Statics
Statics
Daniel W. Baker
Colorado State University
William Haynes
Massachusetts Maritime Academy
January 7, 2024
About this Book
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Acknowledgements
This book is the vision of a handful of instructors who wanted to create a free
and open Engineering Statics textbook filled with dynamic, interactive diagrams
to encourage visualization and engineering intuition.
Dr. Baker brought together a team of volunteers from large public universi-
ties, small private colleges, and community colleges across the United States to
write the text and create the interactive elements. Some content was adapted
with permission from Jacob Moore’s Mechanics Map - Open Textbook Project.
http://mechanicsmap.psu.edu/. After two years of development the book was
released to the public in 2020.
The book continues to evolve thanks to the contributions, suggestions, and
corrections made by users of the text, both professors and students. The original
authors are listed below, and others who have contributed are acknowledged in
the source code on GitHub.
Daniel W. Baker Anna Howard
Colorado State University North Carolina State University
Project lead, chapter author, and in- Chapter author
teractive developer
James Lord
Virginia Tech
Devin Berg
University of Wisconsin - Stout Chapter author
Chapter author Randy Mondragon
Colorado State University
Andy Guyader Interactive developer
Cal Poly, San Luis Obispo
Chapter author Jacob Moore
Penn State University – Mont Alto
William Haynes Chapter author
Massachusetts Maritime Academy
Scott Bevill
Chapter author, interactive devel- Colorado Mesa University
oper, and PreTeXt lead Chapter reviewer
Erin Henslee Eric Davishahl
Wake Forest University Whatcom Community College
Chapter author Chapter reviewer
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Acknowledgements vi
1 Introduction to Statics 1
1.1 Newton’s Laws of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Problem Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3 Equilibrium of Particles 66
3.1 Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.2 Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.3 1D Particle Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.4 2D Particle Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.5 3D Particle Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.6 Exercises (Ch. 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
viii
CONTENTS ix
9 Friction 297
9.1 Dry Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
9.2 Slipping vs. Tipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
9.3 Wedges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
9.4 Screw Threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
9.5 Flexible Belts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
9.6 Journal Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
9.7 Rotating Discs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
9.8 Exercises (Ch. 9) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Appendices
A Notation 382
Introduction to Statics
Engineering Statics is the gateway into engineering mechanics, which is the ap-
plication of Newtonian physics to design and analyze objects, systems, and struc-
tures with respect to motion, deformation, and failure. In addition to learning
the subject itself, you will also develop skills in the art and practice of problem
solving and mathematical modeling, skills that will benefit you throughout your
engineering career.
The subject is called “statics” because it is concerned with particles and rigid
bodies that are in equilibrium, and these will usually be stationary, i.e. static.
The chapters in this book are:
Rigid Body Equilibrium— balance of forces and moments for single rigid
bodies.
Internal Forces— forces and moments within beams and other rigid bodies.
1
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO STATICS 2
Your statics course may not cover all of these topics, or may move through
them in a different order.
Below are two examples of the types of problems you’ll learn to solve in
statics. Notice that each can be described with a picture and problem statement,
a free-body diagram, and equations of equilibrium.
Equilibrium of a particle: A 140 lb person walks across a slackline
stretched between two trees. If angles α and θ are known, find the tension
in each end of the slackline.
y Person’s point of contact
to slackline:
ΣFx = 0
x
−T1 cos α + T2 cos θ = 0
ΣFy = 0
T1 sin α + T2 sin θ − W = 0
ΣFx = 0
D −Cx + Fx − Vx − Nx = 0
ΣFy = 0
−Cy − Fy − Vy + Ny = 0
F
ΣMD = 0
+(dy )Cx + (dx )Cy − MD = 0
The knowledge and skills gained in Statics will be used in your other en-
gineering courses, in particular in Dynamics, Mechanics of Solids (also called
Strength or Mechanics of Materials), and in Fluid Mechanics. Statics will be a
foundation of your engineering career.
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO STATICS 3
Figure 1.0.1 Map of how Statics builds upon the prerequisites of Calculus and
Physics and then informs the later courses of Mechanics of Solids and Dynamics.
• What are physical examples for each of Newton’s three laws of mo-
tion?
The English scientist Sir Issac Newton established the foundation of mechan-
ics in 1687 with his three laws of motion, which describe the relation between
forces, objects and motion. Motion can be separated into two types:
Some moving bodies are purely translating, others are purely rotating, and
many are doing both. Conveniently, we can usually separate translation and
rotation and analyze them individually with independent equations.
Newton’s three laws and their implications with respect to translation and
rotation are described below.
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO STATICS 4
This law, also sometimes called the “law of inertia,” tells us that bodies maintain
their current velocity unless a net force is applied to change it. In other words, an
object at rest it will remain at rest and a moving object will hold its current speed
and direction unless an unbalanced force causes a velocity change. Remember
that velocity is a vector quantity that includes both speed and direction, so
an unbalanced force may cause an object to speed up, slow down, or change
direction.
Figure 1.1.1 This rock is at rest with Figure 1.1.2 In deep space, where fric-
zero velocity and will remain at rest tion and gravitational forces are negli-
until a unbalanced force causes it to gible, an object moves with constant
move. velocity; near a celestial body gravita-
tional attraction continuously changes
its velocity.
Newton’s first law also applies to angular velocities, however instead of force,
the relevant quantity which causes an object to rotate is called a torque by
physicists, but usually called a moment by engineers. A moment, as you will
learn in Chapter 4, is the rotational tendency of a force. Just as a force will cause
a change in linear velocity, a moment will cause a change in angular velocity. This
can be seen in things like tops, flywheels, stationary bikes, and other objects that
spin on an axis when a moment is applied, but eventually stop because of the
opposite moment produced by friction.
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO STATICS 5
F = ma (1.1.1)
where F is net force, m is mass, and a is acceleration.
You will notice that the force and the acceleration are in bold face. This
means these are vector quantities, having both a magnitude and a direction.
Mass on the other hand is a scalar quantity, which has only a magnitude. This
equation indicates that a force will cause an object to accelerate in the direction
of the net force, and the magnitude of the acceleration will be proportional to
the net force but inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
When studying Statics we are only concerned with bodies which are not accel-
erating which simplifies things considerably. When an object is not accelerating
a = 0, which implies that it is either at rest or moving with a constant velocity.
With this restriction Newton’s Second Law for translation simplifies to
ΣF = 0 (1.1.2)
where ΣF is read as “the sum of the forces” and used to indicate the net force
acting on the object.
Newton’s second law for rotational motions is similar
M = Iα. (1.1.3)
This equation states that a net moment M acting on an object will cause an angu-
lar acceleration α proportional to the net moment and inversely proportional to
I, a quantity known as the mass moment of inertia. Mass moment of inertia
for rotational acceleration is analogous to ordinary mass for linear acceleration.
We will have more to say about the moment of inertia in Chapter 10.
Again, we see that the net moment and angular acceleration are vectors,
quantities with magnitude and direction. The mass moment of inertia, on the
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO STATICS 6
other hand, is a scalar quantity and has only a magnitude. Also, since Statics
deals only with objects which are not accelerating α = 0, they will always be at
rest or rotating with constant angular velocity. With this restriction Newton’s
second law implies that the net moment on all static objects is zero.
ΣM = 0 (1.1.4)
The actions and reactions Newton is referring to are forces. Forces occur when-
ever one object interacts with another, either directly like a push or pull, or
indirectly like magnetic or gravitational attraction. Any force acting on one
body is always paired with another equal-and-opposite force acting on some
other body.
Figure 1.1.4 The earth exerts a gravitational force on the moon, and the moon
exerts an equal and opposite force on the earth.
These equal-and-opposite pairs can be confusing, particularly when there are
multiple interacting bodies. To clarify, we always begin solving statics problems
by drawing a free-body diagram — a sketch where we isolate a body or system
of interest and identify the forces acting on it, while ignoring any forces exerted
by it on interacting bodies.
Consider the situation in Figure 1.1.5. Diagram (a) shows a book resting on
a table supported by the floor. The weights of the book and table are placed at
their centers of gravity. To solve for the forces on the legs of the table, we use the
free-body diagram in (b) which treats the book and the table as a single system
and replaces the floor with the forces of the floor on the table. In diagram (c)
the book and table are treated as independent objects. By separating them, the
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO STATICS 7
equal-and-opposite interaction forces of the book on the table and the table on
the book are exposed.
Statics
Statics Statics
1.2 Units
Key Questions
• What are the similarities and differences between the commonly used
unit systems?
a = [L/t2 ].
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO STATICS 8
Force is related to mass and acceleration by Newton’s second law, so the units
of force are
F = [mL/t2 ].
In the United States several different unit systems are commonly used includ-
ing the SI system, the British Gravitational system, and the English Engineering
system.
The SI system, abbreviated from the French Système International (d’unités)
is the modern form of the metric system. The SI system is the most widely used
system of measurement worldwide.
In the SI system, the unit of force is the newton, abbreviated N, and the
unit of mass is the kilogram, abbreviated kg. The base unit of time, used by all
systems, is the second. Prefixes are added to unit names are used to specify the
base-10 multiple of the original unit. One newton is equal to 1 kg · m/s2 because
1 N of force applied to 1 kg of mass causes the mass to accelerate at a rate of
1 m/s2 .
The British Gravitational system uses the foot as the base unit of distance,
the second for time, and the slug for mass. Force is a derived unit called the
pound-force, abbreviated lbf, or pound for short. One pound-force will accelerate
a mass of one slug at 1 ft/s2 , so 1 lbf = 1 slug · ft/s2 . On earth, a 1 slug mass
weighs 32.174 lbf.
The English Engineering system uses the pound-mass as the base unit of
mass, where
32.174 lbm = 1 slug = 14.6 kg.
The acceleration of gravity remains the same as in the British Gravitational
system, but a conversion factor is required to maintain unit consistency.
1 lbf · s2 1 slug
1= = (1.2.1)
32.174 ft · lbm 32.174 lbm
The advantage of this system is that (on earth) 1 lbm weighs 1 lbf. It is important
to understand that mass and weight are not the same thing, however. Mass
describes how much matter an object contains, while weight is a force —the
effect of gravity on a mass.
You find the weight of an object from its mass by applying Newton’s Second
Law with the local acceleration of gravity g.
W = mg. (1.2.2)
Warning 1.2.1
unless otherwise stated, all objects are located on earth and the values in
Table 1.2.2 are applicable.
You can show that 1 lbm mass weighs 1 lbf on earth by first finding the
weight with (1.2.2) with g = 32.174 ft/s2 , then applying the conversion factor
(1.2.1).
W = mg
= (1 lbm)(32.174 ft/s2 )
ft
lbm 1 lbf · s2
=
32.174
s2
32.174 ft ·
lbm
= 1 lbf
Table 1.2.2 shows the standard units of weight, mass, length, time, and
gravitational acceleration in three unit systems.
