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Groups Process and Practice 9th Edition
Groups Process and Practice 9th Edition
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GERALD COREY is Professor Emeritus of Human Services and
Counseling at California State University at Fullerton. He received his
doctorate in counseling from the University of Southern California. He
is a Diplomate in Counseling Psychology, American Board of Profes-
sional Psychology; a licensed psychologist; a National Certified Coun-
selor; a Fellow of the American Psychological Association (Counseling
Psychology); a Fellow of the American Counseling Association; and a
Fellow of the Association for Specialists in Group Work (ASGW). Along
with Marianne Schneider Corey, Jerry received the Lifetime Achieve-
ment Award from the American Mental Health Counselors Association
in 2011 and the Eminent Career Award from ASGW in 2001. He also
vi received the Outstanding Professor of the Year Award from California State University
at Fullerton in 1991. He regularly teaches both undergraduate and graduate courses in
about the authors
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Jerry is coauthor (with Barbara Herlihy) of Boundary Issues in Counseling: Mul-
tiple Roles and Responsibilities, Second Edition (2006), and ACA Ethical Stand-
ards Casebook, Sixth Edition (2006); he is coauthor (with Robert Haynes, Patrice
Moulton, and Michelle Muratori) of Clinical Supervision in the Helping Professions:
A Practical Guide, Second Edition (2010); he is the author of Creating Your Profes-
sional Path: Lessons From My Journey (2010). All four of these books are published
by the American Counseling Association.
Jerry has made several educational DVD and video programs on various as-
pects of counseling practice: (1) Groups in Action: Evolution and Challenges DVD
and Workbook (2014, with Marianne Schneider Corey and Robert Haynes);
(2) DVD for Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy: The Case of Stan
and Lecturettes (2013); (3) DVD for Integrative Counseling: The Case of Ruth and Lec-
turettes (2013, with Robert Haynes); (4) DVD for Theory and Practice of Group Coun-
seling (2012); and (5) Ethics in Action: CD-ROM (2003, with Marianne Schneider
Corey and Robert Haynes). All of these programs are available through Brooks/Cole,
Cengage Learning.
vii
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To Brian Leeds and Matthew Nance, the loving and
engaged fathers to our delightful three grandchildren.
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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has
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Contents
Preface xxi
part 1
Introduction: Basic Issues in Group Work 3
Chapter 1 Introduction to Group Work 5
Introduction 6
An Overview of Various Types of Groups 6
Task Groups 7
Psychoeducational Groups 8
Counseling Groups 9
Psychotherapy Groups 10
Brief Groups 11
A Multicultural Perspective on Group Work 12
Becoming a Diversity-Competent Group Counselor 15
A Starting Place: Understanding Your Own Culture 16
A Personal Perspective on Understanding Differences 17
A Framework for Developing Diversity Competence 18
Inviting Conversations About Culture With
Group Members 20
Points to Remember 23
Introduction to Group Work 23
Exercises 23
Questions for Discussion 23
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Developing a Research Orientation to Practice 48
How Research Can Enhance Your Group Practice 48
The Challenge of Combining Research and Practice 48
Points to Remember 50
Concepts and Guidelines for Group Practitioners 50
Exercises 50
Attitude Questionnaire on Group Leadership 50
Self-Assessment of Group Leadership Skills 52
Questions for Discussion 56
Guide to Groups in Action: Evolution and Challenges
DVD and Workbook 57
xii
contents
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Guidelines for Ethical and Legal Practice 89
Legal Liability and Malpractice 90
Legal Safeguards for Group Practitioners 90
Points to Remember 92
Ethical and Legal Issues in Group Counseling 92
Exercises 93
In-Class Activities 93
Questions for Discussion 95
co n t e n t s
Our Theoretical Orientation 99
Developing Your Own Theory of Group Practice 104
Using Group Techniques Effectively 104
Rationale for Use of Techniques 105
Viewing a Group Through a Multicultural Lens 106
Relationship of Theories to Techniques 107
Psychodynamic Approaches 108
Psychoanalytic Approach 108
The Adlerian Approach 110
Experiential and Relationship-Oriented Approaches 113
The Existential Approach 114
The Person-Centered Approach 116
Gestalt Therapy 118
Psychodrama 120
Cognitive Behavioral Approaches 123
Behavior Therapy 124
Cognitive Therapy 126
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy 128
Reality Therapy 130
Postmodern Approaches 132
Solution-Focused Brief Therapy 133
