Chapters 1 and 2

Holy Name University - College of Health Sciences
Department of Radiologic Technology

ANAPHYSIO
First Semester A.Y 2023 - 2024
OVERVIEW OF ANATOMY AND Chemical Level- atoms combine to
PHYSIOLOGY form molecules
Anatomy Cellular level- cells are made up of
molecules
- Study of the structure and shape of
the body and its parts Tissue level- tissues consist of similar
- Observation is used to see sizes and types of cells
relationships of parts
Organ level- organs are made up of
Two types of Anatomy: different types of tissues
1. Gross anatomy Organ system level- organ systems
- Large structures consists of different organs that work
- Easily observable together closely
- Don’t need machines to view
body parts Organismal level- human organisms
2. Microscopic anatomy are made up of many organ systems
- Structures are too small to be
seen by the naked eye Organ System Overview
- Cells and tissues can be viewed
only with a microscope INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
- The skin
Physiology - Forms the external body covering
- Study of how the body and its (skin) and includes hair and
parts work or function fingernails
- Structure determines what - Waterproofs the body
functions can occur - Cushions and protects deeper
- For example, the air sacs of the tissue from injury.
lungs have very thin walls, a - Produces vitamin D with the help
feature that enables them to of sunlight
exchange gases and provide - Excretes salts in perspiration
oxygen to the body (singot)
- Helps regulate body temperature
Levels of Structural Organization - Location of cutaneous nerve
• Six levels of structural receptors (sensory
organization receptors/sense of touch)
1. Atoms - HAIR, SKIN AND FINGERNAILS
2. Cells
3. Tissues
4. Organs
5. Organ systems
6. Organisms
PAGE 1|GUEN GANUB BSRT2

ANAPHYSIO
SKELETAL SYSTEM - Endocrine glands include:
- Consists of bones, cartilages, ▪ Pituitary glands
ligaments and joints ▪ Thyroid and parathyroid
- Provides muscle attachments for glands
movement ▪ Adrenal glands
- Provides framework the muscle ▪ Thymus
use to cause movement ▪ Pancreas
- Protects vital organs (e.g the ▪ Pineal gland
ribcage protects the heart and ▪ Ovaries (females) and
lungs) testes (males)
- Site of blood cell formation CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
- Stores minerals (bone marrow) - Includes heart and blood vessels
MUSCULAR SYSTEM ▪ Heart pumps blood
- Skeletal muscles contract (or ▪ Vessels transport blood to
shorten) tissues
- Produces movement of bones - Blood transports:
- Allows manipulation of the ▪ Oxygen and CO2
environment, locomotion and ▪ Nutrients
facial expression ▪ Hormones
- Maintains posture - Blood also contains WBC and
- Produces heat chemicals that provide protection
NERVOUS SYSTEM from foreign invaders
- Fast-acting control system LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
- Consists of brain, spinal cord, - Includes lymphatic vessels,
nerves and sensory receptors lymph nodes, and lymphoid
- Responds to internal and external organs
stimuli - Complements the cardiovascular
- Sensory receptors detect system by returning leaked
changes fluids back to bloodstream
- Messages are sent to the central - Lymph nodes and other lymphoid
nervous system organs cleanse the blood
- CNS assesses information and - Houses white blood cells, which
activates effectors (muscles and are involved immunity
glands) - Picks up fluid leaked from blood
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM vessels and return it to blood
- Secretes chemical molecules, - Lymph nodes “lusay” are normal
called hormones into the blood because it means that its fighting
- Body functions controlled by an infection
hormones include:
▪ Growth
▪ Reproduction
▪ Use of nutrients