Table 1.2.2 Fundamental Units
Unit System Force Mass Length Time g (Earth)
SI N kg m s 9.81 m/s2
British Gravitational lbf slug ft s 32.174 ft/s2
English Engineering lbf lbm ft s 1 lbf/1 lbm
Example 1.2.3
How much does a 5 kg bag of flour weigh?
Hint. A value in kg is a mass. Weight is a force.
Answer.
W = 49.05 N
Solution.
W = mg
= 5 kg(9.81 m/s2 )
= 49.05 N
Example 1.2.4
How much does a 5 lb bag of sugar weigh?
Hint. When someone says “pounds” they probably mean “pounds-force”.
Answer.
W = 5 lbf
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO STATICS 10
w = 5 lb = 5 lbf.
Awareness of units will help you prevent errors in your engineering calcula-
tions. You should always:
• Pay attention to the units of every quantity in the problem. Forces should
have force units, distances should have distance units, etc.
• Avoid unit conversions when possible. If you must, convert given values to
a consistent set of units and stick with them.
• Check your work for unit consistency. You can only add or subtract quan-
tities which have the same units. When multiplying or dividing quantities
with units, multiply or divide the units as well. The units of quantities on
both sides of the equals sign must be the same.
• Develop a sense of the magnitudes of the units and consider your answers
for reasonableness. A kilogram is about 2.2 times as massive as a pound-
mass and a newton weighs about a quarter pound.
1.3 Forces
Key Questions
• What are some of the fundamental types of forces used in statics?
Statics is a course about forces and we will have a lot to say about them. At
its simplest, a force is a “push or pull,” but forces come from a variety of sources
and occur in many different situations. As such we need a specialized vocabulary
to talk about them. We are also interested in forces that cause rotation, and we
have special terms to describe these too.
Some terms used to describe forces are given below; others will be defined as
needed later in the book.
Point Forces, also called concentrated forces, are forces that act at a
single point. Examples are the push you give to open a door, the thrust of a
rocket engine, or the pull a the chain suspending a wrecking ball. Point forces
are actually an idealization, because real forces always act over an area and not
at a mathematical point. However, point forces are the easiest type to deal with
computationally so we will usually represent other types of forces as equivalent
concentrated forces.
Distributed forces are forces that are spread out over a line, area or volume.
Steam pressure in a boiler and the weight of snow on a roof are examples of forces
distributed over an area. Distributed forces are represented graphically by an
array of force vectors.
Body forces are distributed forces acting over the volume of a body. The
most common body force is the body’s weight, but there are others including
buoyancy and forces caused by electric and magnetic fields. Weight and buoyancy
will be the only body forces we consider in this book.
In many situations, body forces are small in comparison to the other forces
acting on the object, and as such may be neglected. In practice, the decision
to neglect forces must be made on the basis of sound engineering judgment;
however, in this course you should consider the weight in your analysis if the
problem statement provides enough information to determine it, otherwise you
may ignore it.
Loads are the forces which an object must support in order to perform its
function. Loads can be either static or dynamic, however only static loads will
be considered here. Forces which hold a loaded object in equilibrium or hold
parts of an object together are not considered loads.
Reaction forces or simply reactions are the forces and moments which
hold or constrain an object or mechanical system in equilibrium. They are
called the reactions because they react when other forces on the system change.
If the load on a system increases, the reaction forces will automatically increase
in response to maintain equilibrium. Reaction forces are introduced in Chapter 3
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO STATICS 12
Statics may be the first course you take where you are required to decide on
your own how to approach a problem. Unlike your previous physics courses, you
can’t just memorize a formula and plug-and-chug to get an answer; there are
often multiple ways to solve a problem, not all of them equally easy, so before
you begin you need a plan or strategy. This seems to cause a lot of students
difficulty.
The ways to think about forces, moments and equilibrium, and the mathe-
matics used to manipulate them are like tools in your toolbox. Solving statics
problems requires acquiring, choosing, and using these tools. Some problems can
be solved with a single tool, while others require multiple tools. Sometimes one
tool is a better choice, sometimes another. You need familiarity and practice to
get skilled using your tools. As your skills and understanding improve, it gets
easier to recognize the most efficient way to get a job done.
Struggling statics students often say things like:
These statements indicate that the students think they know how to use their
tools, but are skipping the planning step. They jump right to writing equations
and solving for things without making much progress towards the answer, or
they start solving the problem using a reasonable approach but abandon it in
mid-stream to try something else. They get lost, confused and give up.
Choosing a strategy gets easier with experience. Unfortunately, the way you
get that experience is to solve problems. It seems like a chicken and egg problem
and it is, but there are ways around it. Here are some suggestions which will
help you become a better problem-solver.
• Get fluent with the math skills from algebra and trigonometry.
• Study worked out solutions, however don’t assume that just because you
understand how someone else solved a problem that you can do it yourself
without help.
The majority of the topics in this book focus on equilibrium. The remaining
topics are either preparing you for solving equilibrium problems or setting you
up with skills that you will use in later classes. For equilibrium problems, the
problem-solving steps are:
Using these steps does not guarantee that you will get the right solution, but
it will help you be critical and conscious of your chosen strategies. This reflection
will help you learn more quickly and increase the odds that you choose the right
tool for the job.
Chapter 2
Before you can solve statics problems, you will need to understand the basic
physical quantities used in Statics: scalars and vectors.
Scalars are physical quantities that have no associated direction and can
be described by a positive or negative number, or even zero. Scalar quantities
follow the usual laws of algebra, and most scalar quantities have units. Mass,
time, temperature, and length are all scalars.
Vectors represent physical quantities that have magnitude and direction.
Vectors are identified by a symbolic name which will be typeset in bold like r or
F to indicate its vector nature. The primary vector quantity you will encounter
in statics will be force, but moment and position are also important vectors.
Computations involving vectors must always consider the directionality of each
term and follow the rules of vector algebra as described in this chapter.
2.1 Vectors
Key Questions
• How is a vector different than a scalar?
• How do you identify the tip, tail, line of action, direction, and mag-
nitude of any drawn vector?
• What are the standard notations for vectors and scalars in this text-
book?
15
CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND OTHER VECTORS 16
the tail of A to the tip of B is the resultant R. Note that vector addition is
commutative: the resultant R is the same whether you add A to B or B to A.
Standalone
Embed
Figure 2.2.1 One Dimensional Vector Addition
A − B = A + (−B) (2.2.1)
2. Move the vectors until they are tip-to-tail. The order does not matter
because vector addition is commutative.
R = −1 i.
Spatially, the effect of negating a vector this way is to rotate it by 180°. The
magnitude, line of action, and orientation stay the same, but the sense reverses
so now the arrowhead points in the opposite direction.
Standalone
Embed
F = ⟨Fx , Fy ⟩.
P = (r ; θ).
Standalone
Embed
Standalone
Embed
Note 2.3.4
Take care when using the inverse tangent function on your calculator. Cal-
culator angles are always in the first or fourth quadrant, and you may need
to add or subtract 180° to the calculator angle to locate the point in the
correct quadrant.
x = r cos θ (2.3.4)
y = r sin θ (2.3.5)
P = (x, y) (2.3.6)
Ax = A cos θ (2.3.10)
Ay = A sin θ (2.3.11)
A = ⟨Ax , Ay ⟩ = A⟨cos θ, sin θ⟩ (2.3.12)
p y
r= x2 + y 2 θ = tan−1
x
p −1 5
= (−8.66)2 + (5)2 = tan
−8.66
−1
= 10 = tan (−0.577)
= −30◦
You must be careful here and use some common sense. The −30◦ angle
your calculator gives you in this problem is incorrect because point P is
in the second quadrant, but your calculator doesn’t know this. It can’t
tell whether the argument of tan−1 (−0.577) is negative because the x was
negative or because the y was negative, so it must make an assumption
and in this case it is wrong.
The arctan function on calculators will always return values in the first
and fourth quadrant. If, by inspection of the x and the y coordinates, you
see that the point is in the second or third quadrant, you must add or
subtract 180◦ to the calculator’s answer.
So in this problem, θ is really −30◦ + 180◦ . After making this adjustment,
the location of P in polar coordinates is:
P = (10; 150◦ )
Answer.
F = ⟨−173.2 N, −100 N⟩
1
google.com
CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND OTHER VECTORS 24
Fx = F cos θ Fy = F sin θ
= 200 N cos 30◦ = 200 N sin 30◦
= 173.2 N = 100 N
Since the force points down and to the left into the third quadrant, these
values are actually negative, and the signs must be applied manually.
After making this adjustment, the location of F expressed in rectangular
coordinates is:
F = ⟨−173.2 N, −100 N⟩
Solution 2. If you would prefer not to apply the negative signs by hand,
you can convert the 30◦ to an angle measured from the positive x axis
and let your calculator takes care of the signs. You may use either θ =
30◦ ± 180◦ .
For θ = −150◦
Fx = F cos θ Fy = F sin θ
= 200 N cos(−150◦ ) = 200 N sin(−150◦ )
= −173.2 N = −100 N
F = ⟨−173.2 N, −100 N⟩
• What are direction cosine angles and why are they always less than
180°?
In this section we will discuss four methods to specify points and vectors in
three-dimensional space.
The most commonly used method is an extension of two-dimensional rec-
tangular coordinates to three-dimensions. Alternately, points and vectors
in three dimensions can be specified in terms of direction cosines, or using
spherical or cylindrical coordinate systems. These will be discussed in the
following sections.
You will often need to convert from one representation to another. Good
visualization skills are helpful here.
P = (x, y, z) F = ⟨Fx , Fy , Fz ⟩
For nearly all three-dimensional problems, you will need the rectangular x, y,
and z locations of points in space and components of vectors before proceeding
with the computations. If you are given the components upfront, then you are
set to move forward, but otherwise, you will need to transform one coordinate
system into rectangular coordinates.
CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND OTHER VECTORS 26
Standalone
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Standalone
Embed
Note the component in the numerator of each direction cosine equation is pos-
itive or negative as defined by the coordinate system, and the vector magnitude
in the denominator is always positive. From these equations, we can conclude
that:
0◦ ≤ θn ≤ 180◦ .
• Any direction cosine angle greater than 90◦ indicates a negative component
along that respective axis. Spatially this is because all direction cosine
angles are measured from the positive side of each axis. Mathematically
this is because the cosine of any angle between 90 and 180 degrees is
numerically negative.
CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND OTHER VECTORS 28
Answer.
F = 70 lbf
θx = 73.4◦
θy = 115.38◦
θz = 31.0◦
q
F = |F| =Fx 2 + Fy 2 + Fz 2
q
= 202 + (−30)2 + 602 lbf
= 70 lbf
Direction cosine angles are equal to the inverse cosine of each Cartesian
force component divided by the force magnitude.
−1 Fx −1 20
θx = cos = cos = 73.4◦
|F| 70
−1 Fy −1 −30
θy = cos = cos = 115.38◦
|F| 70
Fz 60
θz = cos−1 = cos−1 = 31.0◦
|F| 70
CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND OTHER VECTORS 29
Since the direction cosine angles are measured from the positive x, y, and
z axes, the negative component of Fy means that θy > 90◦ , while both θx
and θz are less than 90◦ as their components are positive.