Narrative Therapy 136
Feminist Therapy 138
An Integrative Approach 140
Points to Remember 142
Theories and Techniques of Group Counseling 142
Exercises 142
Questions for Discussion 142
Guide to Groups in Action: Evolution and Challenges DVD and Workbook 143
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part 2
Group Process: Stages of Development 145
Chapter 5 Forming a Group 147
Introduction 148
Developing a Proposal for a Group 148
Working Within the System 149
Attracting and Screening Members 150
Guidelines for Announcing a Group and Recruiting
Group Members 150
Screening and Selection Procedures 151
xiv
Practical Considerations in Forming a Group 155
contents
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Self-Focus Versus Focus on Others 174
Here-and-Now Focus Versus There-and-Then Focus 175
Trust Versus Mistrust 176
Creating Trust: Leader and Member Roles 177
The Importance of Modeling 177
Attitudes and Actions Leading to Trust 179
Identifying and Clarifying Goals 184
General Goals for Group Members 184
Helping Members Define Personal Goals 185
Group Process Concepts at the Initial Stage 186
Group Norms 186 xv
Group Cohesion 190
co n t e n t s
Effective Therapeutic Relationships: Research Findings 191
Support Versus Confrontation 192
Guidelines for Creating Therapeutic Relationships With Members 192
Helping Members Get the Most From a Group Experience 193
Leader Guidelines for Members 194
Avoid Too Much Structuring and Teaching 200
Journal Writing as an Adjunct to Group Sessions 201
Homework During the Initial Stage 201
Leader Issues at the Initial Stage 203
Division of Responsibility 204
Degree of Structuring 205
Opening and Closing Group Sessions 207
Points to Remember 210
Initial Stage Characteristics 210
Member Functions 211
Leader Functions 211
Exercises 211
Facilitation of Initial Stage of a Group 211
Guide to Groups in Action: Evolution and Challenges DVD and Workbook 213
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Problem Behaviors and Difficult Group Members 233
Silence and Lack of Participation 235
Monopolistic Behavior 237
Storytelling 239
Questioning 240
Giving Advice 241
Dependency 242
Offering Pseudosupport 243
Hostile Behavior 244
Acting Superior 245
Socializing 246
xvi Intellectualizing 246
Members Becoming Assistant Leaders 247
contents
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Feedback 284
Confrontation 286
Cohesion and Universality 287
Hope 289
Willingness to Risk and to Trust 290
Caring and Acceptance 290
Power 291
Catharsis 292
The Cognitive Component 293
Commitment to Change 294
Freedom to Experiment 294
Humor 295 xvii
co n t e n t s
Topics for Coleader Meetings 296
Points to Remember 297
Working Stage Characteristics 297
Member Tasks and Functions 297
Leader Functions 297
Exercises 298
Assessment of the Working Stage 298
Questions for Discussion 298
Member’s Weekly Evaluation of a Group 298
Guide to Groups in Action: Evolution and Challenges DVD and Workbook 299
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Points to Remember 318
Final Stage Characteristics 318
Member Functions 318
Leader Functions 318
Exercises 319
Final Stage of a Group 319
Questions for Discussion 320
Guide to Groups in Action: Evolution and Challenges DVD and Workbook 320
part 3
Application of Group Process to Schools and Community
xviii Agency Settings 323
contents
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Exercises 366
In-Class Activities 366
co n t e n t s
Group Proposal: A Group for the Treatment of Sex Offenders 384
The AIDS Crisis as a Challenge for Group Workers 388
How Groups Can Help 389
An Educational Focus in HIV/AIDS Groups 389
Group Proposal: An HIV/AIDS Support Group 390
Group Work With Older Adults 394
Attitudes, Knowledge, and Skills of Leaders 395
Preparing Yourself to Work With Older Adults 396
Practical and Professional Considerations for Group Work With Older
Adults 396
Guidelines for the Group Process 396
Working With Healthy Aging People in Groups 398
Group Proposal: A Successful Aging Group 398
The Therapeutic Value of Grief Work in Groups 404
Group Proposal: An Older Adult Bereavement Group 405
Group Proposal: A Group Treatment Program for Institutionalized Older
Adults 411
The Therapeutic Value of Touch 416
Points to Remember 416
Groups in Community Settings 416
Exercises 417
In-Class Activities 417
Appendix 419
References and Suggested Readings 423
Name Index 439
Subject Index 443
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Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has
deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Preface
This book outlines the basic issues and key concepts of group process
and shows how group leaders can apply these concepts in working
with a variety of groups. In many ways this is a “how-to” book, but it
is also a book about the “why” of group leadership.