ANAPHYSIO
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - For females;
- Includes the nasal passages, ▪ Ovaries- produces eggs
pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi ▪ Uterine tubes
and lungs ▪ Uterus- provides site of
- Gases are exchanged with the development for fetus
blood through the walls of the air ▪ Vagina
sacs in the lungs ▪ Mammary glands (in
▪ Supplies the body with breasts)
oxygen - Overall function: PRODUCTION
▪ Removes CO2 OF OFFSPRING
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
- Includes the oral cavity (mouth), Maintaining Life
esophagus, stomach, small and
large intestines, rectum and NECESSARY LIFE FUNCTIONS
accessory organs
A. Maintaining boundaries
- Breaks down food
- Boundaries separate the “inside”
- Allows for nutrient absorption into
from the “outside”
blood
B. Movement
- Eliminates indigestible materials
- Locomotion
as feces
- Movement of substance
URINARY SYSTEM
C. Responsiveness (irritability)
- Includes the kidneys, ureters,
- Ability to sense chances and
urinary bladder and urethra
react
- Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
D. Digestion- breakdown and
- Maintains acid-base balance
absorption of nutrients
- Regulates water and electrolyte
E. Metabolism- chemical reactions
balance
within the body
- Helps regulates normal blood
▪ Breaks down complex molecules
pressure
into smaller one
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
▪ Builds larger molecules from
- For males;
smaller ones
▪ Testes- produces sperm
▪ Produces energy (ATP)
▪ Scrotum
▪ Regulated by hormones
▪ Penis
▪ Accessory glands and
▪ Duct system- carries
sperm to exterior

ANAPHYSIO
F. Excretion • Water
▪ Eliminates excreta (waste) from - 60 to 80% of body weight
metabolic reactions - Most abundant chemical in the
▪ Wastes may be removed in urine, human body
feces or sweat - Provides fluid base for body
G. Reproduction secretions and excretions
- Occurs on cellular level or • Normal body temperature
organismal level - 37oC (98.6oF)
▪ On cellular level- new cells - Below this temperature, chemical
are used for growth and reactions slow and stop
repair - Above this temperature, chemical
▪ On organismal level- the reactions proceed too rapidly
reproductive system • Atmospheric pressure
handles the task (the - Must be appropriate for gas
intercourse) exchange
H. Growth
- Increases cell size or body size THE LANGUANGE OF
(through increasing the number ANATOMY
of cells)
- Special terminology is used to
- Hormones play a major role
prevent misunderstanding
SURVIVAL NEEDS - Exact terms are used for:
▪ Position
• Nutrients ▪ Direction
- Chemicals used for energy and ▪ Regions
cell building ▪ Structures
- Includes; • Anatomical positions
▪ Carbohydrates- major - Standard body positions used to
energy-providing fuel for avoid confusion
body cells - Terminology refers to this position
▪ Proteins and fats- regardless of actual body position
essential for building cell - Stand erect, feet parallel
structures
▪ Fats- cushion body organs
and provide reserve fuel
▪ Minerals and vitamins-
required for the chemical
reactions that go on cells
• Oxygen
- Required for chemical reaction
- Made available by the
cooperation of the respiratory and
cardiovascular systems
ANAPHYSIO
• Directional Terms ▪ Intermediate: between a more
- Explain location of one body medial and a more lateral
structure in relation to another structure
▪ Superior (cranial or cephalic); ▪ Proximal: close to the origin of
toward the head or upper part of the body part or point of
a structure or the body; above attachment to a limb to the body
▪ Inferior (caudal); away from the trunk
head or toward the lower part of a ▪ Distal: farther from the origin of
structure or the body; below the body part or the point of
attachment of a limb to the body
trunk (trunk is the central part of
the body)
▪ Anterior (ventral); toward or at

the front, in front of
▪ Posterior (dorsal): toward or at
the backside of the body; behind
▪ Superficial (external): toward or
at the body surface
▪ Deep (internal): away from the
body surface more internal
▪ Medial: toward or at the midline

of body, on the inner side of
(pasulod)
▪ Lateral: away from the midline of
the body: on the outer side of
(pagawas)

ANAPHYSIO
• Regional Terms • Body Planes and Sections
▪ Anterior (ventral) body landmarks ▪ Sections are cuts along
imaginary lines known as planes
▪ Three types of planes or sections
exists as right angles to one
another
Sections
1. A sagittal section- divides the
body (or organ) into left and right
parts not necessarily equal
2. A median (midsagittal) section-
divides the body (or organ) into
equal left and right parts
3. A frontal (coronal) section-
anterior and posterior parts
4. A transverse (cross) section-
superior and inferior parts
▪ Posterior (dorsal) body

landmarks
• Body Cavities
▪ Two internal body cavities
o Dorsal
o Ventral
▪ Body cavities provide varying
degrees of protection to
organs within them