• r, the radial distance from the origin to the tip of the vector,
Standalone
Embed
Question 2.4.7
What are the differences between polar coordinates and terrestrial lati-
tude/longitude locations?
Answer. In terrestrial measurements
• Coordinate r is not needed since all points are on the surface of the
globe.
When vectors are specified using cylindrical coordinates the magnitude of the
vector is used instead of distance r from the origin to the point.
When the two given spherical angles are defined in the manner shown here,
the rectangular components of the vector A = (A ; θ ; ϕ) are found thus:
A′ = A sin ϕ (2.4.2)
Az = A cos ϕ (2.4.3)
Ax = A′ cos θ = A sin ϕ cos θ (2.4.4)
Ay = A′ sin θ = A sin ϕ sin θ (2.4.5)
Reflect on the equations above. Can you think through the process of how
they were derived? The generalized steps are as follows. First, draw an accurate
sketch of the given information and define the right triangles related to both θ
and ϕ. Then use trig identities on the right triangle involving the vector, the
z axis and angle ϕ to find Az , and A′ , the projection of A onto the xy plane.
Finally, use trig identities on the right triangle involving vector A′ and θ to find
the remaining components of A.
CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND OTHER VECTORS 31
Answer.
F = 70 lbf
θ = −56.31◦ or θ = 303.69◦
ϕ = 31◦
q
F = |F| = r = Fx2 + Fy2 + Fz2
q
= 202 + (−30)2 + 602 lbf
= 70 lbf
Azimuthal angle θ measures the angle between the x axis and the projec-
tion of F onto the xy plane, Fzy .
Using a right triangle with sides Fx , Fy , and Fxy , we can find θ using the
inverse tangent of the ratio of the opposite to adjacent sides.
CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND OTHER VECTORS 32
−1 Fy −30
θ = tan = tan−1 = −56.31◦
Fx 20
This angle is negative because it is measured clockwise from the positive
x axis, opposite the standard CCW direction.
The polar angle ϕ is measured down from the +z axis to the vector F. We
can find it using a right triangle with sides F , Fz , and Fxy . Note that ϕ is
the same as the direction cosine angle θz .
−1 Fz −1 60
ϕ = θz = cos = cos = 31.0◦
|F| 70
Also notice that the azimuthal angle θ is smaller than the direction cosine
angle θx , since θ is in the xy plane, but θx is a 3D angle from the x axis
to the vector F.
CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND OTHER VECTORS 33
• r, the radius of the cylinder. This is the distance from the origin to the
projection of the tip of the vector onto the xy plane,
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Answer.
F = 36.06 lbf
θ = −56.31◦ or θ = 303.69◦
z = 60 lbf
q
r = Fxy = Fx2 + Fy2
q
= 202 + (−30)2 lbf
= 36.06 lbf
The azimuthal angle θ is the same in both cylindrical and spherical coor-
dinates. It measures the angle between the x axis and the projection of F
onto the xy plane. θ can be found using a right triangle in the xy plane
with sides Fx and Fy .
CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND OTHER VECTORS 35
−1 Fy −30
θ = tan = tan−1 = −56.31◦
Fx 20
Finally, the z component is the vertical component of the force, Fz , which
was given.
Fz = 60.0 lbf
• What are the unit vectors along the Cartesian x, y, and z axes?
• How do you find the force vector components of known force magni-
tude along a geometric line?
• How can you find unit vector components from direction cosine an-
gles?
Stand-
alone
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cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 12
No matter what angle a unit vector makes with the x axis, cos θ and sin θ
are its scalar components. This relation assumes that the angle θ is measured
from the x axis, if it is measured from the y axis the sine and cosine functions
reverse, with sin θ defining the horizontal component and the cos θ defining the
vertical component.
The x and y components of a point on the unit circle are also the scalar
components of F̂, so
)
Fx = cos θ
=⇒ F̂ = ⟨cos θ, sin θ⟩.
Fy = sin θ
where |F| is the magnitude of vector F, and F̂ is the unit vector pointing in the
direction of F.
Solving equation (2.5.1) for F̂ gives the approach to find the unit vector of
known vector F.
The process is straightforward— divide the vector by its magnitude.
F
F̂ = (2.5.2)
|F|
To emphasize that unit vectors are pure direction, recall that vectors con-
sist of both a magnitude and direction, so when we divide a vector by its own
magnitude we are just left with direction.
(
(
( · [direction]
F [vector] (((
[magnitude]
unit vector = = =( (
( = [direction]
|F| [magnitude] ((((
[magnitude]
(
This interactive shows vector F, its associated unit vector F̂, and expressions
for F in terms of its unit vector F̂.
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F = (100 N ; 60°)
F̂ = (1 ; 60°)
A = (Ax , Ay , Az )
B = (Bx , By , Bz )
AB = (Bx − Ax ) i + (By − Ay ) j + (Bz − Az ) k, or
or, write the displacements directly by noting the change in the x, y, and z
coordinates when moving from A to B. The result is the same with either
method.
ABx = ∆x = Bx − Ax
ABy = ∆y = ABy = By − Ay
ABz = ∆z = Bz − Ax
AB = ABx i + ABy j + ABz k
2. Find the distance between point A and point B using the Pythagorean
Theorem. This distance is also the magnitude of AB or |AB|.
q
|AB| = (ABx )2 + (ABy )2 + (ABz )2
d to get
4. Finally, multiply the magnitude of the force by the unit vector AB
force FAB .
CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND OTHER VECTORS 39
d
FAB = FAB AB
ABx ABy ABz
= FAB , ,
|AB| |AB| |AB|
The interactive below can be used to visualize the displacement vector and
its unit vector, and practice this procedure.
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Figure 2.5.4 Unit Vectors in Space
Example 2.5.5 Component in a Specified Direction.
Determine the components of a 5 kN force F acting at point A, in the
direction of a line from A to B. Given: A = (2, 3, −2.1) m and B =
(−2.5, 1.5, 2.2) m
We will take the solution one step at a time.
(a) Draw a good diagram.
Hint. The interactive in Figure 2.5.4 may be useful for this prob-
lem.
(b) Find the displacement vector from A to B.
Answer.
AB = ⟨−4.5, −1.5, 4.3⟩ m
Solution.
AB = (Bx − Ax ) i + (By − Ay ) j + (Bz − Az ) k
= [(−2.5 − 2) i + (1.5 − 3) j + (2.2 − (−2.1)) k] m
= (−4.5i − 1.5j + 4.3k) m
= ⟨−4.5, −1.5, 4.3⟩ m
Solution.
q
|AB| = (∆x )2 + (∆y )2 + (∆z )2
p
= (−4.5)2 + (−1.5)2 + 4.32 m2
√
= 40.99 m2
= 6.402 m
Solution.
d= ∆x ∆y ∆z
AB , ,
|AB| |AB| |AB|
−4.5 −1.5 4.3
= , ,
6.402 6.402 6.402
d = ⟨−0.7, −0.23, 0.67⟩
AB
Solution.
d
FAB = FAB AB
= 5 kN ⟨−0.7, −0.23, 0.67⟩
= ⟨−3.51, −1.17, 3.36⟩ kN
Given the properties of unit vectors, there are some conceptual checks you
can make after computing unit vector components which can prevent subsequent
errors.
• The signs of unit vector components need to match the signs of the original
position vector. A unit vector has the same line of action and sense as the
position vector but is scaled down to one unit in magnitude.
Combining the Pythagorean Theorem with our knowledge of unit vectors and
direction cosine angles gives this result: if you know two of the three direction
cosine angles you can manipulate the following equation to find the third.
• Does it matter which vector you start with when using the Triangle
Rule?
• Triangle Rule.
Place the tail of one vector at the tip of the other vector, then draw the
resultant from the first vector’s tail to the final vector’s tip.
• Parallelogram Rule.
Place both vectors’ tails at the origin, then complete a parallelogram with
lines parallel to each vector through the tip of the other. The resultant is
equal to the diagonal from the tails to the opposite corner.
The interactive below shows two forces A and B pulling on a particle at the
origin, and the appropriate diagram for the triangle or parallelogram rule. Both
approaches produce the same resultant force R as expected.
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diagram, your answer will be precise. The interactive in Figure 2.6.1 may be
useful for this.
Even though the graphical approach has limitations, it is worth your atten-
tion because it provides a good way to visualize the effects of multiple forces,
to quickly estimate ballpark answers, and to visualize the diagrams you need to
use alternate methods to follow.
• There are only three sides in a triangle; thus vectors can only be added
two at a time. If you need to add three or more vectors using this method,
you must add the first two, then add the third to that sum and so on.
• If you fail to draw the correct vector triangle or identify the known sides
and angles, you will not find the correct answer.
• The trigonometric functions produce scalar values. You can use them to
find the magnitudes the angles between vectors, but the results are not,
by themselves, vectors.
When you need to find the resultant of more than two vectors, it is generally
best to use the algebraic methods described below.
and y axes. These orthogonal components are given x and y subscripts indicate
that they’re aligned with the coordinate axes. For vector F,
F = Fx + Fy = Fx i + Fy j, (2.6.1)
where Fx and Fy are the scalar components of F. The advantage of this choice
of components is that vector calculations can be replaced with ordinary algebric
calculation on scalar values for each orthogonal direction.
Alternately, you may rotate the coordinate system to any other convenient
angle, and find the components in the directions of the rotated coordinate axes
x′ and y ′ . In either case, the vector is the sum of the rectangular components
F = Fx + Fy = Fx ′ + Fy ′ . (2.6.2)
The interactive below can help you visualize the relationship between a vector
and its components in both the x-y and x′ -y ′ directions.
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The resultant FR is the simply the algebraic sum of the components in each
coordinate direction.
or in bracket notation
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Answer.
Solution.
Rx = Ax + Bx R y = Ay + B y
= 141.4 N − 281.9 N = 141.4 N + 102.6 N
= −140.5 N = 244.0 N
q
−1 Ry
R = Rx2 + Ry2 = 281.6 N θ = tan = −60.1◦
Rx
This answer indicates that the resultant points down and to the left, which
is odd because the parallelogram rule shows that the resultant should point
up and to the left.
This occurs because the calculator always returns angles in the first or
fourth quadrant for tan−1 . To get the actual direction of the resultant,
add 180◦ to the calculator result.
The final answer for the magnitude and direction of the resultant is
R = 281.6 N∠119.9◦
measured counter-clockwise from the x axis.
The process for adding three-dimensional vectors is exactly the same, except
that the z component is included as well. This interactive allows you to input the
three-dimensional vector components of forces A and B and view the resultant
force R which is the sum of A and B.
CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND OTHER VECTORS 47
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A − B = A + (−B)
After negating the second vector you can choose any technique you prefer for
vector addition.
