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e l e ve nth e dition
volu m e 1
AMERICA
A Narrative History
David Emory Shi
n
W. W. NORTON & COMPANY, INC.
New York • London
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Title: America : a narrative history / David Emory Shi.
Description: Eleventh edition. | New York : W. W. Norton & Company, 2019. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018046039 | ISBN 9780393689693 (hardcover : alk. paper)
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0

FOR
GEORGE B. TINDALL (1921–2006)
HISTORIAN, COLLEAGUE, FRIEND

DAVID EMORY SHI is a professor of history and the
president emeritus of Furman University. He also
taught for seventeen years at Davidson College,
where he chaired the history department, served as
the Frontis Johnson Professor of History, and won the
Distinguished Teaching Award. He is the author of
several books on American cultural history, including
the award-winning The Simple Life: Plain Living and
High Thinking in American Culture, Facing Facts:
Realism in American Thought and Culture, 1850–1920,
and The Bell Tower and Beyond: Reflections on Learning
and Living.

CONTENTS
List of Maps • xvii

Preface • xxi
Acknowledgments • xxxi
PART ONE A NOT-SO-“NEW” WORLD 1
1 The Collision of Cultures 4

Early Cultures in America 7 • European Visions of America 20 • Religious
Conflict in Europe 26 • The Spanish Empire 33 • The Columbian
Exchange 39 • The Spanish in North America 41 • Challenges to the Spanish
Empire 48 • English Exploration of America 51
2 England’s Colonies 54
The English Background 56 • Religious Conflict and War 56 • American
Colonies 58 • The English Civil War in America 83 • The Restoration in the
Colonies 84 • The Middle Colonies and Georgia 89 • Native Peoples and
English Settlers 98 • Slavery in the Colonies 106 • Thriving Colonies 110
3 Colonial Ways of Life 114

The Shape of Early America 116 • Society and Economy in the Southern
Colonies 123 • Society and Economy in New England 124 • Society and
Economy in the Middle Colonies 131 • Race-Based Slavery 134 • First
Stirrings of a Common Colonial Culture 139 • Colonial Cities 140 •
The Enlightenment in America 144 • The Great Awakening 147
xiii

xiv Contents
4 From Colonies to States 156

Competing Neighbors 158 • An Emerging Colonial System 165 • Warfare in
the Colonies 166 • Regulating the Colonies 177 • The Crisis Grows 184 •
The Spreading Conflict 196 • Independence 199
PART TWO BUILDING A NATION 211
5 The American Revolution, 1776–1783 214

Mobilizing for War 216 • American Society at War 226 • Setbacks for
the British (1777) 228 • 1778: Both Sides Regroup 230 • A War of
Endurance 240 • War as an Engine of Change 247 • The Social
Revolution 249 • Slaves and the Revolution 252 • The Emergence of an
American Nationalism 258
6 Strengthening the New Nation 262

Power to the People 263 • The Confederation Government 265 • The
“Gathering Crisis” 272 • Creating the Constitution 274 • The Fight for
Ratification 284 • The Federalist Era 289 • Hamilton’s Vision of a Prosperous
America 295 • Foreign and Domestic Crises 303 • Western Settlement 310 •
Transfer of Power 313 • The Adams Administration 314
7 The Early Republic, 1800–1815 324

Jeffersonian Republicanism 326 • War in Europe 343 • The War of
1812 347 • The Aftermath of the War 359
PART THREE AN EXPANDING NATION 367
8 The Emergence of a Market Economy,

1815–1850 370
The Market Revolution 372 • Industrial Development 384 • Popular
Culture 396 • Immigration 398 • Organized Labor and New Professions 406

Contents xv
9 Nationalism and Sectionalism,

1815–1828 414
A New Nationalism 416 • Debates over the American System 420 • “An Era of
Good Feelings” 421 • Nationalist Diplomacy 426 • The Rise of Andrew
Jackson 430
10 The Jacksonian Era, 1828–1840 442