When a new edition of one of our books appears, professors often ask,
“What is new about this edition?” The philosophy of group work in this book
has been consistent since our first edition in 1977. However, this ninth edition
of Groups: Process and Practice contains many subtle changes in our discussion
of the topics within each chapter, and many chapters have undergone consider-
able revision with new material added. Our thinking has been refined through
our group work practice and teaching over the past 35 years (since the original
edition), and we have attempted to bring each new edition in line with current
practices in the field.
Beginning with the eighth edition we added the contributions of coauthor
Cindy Corey, who brings her expertise in multicultural counseling to the prac-
tice of group work and to this present edition. Cindy has integrated current
applications of diversity to the practice of group work and has expanded on the
topics presented in earlier editions. Many reviewers, and the results of a Web
survey by users of this book, indicated that they value the practical aspect of
Groups, and they suggested that we add even more clinical examples to bring
the topics of discussion to life. This ninth edition contains many new and
expanded examples with a focus on diversity in group work.
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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
model. There is new material on research trends in group work and ways that
research can enhance one’s group practice.
• Chapter 3 (Ethical and Legal Issues in Group Counseling) covers updated ma-
terial on the ethical and legal aspects of group counseling, as well as other top-
ics such as ethical issues in training group workers. There are new sections on
social justice issues in group work and on ethical concerns when using group
techniques. This chapter has been revised to encompass a comprehensive dis-
cussion of both ethical aspects of group work and risk management practices.
• Chapter 4 (Theories and Techniques of Group Counseling) is new to this edi-
tion. This chapter highlights the relationship between theory and technique and
addresses topics such as theory as a roadmap, using techniques effectively, and
xxii
developing an integrative approach to group practice. This new chapter is organ-
ized by four general theories: psychodynamic approaches, experiential and rela-
p r e f ace
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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
• In Chapter 7 (Transition Stage of a Group) we offer a reframing and recon-
ceptualization of resistance and provide a discussion on understanding and
working with difficult group behaviors therapeutically. There is more em-
phasis on understanding and honoring clients’ resistance and new material
on motivational interviewing as a way to address ambivalence and increase
motivation to change. We highlight the necessity of understanding how
cultural factors can account for behavioral manifestations that may appear
to be problematic behavior and consider conflict and confrontation from a
cultural perspective. There are more examples of both leader behavior and
member behavior pertaining to dealing with mistrust in a group and how to
increase trust. And an expanded discussion of the role of transference and
countertransference includes guidelines for dealing effectively with coun- xxiii
tertransference.
pr e f a c e
• Chapter 8 (Working Stage of a Group) includes an expanded discussion of the
therapeutic factors operating in a group. In addition, a revised and expanded
section explores what researchers have discovered about group cohesion and
its importance to successful outcomes for group work.
• Chapter 9 (Final Stage of a Group) contains updated literature on the tasks
of terminating a group experience. Increased emphasis is given to dealing
with emotional reactions pertaining to termination. There is revised material
addressing unfinished business in a group.