• What does it mean when the dot product of two vectors is zero?
• How do you use a dot product to find the angle between two vectors?
Unlike ordinary algebra where there is only one way to multiply numbers,
there are two distinct vector multiplication operations: dot product and the
cross product. Alternately, the first is referred to as the scalar product
because its result is a scalar, and the second as the vector product because its
result is a vector. The dot product and its applications will be discussed in this
section and the cross product in the next.
CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND OTHER VECTORS 48
A · B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz (2.7.1)
A·B=B·A (2.7.3)
C (A · B) = (C A) · B = A · (C B) (2.7.4)
3. Distributive. If you are dotting one vector A with the sum of two more
(B + C), you can either add B + C first, or dot A by both and add the final
value.
A · (B + C) = (A · B) + (A · C) (2.7.5)
Solution.
F = ⟨30 N, −40 N, 50 N⟩
√
F = |F| = F · F
√
= 5000 N2
= 70.7 N
A·B
cos θ = (2.7.8)
|A||B|
θ = cos−1 (0)
= 90◦
Solution.
F·G
cos θ =
|F||G|
F x Gx + F y Gy + F z Gz
=p 2 p
Fx + Fy2 + Fz2 G2x + G2y + G2z
(100)(−75) + (200)(150) + (−50)(−40)
=p p
1002 + 2002 + (−50)2 (−75)2 + 1502 + (−40)2
24500
=
(229.1)(172.4)
= 0.620
θ = cos−1 (0.620)
= 51.7◦
CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND OTHER VECTORS 51
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So, to find the scalar value of the projection of B onto A we divide by the
magnitude of A.
A·B A
∥ projA B∥ = = · B = Â · B (2.7.10)
A A
A
where  = is the unit vector in the dirction of A.
A
If you want the vector projection of B onto A, as opposed to the scalar
projection we just found, multiply the scalar projection by the unit vector Â.
projA B = ∥ projA B∥Â = Â · B Â (2.7.11)
• Positive values mean that A and B are generally in the same direction.
• Magnitude smaller than B This is the most common answer. This means
that the vectors are neither parallel nor perpendicular.
• Magnitude equal to B means that the vectors point in the same direction,
and all of B acts in the direction of A.
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Figure 2.7.5 Vector projections in three dimensions.
B⊥ = B − projA B (2.7.13)
A cable pulls with tension T = ⟨−50, 80, 40⟩ N on a 0.4 m long anchor AB
embedded in a concrete wall. The anchor lies in the xy plane at an angle
α = 30◦ from the x axis.
(a) Find the dot product of the cable tension T and the anchor AB
Answer.
T · AB = −33.32 N·m
Solution. When you know the magnitudes and angle between two
vectors, it is easiest to use the second dot product equation (2.7.2),
but in this case it will be easier to find the components of AB and
use (2.7.1).
CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND OTHER VECTORS 54
The units of a dot product are the product of the units of the two
vectors.
(b) Find the angle θ between the cable tension T and the anchor AB.
Answer.
θ = 144.38◦
T · AB
θ = cos−1
|T||AB|
−33.32 N·m
= cos−1
(102.47 N) (0.4 m)
◦
= 144.38
Note that θ > 90◦ correctly corresponds to the negative dot product
and indicates that the two vectors generally oppose each other.
(c) Find the scalar projection of the the cable tension T onto the anchor
AB.
Answer.
|| projAB T|| = −83.30 N
CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND OTHER VECTORS 55
d
∥ projAB T∥ = T · AB
= (−50 N) (0.866) + (80 N) (−0.5) + (40 N) (0)
= −83.30 N
(d) Find the vector projection of the cable tension T onto the anchor
AB.
Answer.
projAB T = ⟨−72.14, 41.65, 0⟩ N
d to compute the
the scalar projection with the unit vector of AB
vector projection of T onto AB.
d
projAB T = ∥ projAB T∥ · AB
= 83.301 N (⟨0.866, −0.5, 0⟩)
= ⟨−72.14, 41.65, 0⟩ N
(e) Find the vector portion of cable tension T perpendicular to the an-
chor AB.
Answer. T⊥ AB = ⟨22.14, 38.35, 40⟩ N
Solution. Recall that a two-dimensional vector can be represented
by the sum of two perpendicular components. In the same way, a
right triangle can be represented by a vector along the hypotenuse
equal to the sum of the two right-triangle sides.
Thus, any vector can be divided into two vectors parallel and per-
pendicular to another line. The vector projection projAB T, from
Part (d), is the portion of T parallel to AB. So the sum of T can be
expressed as the parallel and perpendicular terms:
T = projAB T + (T ⊥ AB)
T ⊥ AB = T − projAB T
= ⟨−50, 80, 40⟩ − ⟨−72.14, 41.65, 0⟩
= ⟨22.14, 38.35, 40⟩ N
Nice effort if you worked through all the parts of this example. Graphically
the results for parts (b), (d), and (e) are shown in this diagram.
CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND OTHER VECTORS 57
• What is a determinant?
• How do you use the cross-product circle to find the cross product of
two unit vectors?
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A × B = (Ay Bx − Ax By ) k. (2.8.2)
The operation is not commutative, in fact reversing the order introduces a neg-
ative sign.
A × B = −B × A.
The magnitude of the cross product is the product of the perpendicular
component of A with the magnitude of B,. This is the area of the parallelogram
formed by vectors A and B. The magnitude of the cross product is zero if A and
B are parallel, and it is maximum when they are perpendicular. The magnitude
of the cross product of two perpendicular unit vectors is one.
Notice that the cross product equation are similar to the dot product, except
that sin is used rather than cos and the product includes a unit vector û making
the result a vector. This unit vector û is simple to find in a two-dimensional
problem as it will always be perpendicular to the page, but for three-dimensional
cross products a vector determinant is used, as discussed in Subsection 2.8.3.
finger with the first vector and your middle finger with the second, then your
thumb will point in the direction of the cross product. Alternately, if you align
your thumb with the first vector and your index finger with the second, your
middle finger will point in the direction of the cross-product.
cross 1st
product
1st
2nd
cross
2nd product
(a) Technique 1 (b) Technique 2
Figure 2.8.2 Right-hand rule using three fingers.
The point-and-curl method involves placing your right hand flat with your
fingertips pointing in the direction of the the first vector. Then rotate your
hand until the second vector is can curl your fingers around your thumb. In this
position, your thumb defines the direction of the cross product.
2nd 2nd
1st 1st
cross
product
i × j = k.
(a) Using the three-finger method. (b) Using the point-and-curl method.
Figure 2.8.4 Crossing i into j to get k.
CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND OTHER VECTORS 60
i×i=0 i×j=k i × k = −j
j × i = −k j×j=0 j×k=i
k×i=j k × j = −i k×k=0
−j × i = (−1) (j × i) = (−1)(−k) = +k
i j k
A × B = Ax Ay Az (2.8.3)
Bx By Bz
Here, the first row contains the unit vectors, the second row contains the
components of A, and the third row, the components of B. The determinant of
this 3 × 3 matrix is evaluated using the method of cofactors, as follows
Ay Az A Az A Ay
A×B=+ i− x j+ x k. (2.8.4)
By Bz Bx Bz Bx By
a b
= ad − bc. (2.8.5)
c d
CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND OTHER VECTORS 61
Answer.
A × B = −1, 697 N2 k
A × B = A B sin θ û
Ax = 60 N Ay = 0 N
Bx = 40 N cos 45◦ By = −40 N sin 45◦
= 28.28 N = −28.28 N
A × B = (Ax By − Ay Bx )k
= (60)(−28.28) − (0)(28.28) N2 k
= −1697 N2 k
Find the cross product of A = ⟨2, 4, −1⟩ m and B = ⟨10, 25, 20⟩ N.
Here, we are crossing a distance A and with a force B. This calculation
is equivalent to finding the moment about a point P caused by force B
acting distance A from P . You will learn about moments in Chapter 4.
Answer.
A × B = ⟨105, −50, 10⟩ N·m
Solution 1. To solve, set up the augmented determinant and evaluate
it by adding the left-to-right diagonals and subtracting the right-to-left
diagonals using equation (2.8.6).
i j k i j
A × B = 2 4 −1 2 4
10 25 20 10 25
A = ⟨2, 4, −1⟩ m
B = ⟨10, 25, 20⟩ N.
A and B are defined in the first two lines, and A.cross_product(B) is the
expression to be evaluated. Click Evaluate to see the result. You’ll have
to work out the correct units for yourself.
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Chapter 3
Equilibrium of Particles
3.1 Equilibrium
Engineering statics is the study of rigid bodies in equilibrium so it’s appropri-
ate to begin by defining what we mean by rigid bodies and what we mean by
equilibrium.
A body is an object, possibly made up of many parts, which may be ex-
amined as a unit. In statics, we consider the forces acting on the object as a
whole and also examine it in greater detail by studying each of its parts, which
are bodies in their own right. The choice of the body is an engineering decision
based on what we are interested in finding out. We might, for example, consider
an entire high-rise building as a body for the purpose of designing the building’s
foundation, and later consider each column and beam of the structure to ensure
that they are strong enough to perform their individual roles.
A rigid body is a body that doesn’t deform under load, that is to say, an
object which doesn’t bend, stretch, or twist when forces are applied to it. It
is an idealization or approximation because no objects in the real world behave
this way; however, this simplification still produces valuable information. You
will drop the rigid body assumption and study deformation, stress, and strain
in a later course called Strength of Materials or Mechanics of Materials. In that
course, you will perform analysis of non-rigid bodies, but each problem you do
there will begin with the rigid body analysis you will learn to do here.
A body in equilibrium is not accelerating. As you learned in physics, ac-
celeration is velocity’s time rate of change and is a vector quantity. For linear
motion,
dv
a= .
dt
For an object in equilibrium a = 0 which implies that the body is either
stationary or moving with a constant velocity
(
v=0
a = 0 =⇒ .
v=C
66
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 67
ΣF = 0. (3.1.1)
3.2 Particles
We’ll begin our study of Equilibrium with the simplest possible object in the
simplest possible situation — a particle in a one-dimensional coordinate
system. Also, in this chapter and the next all forces will be represented as
concentrated forces. In later sections, we will address more complicated situ-
ations, higher dimensions, and distributed forces, but beginning with very simple
situations will help you to develop engineering sense and problem-solving skills
which will be useful later.
The defining characteristic of a particle is that all forces that act on it are
coincident1 or concurrent2 , not that it is small. Forces are coincident if they have
the same line of action, and concurrent if they intersect at a point. The moon,
earth and sun can all be treated as particles, but we probably won’t encounter
1
Two lines are coincident when one lies on top of the other.
2
Two or more lines are concurrent if they intersect at a single point.
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 68
ΣF = 0
T+W=0
T = −W
We conclude that force T is equal and opposite to W, that is, since the
weight is acting down, the rope acts with the same magnitude but up.
