6 years
School-age child: 6 years to 12 years
Adolescent: 12 years to 20 years
Young adult: 20 years to 40 years
Middle-age adult: 40 years to 60 years
Young-old adult: 60 years to 80 years
Old-old adult: 80 years and beyond
Sometimes, for the sake of variety, we will use other terms that are less tied to specific
ages, such as babies, youngsters, and older adults. However, you will be able to determine
the specific ages from the context.
Organization
Authors of textbooks on human development always face the problem of deciding how to
organize the material into meaningful segments across the life span. This book is organized
into four parts: Prenatal Development, Infancy, and Early Childhood; School-Age Children
and Adolescents; Young and Middle Adulthood; and Late Adulthood. We believe this orga-
nization achieves two major goals. First, it divides the life span in ways that relate to the
divisions encountered in everyday life. Second, it enables us to provide a more complete
account of adulthood than other books do.
Because some developmental issues pertain only to a specific point in the life span,
some chapters are organized around specific ages. Overall, the text begins with conception
xxxii
and proceeds through childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age to death. But because
some developmental processes unfold over longer periods of time, some of the chapters are
organized around specific topics.
Part One covers prenatal development, infancy, and early childhood. Here we will
see how genetic inheritance operates and how the prenatal environment affects a person’s
future development. During the first two years of life, the rate of change in both motor and
perceptual arenas is amazing. How young children acquire language and begin to think
about their world is as intriguing as it is rapid. Early childhood also marks the emergence of
social relationships, as well as an understanding of gender roles and identity. By the end of
this period, a child is reasonably proficient as a thinker, uses language in sophisticated ways,
and is ready for the major transition into formal education.
Part Two covers the years from elementary school through high school. In middle
childhood and adolescence, the cognitive skills formed earlier in life evolve to adult-like
levels in many areas. Family and peer relationships expand. During adolescence, there is
increased attention to work, and sexuality emerges. The young person begins to learn how
to face difficult issues in life. By the end of this period, a person is on the verge of legal
adulthood. The typical individual uses logic and has been introduced to most of the issues
that adults face.
Part Three covers young adulthood and middle age. During this period, most people
achieve their most advanced modes of thinking, achieve peak physical performance, form
intimate relationships, start families of their own, begin and advance within their occupa-
tions, manage to balance many conflicting roles, and begin to confront aging. Over these
years, many people go from breaking away from their families to having their children
break away from them. Relationships with parents are redefined, and the pressures of being
caught between the younger and older generations are felt. By the end of this period, most
people have shifted focus from time since birth to time until death.
Part Four covers the last decades of life. The biological, physical, cognitive, and social
changes associated with aging become apparent. Although many changes reflect decline,
many other aspects of old age represent positive elements: wisdom, retirement, friend-
ships, and family relationships. We conclude this section, and the text, with a discussion
of the end of life. Through our consideration of death, we will gain additional insights into
the meaning of life and human development.
We hope the organization and learning features of the text are helpful to you—making
it easier for you to learn about human development. After all, this book tells the story of
people’s lives. Understanding the story is what it’s all about.
xxxiii
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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Human Development: A Life Span View

8th Edition, (Ebook PDF)

1 The Study of Human Development 3

part 1 Prenatal Development, Infancy, and Early Childhood 39

part 2 School-Age Children and Adolescents 189

part 3 Young and Middle Adulthood 317

part 4 Late Adulthood 457

1 The Study of Human Development 3

WHAT DO YOU THINK? Would You Want to Live to Be 142? 4

part 1 Prenatal Development, Infancy, and Early Childhood 38

2 Biological Foundations: Heredity, Prenatal

2.1 In the Beginning: 23 Pairs of Chromosomes 40

3 Tools for Exploring the World: Physical, Perceptual,

3.1 The Newborn 80

The Emergence of Thought and Language:

5 Entering the Social World: Socioemotional

5.1 Beginnings: Trust and Attachment 156

part 2 School-Age Children and Adolescents 189

6 Off to School: Cognitive and Physical Development

6.1 Cognitive Development 190

7 Expanding Social Horizons: Socioemotional

7.1 Family Relationships 228

8 Rites of Passage: Physical and Cognitive

8.1 Pubertal Changes 264

9 Moving into the Adult Social World:

9.1 Identity and Self-Esteem 290

10 Becoming an Adult: Physical, Cognitive, and

10.1 Emerging Adulthood 318

11 Being with Others: Relationships in Young

11.1 Relationship Types and Issues 356

12 Working and Relaxing 387

12.1 Occupational Selection and Development 388

13.1 Physical Changes and Health 422

part 4 Late Adulthood 457

14 The Personal Context of Later Life: Physical,

14.1 What Are Older Adults Like? 458

15 Social Aspects of Later Life: Psychosocial,

15.1 Theories of Psychosocial Aging 502

16.1 Definitions and Ethical Issues 542

Balanced Coverage of the Entire Life Span

Content and Approach: The Biopsychosocial Emphasis

An Engaging Personal Style

Changes in the Eighth Edition

Supplements for the Instructor

Online Instructor's Manual

Past Reviewers of Human Development: A Life-Span View

Learning and Study Aids

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

2 Biological Foundations: Heredity, Prenatal

3 Tools for Exploring the World: Physical, Perceptual,

The Emergence of Thought and Language:

5 Entering the Social World: Socioemotional

6 Off to School: Cognitive and Physical Development

7 Expanding Social Horizons: Socioemotional

8 Rites of Passage: Physical and Cognitive

9 Moving into the Adult Social World:

10 Becoming an Adult: Physical, Cognitive, and

11 Being with Others: Relationships in Young

14 The Personal Context of Later Life: Physical,

15 Social Aspects of Later Life: Psychosocial,