Jacksonian Democracy 444 • Nullification 458 • War over the
B.U.S. 468 • Jackson’s Legacy 478
11
T he South, Slavery, and King Cotton,
1800–1860 482
The Distinctiveness of the Old South 484 • The Cotton Kingdom 487 • Whites
in the Old South 494 • Black Society in the South 499 • Forging a Slave
Community 510
12
Religion, Romanticism, and Reform,
1800–1860 522
A More Democratic Religion 524 • Romanticism in America 536 •
The Reform Impulse 546 • The Anti-Slavery Movement 558
PART FOUR A HOUSE DIVIDED AND REBUILT 573
13 Western Expansion, 1830–1848 576

Moving West 578 • The Mexican-American War 606
14 The Gathering Storm, 1848–1860 618

Slavery in the Territories 619 • The Emergence of the Republican
Party 637 • The Response in the South 654

xvi Contents
15 The War of the Union, 1861–1865 662

Choosing Sides 664 • Fighting in the West 676 • Fighting in the East 680 •
Emancipation 683 • The War behind the Lines 694 • The Faltering
Confederacy 700 • A Transformational War 723
16
T he Era of Reconstruction, 1865–1877 728
The War’s Aftermath in the South 730 • Debates over Political
Reconstruction 732 • Black Society under Reconstruction 747 • The Grant
Administration 757 • Reconstruction’s Significance 773
Glossary A1
Appendix A69
Further Readings A133
Credits A151
Index A155

MAPS
The First Migration 6

Pre-Columbian Indian Civilizations in Middle and South America 11
Pre-Columbian Indian Civilizations in North America 14
Columbus’s Voyages 24
Spanish Explorations of the Mainland 36
English, French, and Dutch Explorations 49
Land Grants to the Virginia Company 60
Early Maryland and Virginia 71
Early New England Settlements 76
Early Settlements in the South 85
The Middle Colonies 90
European Settlements and Indian Societies in Early North America 100–101
The African Slave Trade, 1500–1800 107
Atlantic Trade Routes 127
Major Immigrant Groups in Colonial America 132
The French in North America 160
Major Campaigns of the French and Indian War 168
North America, 1713 174
Lexington and Concord, April 19, 1775 193
Major Campaigns in New York and New Jersey, 1776–1777 225
Major Campaigns in New York and Pennsylvania, 1777 233
Western Campaigns, 1776–1779 235
Major Campaigns in the South, 1778–1781 241
Yorktown, 1781 242
Western Land Cessions, 1781–1802 269
xvii

xviii Maps
The Old Northwest, 1785 270

The Vote on the Constitution, 1787–1790 288
Treaty of Greenville, 1795 307
Pinckney’s Treaty, 1795 310
The Election of 1800 319
Explorations of the Louisiana Purchase, 1804–1807 337
Major Northern Campaigns of the War of 1812 352
Major Southern Campaigns of the War of 1812 355
Transportation West, about 1840 374–375
The Growth of Railroads, 1850 380
The Growth of Railroads, 1860 381
The Growth of Industry in the 1840s 392
Population Density, 1820 393
Population Density, 1860 394
The Growth of Cities, 1820 399
The Growth of Cities, 1860 400
The National Road, 1811–1838 418
The Missouri Compromise, 1820 424
Boundary Treaties, 1818–1819 427
Indian Removal, 1820–1840 451
Cotton Production, 1821 490
Population Growth and Cotton Production, 1821–1859 491
The Slave Population, 1820 504
The Slave Population, 1860 505
Mormon Trek, 1830–1851 535
Wagon Trails West 579
The Oregon Dispute, 1818–1846 606
Major Campaigns of the Mexican-American War 611
The Gadsden Purchase, 1853 615
The Compromise of 1850 631
The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 638

Maps xix

Secession, 1860–1861 665
Campaigns in the West, February–April 1862 678
The Peninsular Campaign, 1862 681
Campaigns in Virginia and Maryland, 1862 692
The Vicksburg Campaign, 1863 702
Campaigns in the East, 1863 706
Grant in Virginia, 1864–1865 713
Sherman’s Campaigns, 1864–1865 719
Reconstruction, 1865–1877 755