Tension is the magnitude of the rope’s force. Recall that the magnitude
of a vector is always a positive scalar. We use normal (non-bold) typefaces
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 70
|T| = | − W|
T =W
We can also formulate this example in terms of unit vectors. Recall that
j is the unit vector that points up. It has a magnitude of one with no units
associated. So in terms of unit vector j, T = T j and W = −W j.
T =W
Solution.
Express the forces in terms of their magnitudes and the
unit vector j then proceed as before,
ΣF = 0
T+W=0
T j + W (−j) = 0
T j = W j
T =W
In the previous example, the unit vector j completely dropped out of the
equation leaving only the coefficients of j. This will be the case whenever you
add vectors which all act along the same line of action.
The coefficients of i, j, and k are known as the scalar components. A scalar
component times the associated unit vector is a force vector.
When you use scalar components, the forces are represented by scalar values
and the equilibrium equations are solved using normal algebraic addition rather
than vector addition. This leads to a slight simplification of the solution as
shown in the next example.
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 71
T =W
Wy = −W Ty = T .
ΣFy =0
Wy + T y =0
−W + T =0
T =W
Unsurprisingly, we get the same result.
R = 5 lb ←
Solution. Start by sketching the two forces. The subscripts indicate the
line of action of the force, and the sign indicates the direction along the
line of action. A negative Bx points towards the negative end of the x
axis.
R = Ax + B x
= 10 lb + −15 lb
= −5 lb
R is the scalar component of the resultant R.
The negative sign on the result indicates that the resultant force acts to
the left.
q
F = Fx2 + Fy2
p
= (−40 N)2 + (30 N)2
= 50 N
Fy
θ = tan−1
Fx
30 N
= tan−1
−40 N
◦
= 36.9
θ is measured from the negative x axis. The direction of F from the positive
x axis is (180◦ − θ) = 143.1◦ , so
F = 50 N at 143.1◦ ∡
• share the same line of action, have the same magnitude, and point away
from each other, or
• share the same line of action, have the same magnitude, and point towards
each other, or
When two forces have the same magnitude but act in diametrically opposite
directions, we say that they are equal-and-opposite. When equal and opposite
forces act on an object and they point towards each other we say that the object
is in compression, when they point away from each other the object is in
tension. Tension and compression describe the internal state of the object.
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 74
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1. Assumptions.
A free-body diagram of the rope is shown.
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 76
Figure 3.3.10
We’ll solve this with scalar components because there’s no need for
the additional complexity of the vector approaches in this simple
situation.
We’ll align the x axis with the rope with positive to the right as
usual to establish a coordinate system.
Assume that the pull of each team can be represented by a single
force. Let force M be supplied by the Marines and force A by the
Airmen; call the tension in the rope T .
Assume that the weight of the rope is negligible; then the rope can
be considered a particle because both forces lie along same line of
action.
2. Givens.
M = 1500 lb.
3. Procedure.
Since they’re stalemated we know that the rope is in equilibrium.
Applying the equation of equilibrium gives:
ΣFx = 0
−M + A = 0
A=M
= 1500 lb
We find out that both teams pull with the same force. This was
probably obvious without drawing the free-body diagram or solving
the equilibrium equation.
It may seem equally obvious that if both teams are pulling with
1500 lb in opposite directions that the tension in the rope must be
3000 lb. This is wrong however.
The tension in the rope T is an example of an internal force and
in order to learn its magnitude we need a free-body diagram which
includes force T . To expose the internal force we take an imaginary
cut through the rope and draw (or imagine) a free-body diagram of
either half of the rope.
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 77
Figure 3.3.11
The correct answer is easily seen to be T = A = M = 1500 lb.
Solution. The entire weight of the wire and the spool is supported by
the hook and sling.
Remember that weight is not mass and mass is not force. The total weight
is found by multiplying the total mass by the gravitational constant g.
W = mg
= (mw + ms ) g
= ((0.75 km)(927 kg/km) + 350 kg) g
= (1045 kg)(9.81 m/s2 )
= 10300 N
Question 3.3.13
How can we apply the principles of mechanics in the two previous examples
if the rope and the sling are clearly not “rigid bodies?”
Answer. They are not rigid, but they are inextensible and in tension.
Under these conditions they don’t change shape, so we can treat them as
rigid. If the force were to change direction and put either into compression,
our assumptions and analysis would fail. That is why “tug of war” involves
pulling and not pushing.
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 78
1. Select and isolate the particle. The “free-body” in free-body diagram means
that a concurrent force particle or connection must be isolated from the
supports physically holding it in place. This means creating a separate
free-body diagram from your problem sketch.
3. Identify all loads. Include force vectors on your free-body diagram repre-
senting each applied load pushing or pulling the body, in addition to the
body’s weight, if it is non-negligible. Every vector should have a descriptive
variable name and a clear arrowhead indicating its direction.
5. Label the diagram. Verify that every force is labeled with either a value
or a symbolic name if the value is unknown. Your final free-body diagram
should be a stand-alone presentation and is the basis of your equilibrium
equations.
2. Solve for unknown. Use algebra to simplify the equilibrium equation and
solve for the unknown value. Write the unit of your answer. All answers in
engineering have units unless you prove that they don’t. Finally, underline
or box your answers.
3. Check your work. Do the results seem reasonable given the situation?
Have you included appropriate units?
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 79
1. Select and isolate the particle. The “free-body” in free-body diagram means
that a concurrent force particle or connection must be isolated from the
supports that are physically holding it in place. This means creating a
separate free-body diagram from your problem sketch.
3. Identify all loads. Add force vectors to your free-body diagram representing
each applied load pushing or pulling the body, in addition to the body’s
weight, if it is non-negligible. If a force vector has a known direction, draw
it. If its direction is unknown, assume one, and your later algebra will
check your assumption. Every vector should have a descriptive variable
name and a clear arrowhead indicating its direction.
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 80
5. Label the diagram. Verify that every dimension, angle, force, and moment
is labeled with either a value or a symbolic name if the value is unknown.
In our eyes, dimensioning is optional. Having the information needed
for your calculations is helpful, but don’t clutter the diagram up with
unneeded details. Your final free-body diagram should be a stand-alone
presentation and is the basis of your equilibrium equations.
3. Count knowns and unknowns. At this point, you should have at most two
unknown values. If you have more than two, reread the problem and look
for overlooked information.
5. Check your work. If you add the components of the forces, do they add
to zero? Do the results seem reasonable given the situation? Have you
included appropriate units?
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1
geogebra.org
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 82
Answer.
P = 43.8 lb at 10°∡
N = 102 lb at 115°∡
Solution.
1. Assumptions.
We must assume that the block is in equilibrium, that is, either
motionless or moving at a constant velocity in order to use the equi-
librium equations. We will represent the block’s weight and the force
between the incline and the block as concentrated forces. The force
of the inclined surface on the block must act in a direction that is
normal to the surface since it is frictionless and can’t prevent motion
along the surface.
2. Givens.
The knowns here are the weight of the block, the direction of the
applied force, and the slope of the incline. The slope of the incline
provides the direction of the normal force.
The unknown values are the magnitudes of forces P and N .
3. Free-Body Diagram.
You should always begin a statics problem by drawing a free-body
diagram. It allows you to think about the situation, identify knowns
and unknowns, and define symbols.
We define three symbols, W , N , and P , representing the weight,
normal force, and applied force respectively. The angles could be
given symbols too, but since we know their values it isn’t necessary.
The free-body can be a quick
sketch or an accurate drawing but
it must show all the forces acting
on the particle and define the sym-
bols. In most cases, you won’t
know the magnitudes of all the
forces, so the lengths of the vec-
tors are just approximate.
Notice that the force N is represented as acting 25° from the y axis,
which is 90° away from the direction of the surface.
4. Force Triangle.
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 83
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There must be no more than two unknowns to use this method, which may
be either magnitudes or directions. During the problem setup, you will probably
need to use the geometry of the situation to find one or more angles.
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 85
If the force triangle has a right angle you can use Section B.2 to find the
unknown values, but in most cases, the triangle will be oblique and you will
need to use either or both of the Law of Sines or the Law of Cosines to find the
sides or angles.
Answer.
T = 17.16 kN C = 25.9 kN
Solution.
1. Draw diagrams.
Start by identifying the particle and drawing a free-body diagram.
The particle in this case is point B at the end of the boom because
it is the point where all three forces intersect. Let T be the tension
of the topping lift, C be the force in the boom, and W be the weight
of the load. Let α and β be the angles that forces T and C make
with the horizontal.
Rearrange the forces acting on point B to form a force triangle as
was done in the previous example.
2. Find angles.
Angle α can be found from the slope of the topping lift.
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 86
−1 1
α = tan = 14.0°.
4
Angle β is the complement of the 40° angle the boom makes with
the vertical kingpost.
Use these values to find the three angles in the force triangle.
θ1 = α + β = 64.0°
θ2 = 90° − α = 76.0°
θ3 = 90° − β = 40.0°
sin θ3 sin θ2
T =W C=W
sin θ1 sin θ1
sin 40.0° sin 76.0°
T = 24 kN C = 24 kN
sin 64.0° sin 64.0°
T = 17.16 kN C = 25.9 kN
We will use this equation as the basis for solving two-dimensional particle equi-
librium problems in this section and equation (3.4.2) for three-dimensional prob-
lems in Section 3.5.
You are undoubtedly familiar with utility poles, which carry electric, cable
and telephone lines, but have you ever noticed as you drive down a winding road
that the poles will switch from one side of the road to the other and back again?
Why is this?
If you consider the forces acting on the top of a pole beside a curving section
of road you’ll observe that the tensions of the cables produce a net force towards
the road. This force is typically opposed by a “guy wire” pulling in the opposite
direction which prevents the pole from tipping over due to unbalanced forces.
The power company tries to keep poles beside road segments with convex curva-
ture. If they didn’t switch sides, the guy wire for poles at concave curves would
extend into the road... which is a poor design.
Answer.
G = 23.6 kN
Solution.
1. Assumptions.
A utility pole isn’t two-dimensional, but we can solve this problem
as if it was by first considering the force components acting in a
horizontal plane, and then considering the components in a vertical
plane.
It also isn’t a concurrent force problem because the lines of action of
the forces don’t all intersect at a single point. However, we can make
it into one by replacing the forces of the three power lines in each
direction with a single force three times larger. This is an example
of an equivalent transformation, a trick engineers use frequently to
turn complex situations into simpler ones. It works here because all
the tensions are equal, and the outside wires are equidistant from
the center wire. You must be careful to justify all equivalent trans-
formations because they will lead to errors if they are not applied
correctly. Equivalent transformations will be discussed in greater
detail in Section 4.7 later.
2. Givens.
T = 10.0 kN and 38° and 152° angles.
3. Free-Body Diagram.
Begin by drawing a neat, labeled, free-body diagram of the top view
of the pole, establishing a coordinate system and indicating the di-
rections of the forces.
Call the tension in one power line T and the tension in the guy
wire G. Resolve the the tension of the guy wire into a horizontal
component Gh , and a vertical component Gv . Only the horizontal
component of G is visible in the top view.