Part 2 includes numerous examples that illustrate a variety of leader interven-
tions in response to the problems often encountered in facilitating a group. We tie
in the theoretical approaches covered in Chapter 4 to the various topics in the stages
of a group. We also have linked the group proposals described in Chapters 10 and
11 to selected topics in Part 2 so readers can see practical examples of the concepts
being discussed. Each chapter in this section contains a summary of the character-
istics of the particular stage along with member functions and leader functions at
each stage of group development. The chapters conclude with several exercises that
can be done either at home or in the classroom. We have integrated citations to rel-
evant research when it was available, and we draw on our own experience in group
work for personal examples and share our perspectives on the topics we explore.
We have attempted to keep the reader-friendly writing style that students say they
appreciate.
In Part 3 we show how the basic concepts examined in Part 2 can be applied to
specific types of groups in the schools and in community agency settings. We offer
guidelines for group leaders who want to design groups specifically for children,
adolescents, adults, and older adults in different settings. The 13 group proposals
focus on the unique needs of each kind of group and how to meet those needs.
• Chapter 10 (Groups in School Settings) includes five group proposals for children
and adolescents. This chapter consolidates material from two chapters in the pre-
vious edition and gives increased attention to the guidelines for group work with
children and adolescents. Most of the group proposals have been revised, and a
new section on groups in college counseling centers has been added.
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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
• Chapter 11 (Groups in Community Settings) features eight group proposals for
adult groups at various developmental stages and with particular life issues.
This chapter consolidates material from two chapters in the previous edition.
Also, a new group proposal on treating sex offenders has been added.
At the end of the book is an Appendix with contact information for the pro-
fessional group work organizations and an updated list of references and sug-
gested readings in group work, with more than 100 new references in this edi-
tion. We encourage readers to pursue their own interests using these resources
as a foundation.
Groups: Process and Practice is intended for graduate and undergraduate stu-
dents majoring in psychology, sociology, counseling, clinical mental health coun-
xxiv
seling, social work, marriage and family therapy, education, and human services
who are taking courses in group counseling or group leadership. It is also a practi-
p r e f ace
cal manual for practitioners involved in leading groups and for counselors training
to lead various types of groups. Others who may find this book useful in their work
are social workers, rehabilitation counselors, teachers, pastoral counselors, correc-
tional workers, and marriage and family therapists.
Ancillaries
We have developed a self-study video program and workbook combination titled
Groups in Action: Evolution and Challenges that can be used as an integrated learning
package with Groups: Process and Practice. This self-study program consists of three
parts. The first program, Evolution of a Group (2 hours) depicts central features that
illustrate the development of the group process and how the coleaders facilitated that
process as the group moved through the various stages: initial, transition, working,
and ending. The second program, Challenges for Group Leaders (90 minutes) demon-
strates ways to work therapeutically with a variety of difficult behaviors in groups and
approaches to addressing diversity issues in group counseling. The third program,
new to this edition, contains Lecturettes on Theories and Techniques of Group Counseling
(1 hour) by Jerry Corey. An overview of the various theories and their application to
techniques in group work are discussed here. The Workbook that accompanies this
video program has been revised and expanded to include key points and questions
for reflection on the lecturettes on theories and techniques of group counseling. The
videos and the workbook are designed to be an integrated package. This program
utilizes an interactive format and requires students to become active learners as they
study the group process in action. These resources are available in both a DVD format
and online at Cengage Learning’s Counseling CourseMate website.
An Instructor’s Resource Manual for this ninth edition of Groups: Process and Prac-
tice is also available. It contains multiple-choice test items, essay exam questions,
questions for reflection and discussion, additional exercises and activities, guidelines
for using the Groups in Action: Evolution and Challenges program with this book, read-
ing suggestions for instructors in preparing classes, a survey of current practices
in teaching group counseling courses, PowerPoint lecture slides, and examples of
course outlines. We also describe our approach to workshops in training and super-
vising group leaders, which can be incorporated in many group courses.