PREFACE
T
his Eleventh Edition of America: A Narrative History improves upon
a textbook celebrated for its compelling narrative history of the
American experience. Over the past thirty years, I have sought to
write an engaging book centered on political and economic devel-
opments animated by colorful characters, informed by balanced analysis and
social texture, and guided by the unfolding of key events. Those classic prin-
ciples, combined with a handy size and low price, have helped make America:
A Narrative History one of the most popular and well-respected textbooks in
the field.
This Eleventh Edition of America features important changes designed to
make the text more teachable and classroom friendly. The overarching theme
of the new edition is the importance of immigration to the American
experience. Since 1776, the United States has taken in more people from
more nations than any other country in the world. By welcoming newcomers,
America has enriched its economy, diversified its people and culture, and
testified to the appeal of a democracy committed to equal opportunity and
equal treatment. Writer Vivian Gornick, the daughter of Russian Jewish
immigrants, cherished the ethnic mosaic of her childhood New York City
neighborhood: “The ‘otherness’ of the Italians or the Irish or the Jews among
us lent spice and interest, a sense of definition, an exciting edge to things that
was openly feared but secretly welcomed.” At times, however, the nation’s
Open Door policy has also generated tension, criticism, prejudice, and even
violence. Those concerned about immigration, past and present, have
complained about open borders and called into question the nation’s ability
to serve as the world’s “melting pot.” The shifting attitudes and policies
regarding immigration have testified to the continuing debate over the merits
of newcomers. Immigration remains one of the nation’s most cherished yet
contested values, and as such it deserves fresh emphasis in textbooks and
classrooms.
While an introductory textbook must necessarily focus on major political,
constitutional, diplomatic, economic, and social changes, it is also essential that
xxi

xxii Preface
it convey how ordinary people managed everyday concerns—housing, jobs,

food, recreation, religion, and entertainment—and surmounted exceptional
challenges—depressions, wars, and racial injustice.
I have continued to enrich the political narrative by incorporating more
social and cultural history into this new edition. The text has been updated to
include the following key new discussions:
• Chapter 1 “The Collision of Cultures” highlights President John F.

Kennedy’s emphasis on the United States as “a nation of immigrants,” and
revised assessments of Christopher Columbus’s roles as colonial governor,
ship captain, and slave trader.
• Chapter 2 “England’s Colonies” includes expanded coverage of the
various factors that led Europeans to relocate to the American colonies,
new discussion of the varied fates of British convicts and others who were
sent involuntarily to America, the experience of indentured servants, and
expanded focus on Chief Powhatan and his response to English colonists
who were determined to “invade my people.”
• Chapter 3 “Colonial Ways of Life” features fresh insights into nativism
and xenophobic sentiment toward German immigrants in the American
colonies, including anti-immigrant comments from Benjamin Franklin in
Pennsylvania; and discussion of the plight of immigrant women who
worked in Virginia’s textile factories.
• Chapter 4 “From Colonies to States” includes new assessment of the
small, but distinctive French immigration to North America before 1750;
new focus on the massive surge in immigration and slave imports after
the French and Indian War; and, new treatments of the first
Revolutionary battles.
• Chapter 5 “The American Revolution” features new discussion of the
system of enslaved labor during the War of Independence, the
discriminatory legal status of African Americans, and British
characterizations of American colonies as the “land of the free and the
land of the slave.” There is also a profile of Thomas Jeremiah, a South
Carolina “boatman” whom colonial authorities executed after he alerted
enslaved blacks that British soldiers were coming to “help the poor
Negroes.” The chapter also includes a new photo depicting free black
soldiers fighting in the Revolution.
• Chapter 6 “Strengthening the New Nation” expands discussion of the
delegates to the Constitutional Convention and their involvement with
slavery; features debates over immigration in the new nation, offers new
perspective on Alexander Hamilton’s development as an immigrant to the