Although it is not necessary, it simplifies this problem considerably
to note the symmetry and establish the x axis along the axis of
symmetry.
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 89
4. Solution.
Solve for Gh by applying the equations of equilibrium. The symme-
try of this problem means that the ΣFx equation is sufficient.
ΣFx = 0
Gh − 6 T x = 0
Gh = 6 (T cos 76°)
= 14.5 kN
Gh /G = sin 38◦
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 90
G = Gh / sin 38◦
G = 23.6 kN
This problem could have also been solved using the force triangle method.
See Subsection 3.4.3.
Answer. The question asks for the reaction force. The reaction force R′
is equal and opposite to force R.
R′ = −R = 30.00 N ←
= ⟨−30.00 N, 0⟩
Solution.
1. Givens.
We are given magnitudes of forces A = 20 N, B = 20 N, and C =
30 N. The unknowns are angle α and resultant force R.
2. Procedure.
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 91
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Since the rod is frictionless, it cannot prevent the slider from mov-
ing vertically. Consequently, the slider will only be in equilibrium
if the resultant of the three load forces is horizontal. Since a hori-
zontal force has no y component, we can establish this equilibrium
condition:
Ry = ΣFy = Ay + By + Cy = 0
Inserting the known values into the equilibrium relation and simpli-
fying gives an equation in terms of unknown angle α.
R y = Ay + B y + C y = 0
A + B sin α − C cos α = 0
20 + 20 sin α − 30 cos α = 0
2 + 2 sin α − 3 cos α = 0
Rx = Ax + Bx + Cx
= A + B cos α + C sin α
= 0 + 20 cos(22.62°) + 30 sin(22.62°)
= 30.00 N
Note that this value is the resultant force, i.e. the net force applied
to the slider by A, B, and C. However, the question asks for the
reaction force, which is the force required for equilibrium. The
reaction is equal and opposite to the resultant.
R′ = −R = 30.00 N ←
The next example demonstrates how rotating the coordinate system can
simplify the solution. In the first solution, the standard orientation of the x
and y axes is chosen, and in the second the coordinate system is rotated to
align with one of the unknowns, which enables the solution to be found without
solving simultaneous equations.
2
socratic.org/questions/59e5f259b72cff6c4402a6a5
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 93
Answer.
P = 32.1 lb
Solution 1.
1. Strategy.
2. Procedure.
ΣFx = 0 ΣFy = 0
−Px + Nx = 0 P y + Ny = 0
N cos 80◦ = P cos 40◦ P sin 40 + N sin 80◦ = W
◦
0.766
N =P 0.643P + 0.985N = 160 lb
0.174
Solution 2.
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 94
1. Strategy.
ΣFx′ = 0
−Px′ + Wx′ = 0
P cos 30◦ = W sin 10◦
0.1736
P = 160 lb
0.866
P = 32.1 lb
Hint. The particles are points B and C. The common force is the tension
in rope segment BC.
Answer.
P = 84.5 N θ = 54.7◦ CCW from − x axis.
P = ⟨−48.8 N, −69.0 N⟩
Solution.
1. Strategy.
Following the General Procedure we identify the particles as points
A and B, and draw free-body diagrams of each. We label the rope
tensions A, C, and D for the endpoints of the rope segments, and
label the angles of the forces α, β, and ϕ. We will use the standard
Cartesian coordinate system and use the scalar components method.
θ
β
W = 100 N
−1 40
α = tan = 63.4°
20
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 96
−1 10
β = tan = 7.13°
80
−1 50
ϕ = tan = 45°
50
2. Solve Particle C.
ΣFx = 0 ΣFy = 0
−Cx + Dx = 0 C y + Dy − W = 0
C cos β = D cos ϕ C sin β + D sin ϕ = W
cos 45◦
C=D C sin 7.13◦ + D sin 45◦ = 100 N
cos 7.13◦
C = 0.713D 0.124C + 0.707D = 100 N
C = 89.6 N D = 125.7 N.
ΣFx = 0 ΣFy = 0
−Ax − Px + Cx = 0 Ay − P y − C y = 0
P cos θ = C cos β − A cos α P sin θ = A sin α − C sin β
These are the magnitude and direction of vector P. If you wish, you
can express P in terms of its scalar components. The negative signs
on the components have been applied by hand since P points down
and to the left.
y axis. Your thumb will point in the direction of the positive z axis. For example,
in the plane of the page with the positive x axis horizontal and to the right and
the positive y axis vertical and upwards, the positive z axis will point towards
you out of the page. Remember that the three axes are mutually perpendicular,
i.e. each axis is perpendicular to both of the others. The right-hand rule is
important in many aspects of engineering, so make sure that you understand
how it works. Mistakes will lead to sign errors.
y y
x x
z
Figure 3.5.1 Point-and-curl right-hand rule technique.
3.5.3 Angles
As stated above, when working in three dimensions you need three angles to
determine the direction of the vector, namely, the angle with respect to the x
axis, the angle with respect to the y axis and the angle with respect to the z
axis. The three angles mentioned above are not necessarily located in any of the
coordinate planes. Think of it this way — three points determine a plane, and
in this case, the three points are: the origin, the tip of the vector, and a point
on an axis. The plane made by those three points is not necessarily the xy, yz,
or xz plane. It is most likely a “tilted” plane.
As you learned in Subsection 2.4.2, one way to quantify the direction of a
vector is with direction cosine angles. These direction cosine angles are measured
from the positive x, y, and z axes and are often labeled x , y , and z , respectively.
As with two dimensions, angles can be determined from geometry — a dis-
tance vector going in the same direction as the force vector. This is the three-
dimensional equivalent of similar triangles that you used in the two-dimensional
problems.
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 99
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Figure 3.5.2 Direction Cosine Angles
If you know that the line of action of a force vector goes between two points,
then you can use the distance vector that goes from one point to the other to
determine the angles.
Let’s suppose that the line of action goes through two points A and B, and
the direction of the force is from A towards B. The first step in determining
the three angles is to write the distance vector from point A towards point B.
Let’s call this vector rAB . Starting at point A, you need to determine how to
get to point B by moving in each of the three directions. Ask yourself: to get
from point A to point B do I have to move in the x direction? If so, how far do
I have to travel? This becomes the x component of the vector rAB namely rABx .
Next, to get from point A to point B how far do I move in y direction? This
distance is rABy . Finally, to get from point A to point B how far do I move in
the z-direction? This distance is rABz .
When writing these scalar components pay attention to which way you move
along the axes. If you travel toward the positive end of an axis, the corresponding
scalar component gets a positive sign. Travel towards the negative end results
in a negative sign. The sign is important.
Once you have determined the components of the distance vector rAB , you
can determine the total distance from point A to B using the three-dimensional
Pythagorean Theorem
q
rAB = (rABx )2 + (rABy )2 + (rABz )2 (3.5.1)
Lastly, the angles are determined by the direction cosines, namely
rABx rABy rABz
cos θx = cos θy = cos θz =
rAB rAB rAB
Since the force vector has the same line of action as the distance vector, by
the three-dimensional version of similar triangles,
rABx Fx rABy Fy rABz Fz
= = = .
rAB F rAB F rAB F
So,
rABx rABy rABz
Fx = F Fy = F Fz = F
rAB rAB rAB
Now, that is a bit of math there, but the important things to remember are:
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 100
• You can use three angles to determine the direction of a force in three
dimensions.
• You can use the geometry to get them from a distance vector that lies
along the line of action of the force.
The three direction cosine angles are not mutually independent. From (3.5.1)
you can easily show that
so if you know two direction cosine angles you can find the third from this
relationship.
1. Select and isolate the particle. The “free-body” in free-body diagram means
that a concurrent force particle or connection must be isolated from the
supports that are physically holding it in place. This means creating a
separate free-body diagram from your problem sketch.
2. Establish a coordinate system. Draw a right-handed coordinate system to
use as a reference for your equilibrium equations. Look ahead and select a
coordinate system that minimizes the number of force components. This
will simplify your vector algebra. The choice is technically arbitrary, but
a good choice will simplify your calculations and reduce your effort.
3. Identify all loads. Add force vectors to your free-body diagram representing
each applied load pushing or pulling the body, in addition to the body’s
weight, if it is non-negligible. If a force vector has a known direction, draw
it. If its direction is unknown, assume one, and your later algebra will
check your assumption. Every vector should have a descriptive variable
name and a clear arrowhead indicating its direction.
4. Identify all reactions. Reactions represent the resistance of the physical
supports you cut away by isolating the body in step 1. All particle supports
are some type of two-force members with tension or compression reaction
forces. These reactions will all be concurrent with the body loads from
Step 2. Label each reaction with a descriptive variable name and a clear
arrowhead. Again, if a vector’s direction is unknown, just assume one.
CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES 101
5. Label the diagram. Verify that every dimension, angle, force, and moment
is labeled with either a value or a symbolic name if the value is unknown.
In our eyes, dimensioning is optional. Having the information needed
for your calculations is helpful, but don’t clutter the diagram up with
unneeded details. Your final free-body diagram should be a stand-alone
presentation and is the basis of your equilibrium equations.
3. Count knowns and unknowns. At this point, you should have at most three
unknowns remaining. If you have over three, reread the problem and look
for overlooked information.
4. Solve for unknowns. Use algebra to simplify the equilibrium equations and
solve for unknowns. With multiple unknowns scattered across multiple
equations, linear algebra may be more efficient than substitution. Assume
that all answers have units - unless you prove that they don’t. Finally,
underline or box your answers.
5. Check your work. If you add the components of the forces, do they add
to zero? Do the results seem reasonable given the situation? Have you
included appropriate units?
Answer.
Solution.
1. Strategy.
The three tensions are the un-
knowns which we can find by ap-
plying the three equilibrium equa-
tions.
We’ll establish a coordinate sys-
tem with the origin directly below
the balloon and the y axis vertical,
then draw and label a free-body di-
z
agram. x
Next we’ll use the given informa-
tion to find two points on each line
of action to find the components
of each force in terms of the un-
knowns.
When the x, y and z components of all forces can be expressed in
terms of known values, the equilibrium equations can be solved.
2. Geometry.
From the diagram, the coordinates of the points are
−20 −30 0
Ax = A Ay = A Az = A
LA LA LA
30 −30 20
Bx = B By = B Bz = B
LB LB LB
0 −30 −20
Cx = C Cy = C Cz = C
LC LC LC
Where LA , LB and LC are the lengths of the three cables found with
the distance formula.
p
LA =(−20)2 + (−30)2 + 02 = 36.1 ft
p
LB = 302 + (−30)2 + 202 = 46.9 ft
p
LC = 02 + (−30)2 + (−20)2 = 36.1 ft
3. Equilibrium Equations.
Applying the three equations of equilibrium yields three equations
in terms of the three unknown tensions.