ANAPHYSIO
Ventral body cavity has two
▪
subdivisions separated by the
diaphragm
1. Thoracic cavity
- Cavity superior to the diaphragm
- Houses heart, lungs and other
organs
- Mediastinum, the central region,
houses the heart, trachea and
other organs
- Protected by the rib cage
2. Abdominopelvic cavity
- Cavity inferior to the diaphragm
- Superior abdominal cavity
contains the stomach, liver and
other organs
- Protected only by trunk muscles
- Inferior pelvic cavity contains
reproductive organs, bladder and
rectum
- Protected somewhat by bony
pelvis
- No physical structure separates
abdominal from pelvic cavities
• Abdominopelvic cavity
▪ Dorsal body cavity has two subdivisions
subdivisions ▪ Four quadrants
1. Cranial cavity
- Houses the brain
- Protected by the skill
2. Spinal cavity
- Houses the spinal cord
- Protected by the vertebrae

ANAPHYSIO
▪ Nine regions Maintaining Homeostasis
- all homeostatic control
mechanisms have at least three
components:
a. Receptor
- Responds to changes in the
environment (stimuli)
- Sends information to control
center along an afferent pathway
b. Control center
- Determines set point
- Analyzes information
- Determines appropriate
• Other body cavities include: responses
▪ Oral and digestive cavities c. Effector
▪ Nasal cavity - Provides a means for response to
▪ Orbital cavities the stimulus
▪ Middle ear cavities - Information flows from control
center to effector along efferent
H omeostasis pathway
• Feedback Mechanisms
Homeostasis ▪ Negative feedback
- Includes most homeostatic
- Maintenance of relatively stable control mechanisms
internal conditions - Shuts off the original stimulus or
- A dynamic state of equilibrium, or reduces its intensity
balance - Works like a household
- Necessary for normal body thermostat
functioning and to sustain life ▪ Positive feedback
- There are two main controlling - Rare in the human body
systems that maintain - Increases the original stimulus to
homeostasis; push the variable farther
a. nervous system - Reaction occurs at a faster rate
b. endocrine system - In the body, positive feedback
homeostatic imbalance- a disturbance occurs in blood clotting and
in homeostasis results in disease (like during the birth of a baby
diabetes)

ANAPHYSIO
•
Chapter 2: Basic Chemistry
Radiant energy- travels in waves,
energy of the electromagnetic
Matter spectrum
- Anything that occupies space and
Energy form Conversion
has mass
- Exists as one of three states: • ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
a. Solid: definite shape and traps the chemical energy of food
volume in its bonds
b. Liquid: definite volume, shape
of container Elements
c. Gaseous: neither a definite - Fundamental units of matter
shape nor volume - Cannot be broken down into
• Mater may be changed simpler substance by ordinary
a. Physically chemical methods
- Changes do not alter the basic - 96% of the body is made from
nature of a substance four elements:
- Examples include changes in the 1. Oxygen (O)- most common;
state of matter (solid, liquid or 65% of the body’s mass
gas) 2. Carbon (C)
b. Chemically 3. Hydrogen (H)
- Changes alter the chemical 4. Nitrogen (N)
composition of a substance ▪ Periodic table contains a
Energy complete listing of elements
- Ability to do work Elements making up the Human Body

- Has NO mass and doesn’t take MAJOR (96.1%)
up space
a. Kinetic energy: energy is • Oxygen (65% body mass)
doing work - Major component of both organic
b. Potential energy: energy is and inorganic molecules
inactive or stored - Vital to oxidation of glucose and
other food fuels
Forms of Energy • Carbon (18.5%)
• Chemical energy- stored in chemical - Primary element in all organic
bonds of substance molecules (carbs, lipids, proteins
• Electrical energy- results from and nucleic acids)
movement of charged particles • Hydrogen (9.5%)
• Mechanical energy- energy directly - Component of most organic
involved in moving matter molecules (charged atoms)
- Influences the pH of body fluids
• Nitrogen (3.2%)

ANAPHYSIO
- A component of proteins and - Component of functional
nucleic acid (genetic hemoglobin molecules (transport
material/DNA) oxygen in RBCs)
LESSER (3.9%) Atoms