Preface xxiii
United States. It includes new photos of the uniform Rule of

Naturalization in 1790, southern writer Eliza Yonge Wilkinson, and
women’s activist Judith Sargent Murray.
• Chapter 7 “The Early Republic” includes expanded treatment of the Lewis
and Clark expedition, of the strategic significance of the Louisiana
Purchase, and the legacy of the War of 1812. It also features new coverage
of Thomas Jefferson’s writings on race and frank discussion of his sexual
relationship with slave Sally Hemings; includes new photos of a Sacagawea
dollar and an anti-Jefferson cartoon.
• Chapter 8 “The Emergence of a Market Economy” includes new
discussions on anti-Catholic and anti-Irish sentiments during the first
half of the nineteenth century, the changing dynamics among immigrants
of different nationalities, and the challenges immigrant workers faced in
forming unions. New photos that depict symbols of organized labor and
of Irish immigration have been added.
• Chapter 9 “Nationalism and Sectionalism” features a revised profile of
John Quincy Adams and fresh coverage of Henry Clay.
• Chapter 10 “The Jacksonian Era” includes expanded coverage of Andrew
Jackson’s Indian Removal policy, the Deposit and Distribution Act, the
Specie Circular, and the Eaton Affair—including a new image of Peggy
Eaton.
• Chapter 11 “The South, Slavery, and King Cotton” highlights the
changing dynamics between slave labor and immigrant labor in the Old
South, new coverage of sexual violence upon female slaves in the New
Orleans slave trade and other regions, and a new photo depicting the
vitality of African American religion.
• Chapter 12 “Religion, Romanticism, and Reform” includes revised
discussions of religious awakenings, Mormonism, and transcendentalism,
with expanded focus on transcendentalist Henry David Thoreau and
Christian revivalist Peter Cartwright. The chapter also features social
developments in women’s rights and the transition from gradualism to
abolitionism among those opposed to slavery.
• Chapter 13 “Western Expansion” includes a new biographical sketch of
John A. Sutter, the Swiss settler who founded a colony of European
emigrants in California and created a wilderness empire centered on the
gold rush. It also contains expanded content on Irish and German
immigrants in the Saint Patrick’s Battalion in the Mexican army. The
chapter also reveals the development of John C. Calhoun’s race-based
ideology following the Texas Revolution and includes a new photograph
of the Donner party.

xxiv Preface
• Chapter 14 “The Gathering Storm” features new discussion of the

California gold rush’s impact on the Native American population,
new biographical material on Presidents James Buchanan and
Abraham Lincoln, and expanded coverage of the Lincoln-Douglas
debates.
• Chapter 15 “The War of the Union” discusses the substantial immigrant
participation in the Civil War, features a new biographical sketch and
photo of Private Lyons Wakeman—a young woman who disguised herself
as a man in order to fight in the Union army. Also added is new
discussion of African American rebellions in the South.
• Chapter 16 “The Era of Reconstruction” explains changing immigration
policy in the context of the Naturalization Act of 1870; offers new
treatments of Indian policies, Congressional Reconstruction, and the
legacies of Reconstruction.
• Chapter 17 “Business and Labor in the Industrial Era” includes broader
discussion of immigrant women, the contributions of inventors like
Croatian immigrant Nikola Tesla, and examines the relationship between
immigration—especially Chinese immigration—and the railroad boom
beginning in the 1860s. Increased discussion of immigrants and the
settlement house movement, union organizers such as Eugene Debs, and
textile mill and factory strikers.
• Chapter 18 “The New South and the New West” expands explanation of
the spread of institutional racial segregation and of the emergence of the
southern tobacco industry after the Civil War.
• Chapter 19 “Political Stalemate and Rural Revolt” includes new photos of
Charles Guiteau, who assassinated President James Garfield, and of the
unemployed protesters who marched in Coxey’s Army protesting the
recession of the late nineteenth century.
• Chapter 20 “Seizing an American Empire” includes expanded content and
a new photo regarding Japanese immigration to the United States.
• Chapter 21 “The Progressive Era” features increased discussion of the
social gospel movement and the women’s suffrage movement, new
biographical material on Presidents Taft, Roosevelt, and Wilson, and
expanded focus on the racial biases of the Wilson administration.
• Chapter 22 “America and the Great War” includes expanded coverage of
immigrants, including Italian American Tony Monanco, who fought in
World War I; new coverage of Woodrow Wilson’s prosecution of
immigrants who spread the poison of disloyalty during the war;
nativism’s ties to racism and eugenics; and increased discussion about
the Palmer raids.