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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Acknowledgments
The reviewers of this ninth edition have been instrumental in making significant
changes from the earlier editions. Those who reviewed the entire revised manu-
script and provided us with many constructive suggestions incorporated in this
edition include Caroline Booth, North Carolina A&T State University; John Miller,
University of Little Rock; David Tobin, Gannon University; and Gail Uellendahl,
California Lutheran University. Several people did a selected review of the new
Chapter 4 (Theories and Techniques of Group Counseling): Paul Blisard, Mis-
souri State University; Meredith Drew, Centenary College; William Kolodinsky,
Northern Arizona University; Elizabeth Maloney, San Joaquin Delta College; and
Joy Whitman, DePaul University.
xxv
Guest contributors provided us with 13 group proposals in Part 3, describing
groups they had designed. Our appreciation goes to the following people for shar-
pr e f a c e
ing a description of their groups: Lupe and Randy Alle-Corliss, Jamie Bludworth,
Teresa Christensen, Alan Forrest, Paul Jacobson, Stephen Lanzet, Karen Kram
Laudenslager, Sheila Morris, Valerie Russell, and Jason Sonnier. It is our hope
that their creative group proposals inspire you to think of ways to design your own
groups.
This book is the result of a team effort, which includes the combined efforts of
several people at Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning. We thank Seth Dobrin, editor of
counseling, social work, and human services; Julie Martinez, consulting editor, who
monitored the review process; Caryl Gorska, for her work on the interior design
and cover of this book; Elizabeth Momb, media editor; Naomi Dreyer, supplemen-
tal materials for the book; Michelle Muratori, Johns Hopkins University, for her
work on updating the Instructor’s Resource Manual and assisting in developing the
other supplements; and Rita Jaramillo, project manager. We thank Ben Kolstad of
Cenveo Publisher Services, who coordinated the production of this book. Special
recognition goes to Kay Mikel, the manuscript editor of this edition, whose excep-
tional editorial talents continue to keep this book reader friendly. We appreciate
Susan Cunningham’s work in preparing the index. The efforts and dedication of all
of these people certainly contribute to the high quality of this edition.
Marianne Schneider Corey
Gerald Corey
Cindy Corey
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GROUPS p r ocess and practice
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Introduction part 1
Basic Issues in Group Work
The effort involved in setting up and leading groups is considerable, yet we believe
this commitment is essential in facilitating successful groups. Well-run groups
provide members with a place to give and receive feedback, to gain insight into
their interpersonal dynamics, and to address old wounds and unfinished business
in their lives. A colleague of ours once said, “Individuals are wounded in relation-
ships and can heal in relationships.” Oftentimes, however, the people who have
wounded us are not the people with whom we heal. Group counseling provides
a powerful place for healing. Participants can rewrite old scripts that no longer
serve them and practice new ways of being in relationship with others. Groups
have much to offer, but designing and facilitating groups in a variety of settings
is a complex undertaking. In this book we offer some blueprints for forming and
conducting groups in a manner that will release the strivings for health within
individuals.
Part 1 addresses the fundamentals of group work and provide guidelines for
beginning your own work as a group leader. These chapters emphasize the
importance of developing a personal style of group leadership and conceptualiz-
ing an approach to the practice of group work. In our work as group leaders we
actively facilitate the group, especially during the beginning and ending phases.
Most groups are time limited, and our interventions and structuring are aimed
at assisting members to fully use the group process to attain their personal goals.
During the initial stage we devote time to teaching members how to get the most
from a group experience. Toward the end of a group we assist members in concep-
tualizing what they have learned so they can maximize their gains and apply new
behaviors to everyday life.
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chapter 1
Introduction
An Overview of Various Types of Groups
A Multicultural Perspective on Group Work
Becoming a Diversity-Competent Group Counselor
Points to Remember
Exercises
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Y ou are a college counselor working in the Educational Opportunity Program
(EOP) with students on academic probation. You have noticed that several
themes are emerging that are related to the students’ difficulties with their academic
performance. You have decided to form a group that will meet each week to help these
students succeed academically. What issues do you think first-generation college stu-
dents might be facing, both internally and externally, at home and within the educa-
tional institution? Open group, closed group, short-term, long-term, support group,
psychoeducational group, collaborative leadership, structured, unstructured—these
are a few of the kinds of groups that you might lead. Which types of groups do you
think would have the greatest impact for these students? Think about the problems a
6 first-generation student might be facing from a sociocultural perspective and outline
the methods you think would be most effective in addressing these issues in a group
p a r t 1 : i n t r o d u ct i o n
setting. What strengths do you have as a counselor in working with this population,
and what areas of growth or training might you need to pursue?