• Calcium (1.5% body mass ) Ca - Building blocks of elements
- Salt in bones and teeth - Atoms of elements differ from one
- Required for muscle contraction, another
neutral transmission and blood - Atomic symbol is chemically
clotting shorthand for each element
• Phosphorus (1.0%) P a. Protons (p+)
- Combined with calcium (teeth - Located at the nucleus of the
and bone production) atom
- Present in nucleic acids and - Positively charged
many proteins - Mass (amu)= 1
• Potassium (0.4%) K b. Neutron (n0)
- Major intracellular - Located at the nucleus of the
cation(positively charged) atom
- Needed for conduction of nerve - Charge= 0
impulses and for muscle - Mass (amu)= 1
contraction c. Electron (e-)
• Sulfur (0.3%) S - Located at the orbits around the
- Component of proteins nucleus
(contractile proteins of muscle) - Mass (amu)= 1/2000
• Sodium (0.2%) Na - Negatively charged
- Major extracellular cation ▪ All atoms are electrically neutral
- Aid for water balance ▪ Number of protons equals number of
- Conduction of nerve impulses electrons in an atom (p+ = e-)
and muscle contraction ▪ Positive and negative charges
• Chlorine (0.2%) Cl cancel each other out
- Most abundant extracellular ▪ Ions are atoms that have lost or
anion (in ionic form) gained electrons
• Magnesium (0.1%) Mg
- Present in bonne
- Important for enzyme activity in
metabolic reactions
• Iodine (0.1%) I
- Needed to make functional
thyroid hormones
• Iron (0.1%) Fe

ANAPHYSIO
• In identifying an element, we need to Molecules and Compounds

know the;
Molecule
a. Atomic number
- Equal to the number of protons - Two or more atoms on the same
that the atom contains elements combined chemically
- Unique to atoms of a particular - Example of chemical reaction,
element shown as a chemical equation,
- Indirectly tells the number of resulting in a molecule;
electrons in an atom H(atom)+ H (atom)= H2
b. Atomic mass number (molecule)
- Sum of the protons and neutrons ▪ The reactants are the
contained in an atom’s nucleus atoms on the left
c. Atomic weight ▪ The product is the
- Approximately equal to the mass molecule on the right,
number of element’ most represented by a
abundant isotope molecular formula
Isotopes Compound- two or more atoms of
different elements combined chemically
- Atoms that have the same
to form a molecule of a compound
number of protons and electrons
but vary in the number of Example of compound chemical
neutrons equation:
- Have the same atomic number
4H+C= CH4(methane)
but different atomic masses
Radioisotope • Chemical reaction occurs when
atoms combine with or dissociate
- Heavy isotope of certain atoms from other atoms
- Tends to be unstable • Chemical bonds are energy
- Decomposes to more stable relationships involving interactions
isotope among the electrons of reacting
atoms
Radioactivity
- Process of spontaneous atomic
decay
- Used to tag and trace biological
molecules through the body

ANAPHYSIO
Roles of Electrons - Chemical bonding help atoms
achieve a stable valence shell
Electrons;
TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS
- Occupy energy levels called
electron shells (or energy a. Ionic bonds
levels) - Form when electrons are
- Closes to the nucleus are most completely transferred from one
strongly attracted to its positive atom to another
charge - Allow atoms to achieve stability
- Distant electrons further from the through the transfer of electrons
nucleus are likely to interact with ▪ Ions
other atoms - Result from the loss or gain of
• Each electron shell has distinct electrons
properties i. Anions have negative
• How to fill atom’s electrons shells: charge due to gain of
i. Shell 1 can hold a maximum electrons
of 2 electrons ii. Cations have positive
ii. Shell 2 can hold a maximum charge dure to loss of
of 8 electrons electrons
iii. Shell 3 can hold a maximum - Tend to stay close together
of 18 electrons because opposite charges attract
iv. Subsequent shells can hold b. Covalent bonds
more electrons - Atoms become stable through
• Bonding involves interactions only shared electrons
between electrons in the outermost - Electrons are shared in pairs
(valence) shell - Single covalent bonds share one
• Atoms with full valence shells do not pair of electrons
form bonds - Double covalent bonds share two
• Rule of eights pairs of electron
- The key to chemical reactivity - Covalent bonds can be described
- Atoms are considered stable as either nonpolar or polar
when their outermost (valence) i. Nonpolar covalent bonds
shell has 8 electrons - Electrons are shared
- Exception to this rule is shell 1, equally between the
which can hold only 2 electrons atoms of the molecule
• Reactive elements - Electrically neutral as a
- Atoms will gain, lose or share molecule
electrons to compete their - Example: carbon dioxide
outermost orbitals when fewer ii. Polar covalent bones
than 8 electrons are in the - Electrons are not shared
valence shell equally between the atoms
of the molecule