Preface xxv
• Chapter 23 “A Clash of Cultures” includes new discussion of flappers, the

sexual revolution, and the new woman; revised treatments of Albert
Einstein, scientific developments, and the impact of the radio; and, fresh
insights into Ernest Hemingway and the “Lost Generation.”
• Chapter 24 “The Reactionary Twenties” expands discussion of
reactionary conservatism and restrictive immigration policies; extends
content on the revival of the Ku Klux Klan, prohibition, racial
progressivism, and President Herbert Hoover’s financial and social
policies. There are new photos depicting the Johnson-Reed Act, Hoover’s
“Keep Smiling” slogan, and the Bonus Army.
• Chapter 25 “The New Deal” features expanded coverage of the New Deal’s
impact on women and Native Americans; there is new material on President
Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s relationship with his wife Eleanor Roosevelt.
• Chapter 26 “The Second World War” includes expanded coverage of
social and racial prejudice against African Americans and Japanese
Americans; features a new discussion of army enlistment after the attack
on Pearl Harbor; and new photos depicting the Battle of the Bulge and
A. Philip Randolph.
• Chapter 27 “The Cold War and the Fair Deal” includes discussion of the
Immigration and Nationality (McCarran-Walter) Act of 1952 within
the contexts of the Red Scare and McCarthyism.
• Chapter 28 “America in the Fifties” highlights the emergence of a “car
culture,” expanded discussion of the communist politics of Cuba, and
bolstered coverage regarding Elizabeth Eckford, the student who
attempted to enter Little Rock High School in Arkansas after the
desegregation of public schools.
• Chapter 29 “A New Frontier and a Great Society” includes fresh coverage
of the Immigration and Nationality Services Act of 1965, of the Logan Act
regarding communication with foreign governments, and of U.S.
Attorney General Robert Kennedy. It also features new set pieces
highlighting the work of organizers Audre Lorde and Angela Davis, both
of whom were involved with the Black Panther party.
• Chapter 30 “Rebellion and Reaction” features new discussions on the
founding of the United Farm Workers and the organizing efforts of
Dolores Huerta and Cesar Chavez, including Chavez’s twenty-five-day
hunger strike in 1968 and the pathbreaking worker’s rights negotiations
with grape growers in the 1970s. It also includes a new set piece
spotlighting feminist pioneer and Ms. magazine founder Gloria Steinem,
and another covering clinical psychology professor Timothy Leary’s
crusade on behalf of psychedelic drugs.

xxvi Preface
• Chapter 31 “Conservative Revival” includes expanded discussion of the

Carter administration, new coverage of the Immigration Act of 1990,
and revised treatment of George H. W. Bush’s presidency.
• Chapter 32 “Twenty-First-Century America” includes new coverage and
photos of the Black Lives Matter movement, the 2016 election, and the
Me Too movement. New Trump administration coverage includes the
efforts to restrict immigration and movement (travel ban, family
separation, and increased border security); the proposed ban of
transgender service members; and Supreme Court appointments.
In addition, I have incorporated throughout this edition fresh insights from