ΣFx = 0
Ax + B x + C x = 0
20 30
− A+ B + 0C = 0
36.1 46.9
A = 1.153 B (1)
ΣFz = 0
Az + B z + C z = 0
20 20
0A + B− C=0
46.9 36.1
C = 0.769 B (2)
ΣFy = 0
Ay + B y + C y + D = 0
30 30 30
− A− B− C + 900 = 0
36.1 46.9 36.1
0.832 A + 0.640 B + 0.832 C = 900 lb (3)
into (3) to eliminate A and C and solve the resulting equation for
B.
A = 1.153 B C = 0.769 B
= 464 lb = 309 lb
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Answer.
Solution. In this situation, the directions of all four forces are specified
by the angles in the free-body diagram, and the magnitude of the weight
is known. The three unknowns are the magnitudes of forces A, B, and C.
We will first find unit vectors in the directions of the four forces by in-
spection of the free-body diagram. This step requires visualizing the com-
ponent’s unit vectors and determining the angles each makes with the
coordinate axis.
Ŵ = ⟨0, −1, 0⟩
 = ⟨cos 35◦ , cos 55, 0⟩
B̂ = ⟨− cos 15◦ cos 30◦ , cos 75◦ , − cos 15◦ cos 60◦ ⟩
Ĉ = ⟨0, cos 70, cos 20◦ ⟩
P
Particle equilibrium requires that F = 0.
A Â + B B̂ + C Ĉ = −W Ŵ
These can be solved by any method you choose. Here we will use Sage.
Evaluating the coefficients and expressing the equations in matrix form
gives
0.819 −0.837 0 A 0
0.574 0.259 0.342 B = 196.2 N .
0 −0.482 0.940 C 0
This is an equation in the form
[A][x] = [B].
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Chapter 4
When a force is applied to a body, the body tends to translate in the direction
of the force and also tends to rotate. We have already explored the translational
tendency in Chapter 3. We will focus on the rotational tendency in this chapter.
This rotational tendency is known as the moment of the force, or more simply
the moment. You may be familiar with the term torque from physics. Engineers
generally use “moment” whereas physicists use “torque” to describe this concept.
Engineers reserve “torque” for moments that are applied about the long axis of
a shaft and produce torsion.
Moments are vectors, so they have magnitude and direction and obey all
rules of vector addition and subtraction described in Chapter 2. Additionally,
moments have a center of rotation, although it is more accurate to say that they
have an axis of rotation. In two dimensions, the axis of rotation is perpendicular
to the plane of the page and so will appear as a point of rotation, also called
the moment center. In three dimensions, the axis of rotation can be any
direction in 3D space.
A wrench provides a familiar example. A force F applied to the handle of a
wrench, as shown in Figure 4.0.1, creates a moment MA about an axis out of the
page through the centerline of the nut at A. The M is bold because it represents a
vector, and the subscript A indicates the axis or center of rotation. The direction
of the moment can be either clockwise or counter-clockwise depending on how
the force is applied.
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Figure 4.0.1 A moment MA is created about point A by force F.
109
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 110
r F
F M
Figure 4.1.1 Three finger right-hand rule techniques for moments.
Another approach is the point-and-curl method. Start with your right hand
flat and fingertips pointing along the position vector r pointing from the center
of rotation to a point on the force’s line of action. Rotate your hand until the
force F is perpendicular to your fingers and imagine that it pushes your fingers
into a curl around your thumb. In this position, your thumb defines the axis of
rotation, and points in the direction of the moment M.
F M
Consider the page shown below on a horizontal surface. Using these tech-
niques, we see that a counter-clockwise moment vector points up, or out of the
page, while the clockwise moment points down or into the page. In other words,
the counter-clockwise moment acts in the positive z direction and the clockwise
moment acts in the −z direction.
y
x
• What practical applications can you think of that could use moments
to describe?
M = F d⊥ . (4.2.1)
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 112
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A M1 = 30 N·m
B M2 = −400 kN·m
C M3 = 25 N·m ⟳
D M4 = −100 ft·lb ⟳
Answer.
A CCW B CW C CW D CCW
Solution.
Scalar components are most useful when combining several clockwise and
counter-clockwise moments. The resulting algebraic sum of the scalar compo-
nents will be either positive, negative, or zero, and this sign indicates the direc-
tion of the resultant moment.
M1 = −25 kN·m
M2 = +40 kN·m
M3 = −30 kN·m.
M = M1 + M2 + M3
= (−25 kN·m) + (40 kN·m) + (−30 kN·m)
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 114
= −15 kN·m.
The negative sign indicates that the resultant vector moment is clockwise.
Interpreting the resultant as a vector gives:
M = 15 kN·m ⟳ .
|M| = 15 kN·m.
M = Mx i + My j + Mx k.
This means that the three scalar components are required to fully specify a
moment in three dimensions.
Warning 4.3.3
Be careful not to mix up magnitudes with scalar components.
M = F⊥ d, (4.4.1)
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M = F d sin θ. (4.4.2)
M = ±Fx dy ± Fy dx (4.4.3)
3 ft 60°
F
A 750 lb force is applied to the frame as
shown. Determine the moment this force 2 ft
makes about point A.
A
Answer.
MA = 174 ft·lb Clockwise.
Solution. Force F acts 60◦ from the vertical with a 750 lb magnitude,
so its horizontal and vertical components are
MA = −M1 + M2
= −1299 + 1125
= −174 ft·lb
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 117
The negative sign indicates that the resultant moment is clockwise, with
a magnitude of 174 ft·lb.
The interactive diagram below will help you visualize the different approaches
for finding moments covered in this section.
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y
4
3
2 Force F has a magnitude of 500 lbf
2 3 and acts on point D in the direction
1
shown.
D F = 500 lbf Find the moment caused by force F
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 ft x around point A = (−4, −3) ft us-
-1
ing different methods and verify that
rAD -2 they give the same result.
-3
A -4
This problem demonstrates four different ways you can solve the problem.
The first two methods use vector algebra; the second two take a scalar
approach that uses geometry and right-triangle trigonometry. All four
methods are mathematically identical.
(a) Find the moment of F about point A using Varignon’s Theorem,
MA = (rx × Fy ) + (ry × Fx ) .
y
F=500 lbf
4
2
Fy
1 3
D θ Fx
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 32 4 5 ft x
-1
ry
rAD -2
-3
A rx
MA -4
MA = (rx × Fy ) + (ry × Fx )
= 6 ft · 416.025 lbf (k) + 3 ft · 277.35 lbf (−k)
= 1664.1 ft·lbf (+k)
Notes:
• All moments have units of force times distance, in this case [ft
· lbf].
• The overall sign of MA determines the final direction. A pos-
itive value corresponds to a counterclockwise moment – right
thumb out of the page – and a negative value indicates a clock-
wise moment. See Figure 4.1.2 for the hand diagram.
(b) Find the moment of F about point A using a vector cross product,
MA = r × F.
MA = r × F
i j k
= rx r y 0
Fx Fy 0
i j k
= 6 3 0
277.35 416.025 0
= 6 ft (416.025 lbf) (k) + 3 ft (277.35 lbf) (−k)
= 1664.1 ft·lbf (+k)
Notes:
• Determinants are a robust way to compute two-dimensional
cross products but take a bit more effort than Varignon’s The-
orem. The math is exactly the same either way, which means
that Varignon’s Theorem is just a two-dimensional shortcut to
working through a vector determinant.
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 120
2
3
This solution requires you to find
1
θ1 the perpendicular distance d⊥ be-
D
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 θ12 2 3
2 4 5 ft x tween the point A and line-of-
-1 action of F. One way to find this
MA -2 distance is shown below.
A 4 -3
θ3 C
-4
d
B
(a) Draw a moderately large and accurate diagram. Too much con-
fusion has been created by small, inaccurately-drawn diagrams.
(b) Start with the angle θ that you found in Part (a) of this example.
The angle opposite θ1 is θ2 .
(c) Next, using the corresponding angles of parallel lines, transfer
θ2 from the force triangle to triangle ABC as θ3 .
(d) Finally, find d⊥ using the sine function.
d⊥
sin θ3 =
AC
d⊥ = AC (sin θ3 )
= 4 (sin 56.3◦ )
= 3.328 ft
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 121
MA = F d ⊥
= 3.328 ft (500 lbf)
= 1664.10 ft·lbf
MA = 1664.10 ft·lbf (+k)
-3
A MA
-4
(a) Draw a large and accurate diagram to assist in finding the dis-
tances and angles in this problem.
(b) The next three steps focus on finding the angle β2 + α to help
find F⊥ . Using triangle ADG, compute the angle β1 .
−1 3
β1 = tan = 26.565◦
6
F⊥
cos (β2 + α) =
500 lbf
F⊥ = 500 lbf(cos(26.565◦ + 33.69◦ ))
F⊥ = 248.07 lbf
MA = F ⊥ d
= 248.07 lbf · 6.708 ft
MA = 1664.10 ft·lbf (+k)
4.5 3D Moments
Key Questions
• Where does the moment arm vector r start and end?
• Why does Varignon’s Theorem give you the same answer as a deter-
minant?
• How can you combine a dot product and a cross product to find the
moment about a line?
The circular arrows we used to represent vectors in two dimensions are un-
clear in three dimensions, so instead, moments are drawn as arrows and rep-
resented by x, y and z components, like force and position vectors. You will
sometimes see moments indicated with double arrowheads to differentiate them
from force vectors.
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 123
In three dimensions, it is usually not convenient to find the moment arm and
use equation (4.2.1), so instead we will use the vector cross product, which is
easier to apply but less intuitive.
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Embed
Here, θ is the angle between the two vectors as shown in Figure 4.5.1 above, and
û is the unit vector perpendicular to both r and F with the direction coming
from the right-hand rule. This equation is useful if you know or can find the
magnitudes of r and F and the angle θ between them. This equation is the vector
equivalent of (4.4.2).
Alternately, if you know or can find the components of the position r and
force F vectors, it’s typically easiest to evaluate the moment cross product using
the determinant form discussed in Subsection 2.8.3.
M=r×F
i j k
= rx r y rz
Fx Fy Fz
= (ry Fz − rz Fy ) i − (rx Fz − rz Fx ) j + (rx Fy − ry Fx ) k (4.5.3)
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 124
Mx = (ry Fz − rz Fy )
My = (rx Fz − rz Fx )
Mz = (rx Fy − ry Fx ).
These represent the component moments acting around each of the three coordi-
nate axes. The magnitude of the resultant moment can be calculated using the
three-dimensional Pythagorean Theorem.
q
M = |M| = Mx 2 + My 2 + Mz 2 (4.5.4)
It is important to avoid three common mistakes when setting up the cross
product.
• The moment arm r must always be measured from the moment center to
the line of action of the force. Never from the force to the point.
M=r×F
i j k
= rx ry 0
Fx Fy 0
= (rx Fy − ry Fx ) k. (4.5.5)
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Embed
y
B 0.9 m A
Next, find the moment arm from point O to the line of action of the force.