ANAPHYSIO
- Molecule has a positive and • Reversibility is indicated by a double
negative side, or pole arrow. When arrows differ in length,
- Example: water the longer arrow indicates the more
c. Hydrogen bonds rapid reaction or major direction of
- Extremely weak chemical bonds progress
- Formed when a hydrogen atom is • Factors influencing the rate of
attracted to the negative portion, chemical reactions
such as an oxygen or nitrogen
atom of a polar molecule FACTORS
- Responsible for the surface a. Temperature
tension of water - The kinetic energy of the
- Important for forming molecules, which in turn move
intramolecular bonds, as in more rapidly and collide more
protein structure forcefully
Patterns of Chemical Reaction b. Concentration of reacting
particles
• Synthesis reaction (A+B→AB) - The number of collisions because
- Atoms or molecules combine to of increased numbers of reacting
form a larger, more complex particles
molecule c. Particle size- smaller particles
- Energy is absorbed for bond have more kinetic energy and
formation move faster than larger ones,
- Underlies all anabolic (building) hence they take part in more
activities in the body collisions
• Decomposition reaction d. Presence of catalysts- the
(AB→A+B) amount of energy the molecules
- Molecule is broken down into need to interact by holding the
smaller molecules reactants in the proper positions
- Chemical energy is released to interact
- Underlies all catabolic
BIOCHEMISTRY: THE CHEMICAL
(destructive) activities in the body
COMPOSITION OF LIVING MATTER
• Exchange reaction (AB+C → AC
+B) ▪ Inorganic compounds
- Involves simultaneous synthesis - Lack of carbon (NO CARBON)
and decomposition reactions as - Tend to be small, simple
bonds are both made and broken molecules
- Switch is made between - Include water, salts and many
molecule parts and different (not all) acids and bases
molecules are made
• Most chemical reactions are
reversible

ANAPHYSIO
▪ Organic compounds • Salts
- Contain carbon - Ionic compound
- All are large, covalent molecules - Contain cations other than H+
- Include carbohydrates, lipids, and anions other than OH-
proteins, and nucleic acids - Easily dissociate (break apart)
into ions in the presence of water
INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
- Vital to many body functions e.g.,
• Water sodium and potassium ions are
- Most abundant inorganic essential for nerve impulses
compound in the body - All salts are electrolytes
- Accounts for two-thirds of the - Electrolytes are ions that conduct
body’s weight electrical currents
- Vital properties include: • Acids and Bases
o High heat capacity o Acids
- Water absorbs and releases large - Have sour taste and can dissolve
amounts of heat before its many metals
temperature changes - Electrolytes that dissociate
- Prevents sudden changes in (ionize) in water and release
body temperature hydrogen ions (H+)
o Polarity/solvent properties - Protons (H+) donors (acid
- often called “universal solvent” putting protons in the game)
- solvents are liquids or gases that - Example: HCl→ H+ + Cl-
dissolve smaller amounts of - Strong acids ionize completely
solutes and liberate all their protons
- solutes are solids, liquids or - Weak acids ionize incompletely
gases that are dissolved or o Bases
suspended by solvents - Bitter taste, feel slippery
- solutions forms when solutes are - Electrolytes that dissociate
very tiny (ionize) in water and release
- colloids forms when solutes of hydroxyl ions (OH-)
intermediate size forma a - Proton (H+) acceptors (taking
translucent mixture protons out of the game)
o Chemical reactivity - Example; NaOH → Na+ + OH-
- important reactant in some types - Any base containing hydroxide
of chemical reaction e.g., ion which known as avid proton
Digestion seeker is considered a strong
- reaction that require water are base
known as hydrolysis reactions - Base that has bicarbonate ion is
o Cushioning fairly a weak base
- serves protective function e.g.,
CSF around the brain