important new books and articles covering many significant topics. Whether
you consider yourself a political, social, cultural, or economic historian,
you’ll find new material to consider and share with your students.
As part of making the new editions even more teachable and classroom
friendly, the new Eleventh Edition of America: A Narrative History also
makes history an immersive experience through its innovative pedagogy and
digital resources. Norton InQuizitive for History—W. W. Norton’s
groundbreaking, formative, and adaptive new learning program—enables
both students and instructors to assess learning progress at the individual
and classroom level. The Norton Coursepack provides an array of support
materials—free to instructors—who adopt the text for integration into their
local learning-management system. The Norton Coursepack includes
valuable assessment and skill-building activities like new primary source
exercises, review quizzes, and interactive map resources. In addition, we’ve
created new Chapter Overview videos that give students a visual introduction
to the key themes and historical developments they will encounter in each
chapter (see pages xxvi–xxx for information about student and instructor
resources).
Media Resources for Instructors

and Students
America’s new student resources are designed to develop more-discriminating
readers, guiding students through the narrative while simultaneously
developing their critical thinking and history skills.
The comprehensive ancillary package features a groundbreaking new
formative and adaptive learning system, as well as innovative interactive

Preface xxvii
resources, including maps and primary sources, all designed to help students
master the Focus Questions in each chapter and continue to nurture their
work as historians. W. W. Norton is unique in partnering to develop these
resources exclusively with subject-matter experts who teach the course. As a
result, instructors have all the course materials needed to manage their U.S.
history survey class, whether they are teaching face-to-face, online, or in a
hybrid setting.
New! History Skills Tutorials

With the Eleventh Edition we’ve expanded our digital resources to include a
new series of tutorials to build students’ critical analysis skills. The History
Skills Tutorials combine video and interactive assessments to teach students
how to analyze documents, images, and maps. By utilizing a three-step
process, students learn a framework for analysis through videos featuring
David Shi; then are challenged to apply what they have learned through a
series of interactive assessments. The History Skills Tutorials can be assigned
at the beginning of the semester to prepare students for analysis of the sources
in the textbook and beyond, or they can be integrated as remediation tools
throughout the semester.
New! Chapter Overview Videos

New Chapter Overview Videos, featuring author David Shi, combine images
and primary sources to provide visual introduction to the key themes and
historical developments students will encounter in each chapter. These are in
addition to the Author Videos in which David Shi explains essential
developments and difficult concepts, with available closed captioning.
Norton InQuizitive for History

This groundbreaking formative, adaptive learning tool improves student
understanding of the Focus Questions in each chapter. Students receive
personalized quiz questions on the topics with which they need the most
help. Questions range from vocabulary and concepts to interactive maps and
primary sources that challenge students to begin developing the skills
necessary to do the work of a historian. Engaging game-like elements
motivate students as they learn. As a result, students come to class better
prepared to participate in discussions and activities.

xxviii Preface
Student Site
Free and open to all students, the Student Site includes additional resources
and tools.
• Author Videos: These segments include the NEW! Chapter Overview
Videos and feature David Shi discussing essential developments and
difficult concepts from the book.
• Online Reader: This resource offers a collection of primary source
documents and images for use in assignments and activities.
• iMaps: Interactive maps allow students to view layers of information on
each map with accompanying printable Map Worksheets for offline
labeling.
Norton Ebooks
Norton Ebooks give students and instructors an enhanced reading experience
at a fraction of the cost of a print textbook. Students are able to have an active
reading experience and can take notes, bookmark, search, highlight, and
even read offline. As an instructor, you can add your own notes for students
to see as they read the text. Norton Ebooks can be viewed on—and synced
between—all computers and mobile devices. The ebook for the Eleventh
Edition includes imbedded Author Videos, including the new Chapter
Overview Videos; pop-up key term definitions; and enlargeable images and
maps.
Norton LMS Resources

Easily add high quality Norton digital media to your online, hybrid, or lecture
course—all at no cost. Norton Coursepacks work within your existing
learning-management system; there’s no new system to learn, and access is
free and easy. Content is customizable and includes:
• Author Videos: These segments include the NEW! Chapter Overview
Videos and illuminate key events, developments, and concepts in each
chapter by bringing the narrative to life with additional context and
anecdotes.
• Primary Source Exercises: These activities feature primary sources with
multiple-choice and short-response questions to encourage close reading
and analysis.