Introduction
Groups are an excellent treatment choice for numerous intrapersonal and interper-
sonal issues and for helping people change. Counseling groups are being designed
for all kinds of settings today and for many different client groups. Most of these
groups are not unstructured personal-growth groups but are short-term groups for
specific client populations. These groups are designed to remediate specific prob-
lems or to prevent problems.
Structured groups and psychoeducational groups fit well into today’s managed
care scene because they can be designed to be brief, cost-effective treatments. For
similar reasons, schools often use groups as the treatment of choice. These groups
are definitely time limited, however, and they have fairly narrow goals. Many of
these groups focus on symptomatic relief, teaching participants problem-solving
strategies, and developing interpersonal skills that can accelerate personal changes.
Many of the problems that bring people to counseling involve difficulties in
forming or maintaining intimate relationships. Clients often believe their prob-
lems are unique and that they have few options for making significant life changes.
They may be at a loss in knowing how to live well with the ones they love. Groups
provide a natural laboratory and a sense of community that demonstrates to people
that they are not alone and that there is hope for creating a different life. As you
will see in the chapters that follow, groups are powerful in part because they
allow participants to play out their long-term problems in the group sessions with
opportunities to try something different from what they have been doing.
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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
changes, and to support their changes. By interacting with others in a trusting and
accepting environment, participants are given the opportunity to experiment with
novel behavior and to receive honest feedback from others concerning the effects
of their behavior. As a result, individuals learn how they affect others.
Different types of groups require different levels of leader competence and
training, but all group leaders must have some common basic competencies. It
is important to distinguish among group types and purposes, and to deliver those
services that the group leader lists in marketing the group, so that potential group
members know what kind of group they are considering joining. We identify some
different types of groups in the following sections, but there is considerable over-
lap among these groups. The Association for Specialists in Group Work (ASGW,
2000) has identified a set of core competencies in general group work. These 7
standards make it clear that mastery of the basic knowledge and skills all leaders
ch ap t e r 1 : i n t r o d u c t i o n t o g r o u p w o r k
need to possess does not qualify a group worker to independently practice in any
group work specialty. In addition to the core competencies, practitioners must pos-
sess advanced competencies relevant to their particular area of group work. The
ASGW identifies four areas of advanced practice, referred to as specializations,
which we consider next: (a) task groups, (b) psychoeducational groups, (c) coun-
seling groups, and (d) psychotherapy groups.
Task Groups
Task groups (or task facilitation groups) are common in many organizations and
agencies, and they include task forces, committees, planning groups, staff deve-
lopment groups, treatment conferences, community organizations, social action
groups, discussion groups, study circles, learning groups, and other similar
groups. Task groups are common in community, business, and educational set-
tings. The task group specialist might develop skills in organizational assessment,
training, program development, consultation, and program evaluation. The focus
of these groups is on the application of group dynamics principles and processes to
improve practice and to foster accomplishment of identified work goals.
The training for task group leaders involves course work in the broad area of
organizational development, consultation, and management. Specialist training in
the area of task or work groups requires a minimum of 30 hours (45 hours recom-
mended) of supervised experience in leading or coleading a task or work group.
Both leaders and participants of task groups tend to want to get down to busi-
ness quickly, but focusing exclusively on the task at hand (content) can create prob-
lems for the group. A leader’s failure to attend to here-and-now factors is likely to
result in a group that becomes riveted on content concerns and has little apprecia-
tion for the role played by process issues in the success of a group. If interper-
sonal issues within the group are ignored, cooperation and collaboration will not
develop, and it is likely that group goals will not be met. It is essential that group
leaders recognize that process and relationships are central to getting a job done
in this type of group.
One of the leader’s tasks is to assist participants in understanding how attention
to this interpersonal climate directly relates to achieving the purpose and goals of
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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.