ANAPHYSIO
• Neutralization reaction d. Buffers- chemicals that can
- Type of exchange reaction in regulate pH change. Taking up
which acids and bases react to excess hydrogen/hydroxide ions.
form water and salt
• pH ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
- pH Scale was devised in 1909 by • Polymer: chainlike molecules made
a Danish biochemist Sorensen of many similar or repeating units
- pH measures relative (monomers)
concentration of hydrogen (and • Many biological molecules are
hydroxide) ions in body fluids polymers, such as carbohydrates
- pH scale is based on the number and proteins
of protons in a solution • Dehydration synthesis
- pH scale runs from 0 to 14 - monomers are joined to form
- Each successive change of 1 pH polymers through removal of
unit represent a tenfold change water molecules
in H+ concentration o A hydrogen ion (H+) is
a. Neutral removed from one monomer
- 7 is neutral [H+]= [OH-] while a hydroxyl group (OH) is
- Neutral means that the number of removed from the monomer it
hydrogen ions exactly equals the is to be joined with
number of hydroxyl ions o Water is removed at the site
b. Acidic solutions where monomers joined
- Have a pH below 7 (dehydration)
- More H+ than OH- • Hydrolysis
o Blood (pH 7.4) - Polymers are broken down into
o Milk (pH 6.3-6.6) monomers through the addition
o Black coffee (pH 5) of water molecules
o Wine (Ph 2.5-3.5) o As a water molecule is added
o Lemon juice; gastric juice to each bond, the bond is
(pH 2) broken, and the monomers
o Hydrochloric acid (pH 0) are released
c. Basic Solutions
- have a pH above 7
- fewer H+ than OH-
o Egg white- pH 8
o Household bleach- pH9.5
o Household ammonia- pH10.5-
11.5
o Oven cleaner, lye- pH 13.5
o Sodium hydroxide- Ph14

ANAPHYSIO
Carbohydrates o Triglycerides (neutral fats)
- Found in fat deposits
- Contain carbon, hydrogen and
- Source of stored energy
oxygen
- Composed of two types of
- Include sugars and starches
building blocks- fatty acids
- Classified according to size and
and one glycerol molecule
solubility in water
▪ Saturated fats
o Monosaccharides- simple
- Contains only single covalent
sugars
bonds
- Single- chain or single-ring
- Chains are straight
structures
- Exists as solids at room
- Contain three to seven (3-
temperature since molecules
7)carbon atoms
packed closely together
- Examples: glucose,
▪ Unsaturated fats
fructose, galactose, ribose,
- Contain one or more double
deoxyribose
covalent bonds, causing chains
o Disaccharides
to kink
- Two simple sugars joined
- Exist as liquid oils at room
by dehydration synthesis
temperature
- Examples: sucrose,
- “heart healthy”
lactose, and maltose
▪ Trans fats
- Too large to pass through
- Common in margarines and
cell membranes
baked products
o Polysaccharides
- Oils that have been solidified by
- Long-branching chains of
the addition of hydrogen atoms at
linked simple sugars
double bond sites
- large, insoluble molecules
- Increase risk of heart disease
- function as storage products
(raising bad cholesterol and
- examples: starch and
deflating good cholesterol)
glycogen
▪ Omega-3 fatty acids
Lipids(fats) - Found in cold-water fish and
plant sources, including flax,
- enter the body in the form of egg pumpkin and chia seeds, walnuts
yolks, meats, dairy products and soy foods
- most abundant are the - Appear to decrease risk of heart
triglycerides, phospholipids and disease
steroids
- contain carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen (carbon and hydrogen
outnumber oxygen)
- insoluble in water but soluble in
other lipids