Preface xxix
• iMaps: These interactive tools challenge students to better understand

the nature of change over time by allowing them to explore the
different layers of maps from the book. Follow-up map worksheets help
build geography skills by allowing students to test their knowledge by
labeling.
• Review Quizzes: Multiple-choice and true/false questions allow
students to test their knowledge of the chapter content and then identify
where they need to focus their attention to better understand difficult
concepts.
• Online Reader: This resource includes about 1,000 additional
primary sources (textual and visual). These are also available
grouped by Research Topic for further investigation and writing
assignments.
• Flashcards: This tool aligns key terms and events with brief descriptions
and definitions.
• Forum Prompts: Three to five suggested topics per chapter offer
additional opportunities for class discussion.
Instructor’s Manual
The Instructor’s Manual for America: A Narrative History, Eleventh Edition, is
designed to help instructors prepare lectures. It contains chapter summaries;
chapter outlines; lecture ideas; in-class activities; discussion questions; and a
NEW! Quality Matters correlation guide.
Test Bank
The Test Bank contains over 2,000 multiple-choice, true/false, and essay
questions. The questions are aligned with the chapter’s Focus Questions and
classified according to level of difficulty, and Bloom’s Taxonomy, offering
multiple avenues for content and skill assessment. All Norton Test Banks are
available with ExamView Test Generator software, allowing instructors to
easily create, administer, and manage assessments.
Classroom Presentation Tools

• Lecture PowerPoint Slides: These ready-made presentations feature
images and maps from the book as well as bullet points to encourage
student comprehension and engagement.

xxx Preface
• Image Files: All images and maps from the book are available separately
in JPEG and PowerPoint format for instructor use.
• Norton American History Digital Archive: The archive includes over
1,700 images, audio and video files that are arranged chronologically and
by theme.
Primary Source Readers to Accompany

America: A Narrative History
• NEW! Seventh Edition of For the Record: A Documentary History of
America, by David E. Shi and Holly A. Mayer (Duquesne University), is
the perfect companion reader for America: A Narrative History. For the
Record now features 268 primary-source readings from diaries, journals,
newspaper articles, speeches, government documents, and novels,
including several readings that highlight the substantially updated theme
of immigration history in this new edition of America. If you haven’t
scanned For the Record in a while, now would be a good time to take
a look.
• Norton Mix: American History enables instructors to build their own
custom reader from a database of nearly 300 primary- and
secondary-source selections. The custom readings can be packaged as a
standalone reader or integrated with chapters from America into a custom
textbook.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
T
his Eleventh Edition of America: A Narrative History has been a team
effort. Several professors who have become specialists in teaching
the introductory survey course helped create the Test Bank, instruc-
tor resources, and interactive media:
David Cameron, Lone Star College– Maryellen Harman, North Central

University Park Missouri College
Brian Cervantez, Tarrant County David Marsich, Germanna
College–Northwest Campus Community College
Manar Elkhaldi, University of Lise Namikas, Baton Rouge
Central Florida Community College
Christina Gold, El Camino Matthew Zembo, Hudson Valley
College Community College
The quality and range of the professorial reviews on this project were truly
exceptional. The book and its accompanying media components were greatly
influenced by the suggestions provided by the following instructors:
Milan Andrejevich, Ivy Tech Sharon J. Burnham, John Tyler

College–South Bend Community College
Carol A. Bielke, San Antonio Michael Collins, Texas State
Independent School District University
April Birchfield, Asheville- Scott Cook, Motlow State
Buncombe Technical Community College
Community College Carrie Coston, Blinn College
Howard Bodner, Houston Nicholas P. Cox, Houston
Community College Community College
Matt Brent, Rappahannock Tyler Craddock, J. Sargeant
Community College Reynolds Community College
xxxi

xxxii Acknowledgments
Carl E. Creasman Jr., Valencia Jennifer Lang, Delgado Community