ANAPHYSIO
Phospholipids - Contain carbon, oxygen,
hydrogen, nitrogen and
- Contain two fatty acid chains
sometimes sulfur
rather than three, they are
- Built from building blocks called
hydrophobic (“water fearing”)
amino acids
- Phosphorus- containing polar
o Amino acid structure
“head” carries electrical charge
- Contain an amine group (NH2)
and is hydrophilic (“water
- Contain an acid group (COOH)
loving”)
- Vary only by R-groups
- Charged “ head” region interacts
o Protein structure
with water and ions while the fatty
- Polypeptides contain fewer than
acid chains (“tails”) do not
50 amino acids
- From cell membranes
- Proteins contain more than 50
(phospholipids allows cells to be
amino acids
selective about what may enter or
- Large, complex proteins contain
leave)
50 to thousands of amino acids
Steroids - Sequence of amino acids
produces a variety of proteins
- Formed of four interlocking rings
- Include cholesterol, bile salts, Structural levels of proteins
vitamin D, and some hormones
a. Primary structure- strand of
- Some cholesterol is ingested
amino acids “beads”
from animal products, the liver
also makes cholesterol
- Cholesterol is the basis for all
steroids made in the body
- Cholesterol used to make vitamin
D, bile salts for digestion and
steroid hormones like sex
hormones needed for
reproduction.
Proteins
- Account for over half of the b. Secondary structure—chains of
body’s organic matter amino acids twists or bend
- Provide for construction materials o Alpha helix- resembles a
for body tissues metal spring
- Play vital role in cell function o Beta-pleated sheet-
- Act as enzymes, hormones and resembles pleats of a skirt or
antibodies sheet of paper folded into a
fan

ANAPHYSIO
Types of Proteins
• Fibrous (structural) proteins
- Appear in body structures
- Exhibit secondary, tertiary, or
even quaternary structure
- Bind structures together and exist
in body tissue
- Stable proteins examples include
collagen and keratin
c. Tertiary structure- compact,

ball-like (globular) structure
• Globular (functional) proteins

- Function as antibodies,
hormones or enzymes
- Exhibit at least tertiary structure
d. Quaternary structure- result of a - Hydrogen bonds are critical to the
combination of two or more maintenance of structure
polypeptide chains - Can be denatured and no longer
perform physiological roles
- Active sites “fit” and interact
chemically with other molecules

ANAPHYSIO
Nucleic Acids
- Form genes
- Composed of carbon, oxygen,
hydrogen, nitrogen and
phosphorus atoms
- Largest biological molecules in
the body
- Two major kinds:
▪ DNA
▪ RNA
• Nucleic acids are built from building
blocks called nucleotides
• Nucleotides contain three parts
Enzymes
1. A nitrogenous base
- Act as biological catalysts A= Adenine
- Increase the rate of chemical G= guanine
reactions C= cytosine
- Bind to substrates at an active T= Thymine
site to catalyze reactions U= Uracil
- Can be recognized by their -ase 2. Pentose (five-carbon) sugar
suffix- ( hydrolase, oxidase) 3. A phosphate group

ANAPHYSIO
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
- The genetic material found within - Compose of a nucleotide built
the cell’s nucleus from ribose sugar, adenine base,
- Provides instructions for every and three phosphate groups
protein in the body - Chemical energy used by all cells
- Organized by complementary - Energy is released by breaking
bases to form double-stranded high-energy phosphate bond
helix
- Contains the sugar deoxyribose
and the bases adenine, thymine,
cytosine and guanine
• ADP (adenosine diphosphate)

accumulates as ATP is used for
energy
• ATP is replenished by oxidation
of food fuels
• Three examples of how ATP
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) drives cellular work are shown
- Carrie out DNA’s instructions for next
protein synthesis
- Created from a template of DNA
- Organized by complementary
bases to form a single-stranded
helix
- Contains the sugar ribose and
the bases adenine, uracil,
cytosine and guanine
- Three varieties are messenger,
transfer, and ribosomal RNA

Chapters 1 and 2

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Chapters 1 and 2

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Holy Name University - College of Health Sciences

Department of Radiologic Technology

PAGE 1|GUEN GANUB BSRT2

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▪ Anterior (ventral); toward or at

▪ Medial: toward or at the midline

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▪ Posterior (dorsal) body

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- Ability to do work Elements making up the Human Body

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LESSER (3.9%) Atoms

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• In identifying an element, we need to Molecules and Compounds

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c. Tertiary structure- compact,

• Globular (functional) proteins

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• ADP (adenosine diphosphate)

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