College College
Stephen K. Davis, Texas State Nina McCune, Baton Rouge
University Community College
Frank De La O, Midland College Richard Randall Moore,
Jim Dudlo, Brookhaven College Metropolitan Community
Robert Glen Findley, Odessa College College–Longview
Brandon Franke, Blinn College Ken S. Mueller, Ivy Tech College–
Chad Garick, Jones County Junior Lafayette
College Lise Namikas, Colorado State
Christopher Gerdes, Lone Star University–Global
College–Kingwood and CyFair Brice E. Olivier, Temple College
Mark S. Goldman, Tallahassee Candice Pulkowski, The Art
Community College Institutes
Abbie Grubb, San Jacinto College– Shane Puryear, Lone Star College–
South Campus Greenspoint and Victory Centers
Devethia Guillory, Lone Star Carey Roberts, Liberty University
College–North Harris John Schmitz, Northern Virginia
Jennifer Heth, Tarrant County Community College–Annandale
College–South Campus Greg Shealy, University of
Justin Hoggard, Three Rivers College Wisconsin–Madison
Andrew G. Hollinger, Tarrant Thomas Summerhill, Michigan
County College State University
David P. Hopkins Jr., Midland Scott M. Williams, Weatherford
College College
Justin Horton, Thomas Nelson Christopher Thomas, J. Sargeant
Community College Reynolds Community College
Theresa R. Jach, Houston Laura Matysek Wood, Tarrant
Community College County College–Northwest
Robert Jason Kelly, Holmes Crystal R. M. Wright, North
Community College Central Texas College
As always, my colleagues at W. W. Norton shared with me their dedicated

expertise and their poise amid tight deadlines, especially Jon Durbin, Melissa
Atkin, Lily Gellman, Carson Russell, Sarah Rose Aquilina, Ben Reynolds,
Sarah England Bartley, Hope Goodell Miller, Travis Carr, and Marne Evans.
In addition, Jim Stewart, a patient friend and consummate editor, helped
winnow my wordiness.
Finally, I have dedicated this Eleventh Edition of America to George
B. Tindall, my friend and co-author, who until his death in 2006, shared his
wisdom, knowledge, wit, and humor with me. Although few of his words
remain in this book, his spirit continues to animate its pages.

AMERICA

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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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(eTextbook PDF) for America: A

Narrative History (Eleventh Edition)

David Emory Shi

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All rights reserved

Editor: Jon Durbin

Cover design: Tiani Kennedy

Permission to use copyrighted material is included on page A151.

The Library of Congress has cataloged the Full, One-Volume, Edition as

Names: Shi, David Emory, author.

ISBN this edition: 978-0-393-66893-3

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List of Maps • xvii

PART ONE A NOT-SO-“NEW” WORLD 1

1 The Collision of Cultures 4

3 Colonial Ways of Life 114

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4 From Colonies to States 156

PART TWO BUILDING A NATION 211

5 The American Revolution, 1776–1783 214

6 Strengthening the New Nation 262

7 The Early Republic, 1800–1815 324

PART THREE AN EXPANDING NATION 367

8 The Emergence of a Market Economy,

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9 Nationalism and Sectionalism,

10 The Jacksonian Era, 1828–1840 442

PART FOUR A HOUSE DIVIDED AND REBUILT 573

13 Western Expansion, 1830–1848 576

14 The Gathering Storm, 1848–1860 618

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15 The War of the Union, 1861–1865 662

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The First Migration 6

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The Old Northwest, 1785 270

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The Election of 1860 653

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it convey how ordinary people managed everyday concerns—housing, jobs,

• Chapter 1 “The Collision of Cultures” highlights President John F.

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United States. It includes new photos of the uniform Rule of

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• Chapter 14 “The Gathering Storm” features new discussion of the

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• Chapter 23 “A Clash of Cultures” includes new discussion of flappers, the

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• Chapter 31 “Conservative Revival” includes expanded discussion of the

In addition, I have incorporated throughout this edition fresh insights from

Media Resources for Instructors

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New! History Skills Tutorials

New! Chapter Overview Videos

Norton InQuizitive for History

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Norton LMS Resources

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• iMaps: These interactive tools challenge students to better understand

Classroom Presentation Tools