There are two obvious options for moment arms, either rOB or rOB . To
demonstrate how both moment arms give the same answer, solutions for
both moment arms will be shown.
Option 1: Moment using rOB
y
B 0.9 m A
rOB 1.1 m
2 kN
x
C O
1.0 m
D
z 0.4 m
• Moment arm rOB starts at the point we are taking the moment
around, O, and ends at the point B.
OB = B − O
= (−0.9, 1.1, 0) m − (0, 0, 0) m
= ⟨−0.9, 1.1, 0⟩ m
• Cross rOB with FBD to find the moment of FBD about point O.
MO = rOB × FBD
i j k
= −0.9 1.1 0
1.317 −1.114 1.013
= ⟨1.114, 0.911, −0.446⟩ kN
y
B 0.9 m A
1.1 m
O x
C rOD 1.0 m
D
z 0.4 m
2 kN
• Moment arm rOD starts at the point we are taking the moment
around, O, and ends at the point D.
OD = D − O
= (0.4, 0, 1.0) m − (0, 0, 0) m
= ⟨0.4, 0, 1.0⟩ m
• Cross rOD with FBD to find the moment of FBD about point O.
MO = rOD × FBD
i j k
= 0.4 0 1.0
1.317 −1.114 1.013
= ⟨1.114, 0.911, −0.446⟩ kN
It is worth your effort to compute moments both ways for this example, or
another problem, to prove to yourself that the answers work out exactly
the same with different moment arms. Technically, you could select a
position vector from anywhere on line BD and get the correct answer, but
rOB or rOB are the only two between defined points in this problem.
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 129
y
B 0.9 m A
rOB 1.1 m MO
2 kN
x
C O
1.0 m
D
z 0.4 m
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• r, a position vector from any point on the line of interest to any point on
the line of action of the force.
• F, the force vector. If you have multiple concurrent forces, you can treat
them individually or add them together first and find the moment of the
resultant.
With these vectors known, calculating the moment combines skills you al-
ready have learned:
• finding the moment of a force about a point using the cross product, (4.5.1).
M = (r × F).
• finding the scalar projection of one vector onto another vector using the
dot product, (2.7.10)
∥ proju M∥ = û · M
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 131
This combined dot and cross product is a signed scalar value called the
scalar triple product. A positive sign indicates that the moment vector
points in the positive û direction.
Carrying these three operations out produces a vector Mû that is the compo-
nent of moment M along a line in the û direction.
The scalar triple product can be calculated efficiently in a single step by
evaluating a 3 × 3 determinant consisting of the components of û in the top row,
the components of a position vector r in the middle row, and the components of
the F in the bottom row using the augmented determinant method Figure 2.8.6.
∥ proju M∥ = û · (r × F)
u x uy u z
= rx r y rz
Fx Fy Fz
= (ry Fz − rz Fy ) ux + (rz Fx − rx Fz ) uy + (rx Fy − ry Fx ) uz
To find the vector projection along the selected axis, multiply this value by
the unit vector for the axis, equation (4.5.6).
4.6 Couples
Key Questions
• What makes a couple different than a typical r × F moment?
The moments we have considered so far were all caused by single forces
producing rotation about a moment center. In this section, we will consider
another type of moment, called a couple.
A couple consists of two parallel forces, equal in magnitude, opposite in
direction, and non-coincident. Couples are special because the pair of forces
always cancel each other, which means that a couple produces a rotational effect
but never translation. For this reason, couples are sometimes referred to as “pure
moments.” The strength of the rotational effect is called the moment of the
couple or the couple-moment.
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 132
When a single force causes a moment about a point, the magnitude depends
on the magnitude of the force and the location of the point. In contrast, the
moment of a couple is the same at every point and only depends on the magnitude
of the opposite forces and the distance between them.
For example, consider the interactive where two equal and opposite forces
with different lines of action form a couple. The moment of this couple is found
by summing the moments of the two forces about arbitrary moment center A,
applying positive or negative signs for each term according to the right-hand
rule. The moment of the couple is always
M = F d⊥ (4.6.1)
where d⊥ is the perpendicular distance between the lines of action of the forces.
Standalone
Embed
Figure 4.6.1 Moment of a couple.
In two dimensions, couples are represented by a curved arrow indicating the
direction of the rotational effect. Following the right-hand rule, the value will
be positive if the moment is counter-clockwise and negative if it is clockwise. In
three dimensions, a couple is represented by a normal vector arrow.
When adding moments to find the total or resultant moment, you must
include couple-moments as well the r × F moments. In equation form, we could
express this as:
ΣMP = Σ(r × F) + Σ(Mcouple )
Thinking Deeper 4.6.2 Location Independence.
In this section we have shown that couples produce the same moment at
every point on the body. This means that the external effect of couples
is location independent. Because the moment of a couple is location inde-
pendent, the moment vector is not bound to any particular point and for
this reason is a free vector.
We will learn in Chapter 8 that moving a couple around on a rigid body
does affect the internal loads or stresses inside a body, but changing the
location of a couple does not change the external loading or reactions.
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 133
Vector Addition. When you add forces together using the rules of vector
addition, you are performing an equivalent transformation. You can swap out
two or more components and replace them with a single equivalent resultant
force.
Any number of concurrent forces can be added together to produce a single
resultant force. By definition, the lines of action of concurrent forces all intersect
at a common point. The resultant must be placed at this intersection point in
order for this replacement to be equivalent. This is because before and after the
replacement, the moment about the intersection point is zero. If the resultant
was placed somewhere else, that would not be true.
The effects of the force in the x, y and (in three dimensions the z) directions
remain the same, and by Varignon’s theorem, we know that the moment these
forces make about any point will also be the same.
An interesting special case occurs when two forces are equal and opposite
and have the same line of action. When these are added together, they cancel
out, so replacing these two forces with nothing is an equivalent transformation.
The opposite is true as well, so you can make two equal and opposite forces
spontaneously appear at a point if you wish.
Sliding a force along its line of action. Sliding a force along its line of
action is an equivalent transformation because sliding a force does not change
its magnitude, direction or the perpendicular distance from the line of action to
any point, so the moments it creates do not change either. This transformation
is called the “Principle of Transmissibility”.
where it is applied.
This means that you are free to swap out a couple for its couple-moment, or
swap a couple-moment for a couple that has the same moment, and you may
put the replacement anywhere on you please and it will still be equivalent.
The diagram shows a series of equivalent transformations of a couple.
MR = ΣM
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 137
M3 = F d ⊥
= F d sin 60◦
= 69.3 N·m
MR = ΣM
= M1 + M 2 + M 3
= −400 N·m + 200 N·m + 69.3 N·m
= −130.7 N·m
MR = 130.7 N·m clockwise
• How can you determine if two loading systems are statically equiva-
lent?
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Embed
Figure 4.8.1 Statically equivalent systems
(c) FBD and reactions for (a). (d) FBD and reactions for (b).
Figure 4.8.2 Moving a force is not an equivalent transformation
You can move a force to a new line of action in an equivalent fashion if you
add a “compensatory couple” to undo the effect of changing the line of action.
This can be accomplished with a series of individual equivalent transformations
as shown in the diagram below. To move P to another location, first add two
equal and opposite forces where you want the force to be, as in (b). Then
recognize the couple you have formed (c), and replace it with an equivalent
couple-moment. The result of this process is the equivalent force-couple system
shown in diagram (d), which is statically equivalent to the original situation in
(a).
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 141
(a) Original situation. (b) Add two equal and opposite forces
at midpoint.
M = Pd
= (1200 lb)(9 in)
= 10, 800 in·lb
= 900 ft·lb.
R = F1 + F2
MA = F1 d1 + F2 (d1 + d2 ).
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 143
To create the equivalent system (b), the resultant force and resultant mo-
ment are placed at point A.
The system in (b) can be further simplified to eliminate the moment at
MA , by performing the process in reverse.
In (c) we place the resultant force R a distance d away from point A
such that the resultant moment around point A remains the same. This
distance can be found using M = F d.
d = MA /R
The systems in (a), (b), and (c) are all statically equivalent
In this example, we started with two forces. We have found two different stati-
cally equivalent systems; one with a force and a couple, the other with a single
force. This latter system is simpler than the original system.
It is important to note that static equivalence applies to external effects
only. When determining internal forces, such as the shear and bending moment
discussed in Section 8.4 or when considering non-rigid bodies, the original loading
system must be used.
Figure 4.8.7
Answer. (a) and (c) are statically equivalent
Solution.
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 144
1. Strategy.
Evaluate the resultant force and resultant moment for each case and
compare. We choose to evaluate the resultant moment about point
A, though any other point would work.
R = ⟨−10, 0⟩ lb
MA = −80 + 6(10)
= −20 ft·lb
R = ⟨−20 + 10, 0⟩ lb
= ⟨−10, 0⟩ lb
MA = −120 + 12(20) − 6(10)
= 60 ft·lb
R = ⟨−10, 0⟩ lb
MA = −40 + 20 + 0(10)
= −20 ft·lb
Systems (a) and (c) are statically equivalent since R and MA are the same
in both cases. System (b) is not as its resultant moment is different than
the other two.
Any load system can be simplified to its resultant force R, and resultant
couple M, acting at any arbitrary point O. There are four common special cases,
which are worth highlighting individually.
Concurrent forces. When all forces in a system are concurrent, the resultant
moment about their common intersection point will always be zero. We then
need only find the resultant force and place it at the point of intersection. The
resultant moment about any other point is the moment of the resultant force R
about that point.
Parallel forces. When all forces in a system are parallel, the resultant force
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 145
will act in this direction with a magnitude equal to the sum of the individual
magnitudes. There will be no moment created about this axis, but we need to
find the resultant moment about the other two rectangular axes. That is, if
all forces act in the x direction, we need only find the resultant force in the x
direction and the resultant moment about the y and z axes.
Coplanar forces. When all forces in a system are coplanar we need only
find the resultant force in this plane and the resultant moment about the axis
perpendicular to this plane. That is, if all forces exist in the x-y plane, we
need only to sum components in the x and y directions to find resultant force
R, and use these to determine the resultant moment about the z axis. All
two-dimensional problems fall into this category.
The simplified system consists of moment M∥ and force R and acting distance
d away from point O. Since R and M∥ act along the same axis, the system has
been reduced to a wrench resultant. Wrench resultants are the most general way
to represent a complex force-couple system, but their utility is limited.
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 146
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTS AND STATIC EQUIVALENCE 147
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Chapter 5
In this chapter we will investigate the equilibrium of simple rigid bodies like your
book, phone, or pencil. The important difference between rigid bodies and the
particles of Chapter 3 is that rigid bodies have the potential to rotate around a
point or axis, while particles do not.
For rigid body equilibrium, we need to maintain translational equilibrium
with X
F=0 (5.0.1)
and also maintain a balance of rotational forces and couple-moments with a new
equilibrium equation X
M = 0. (5.0.2)
148
CHAPTER 5. RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM 149
Free body diagrams are the tool that engineers use to identify the forces and
moments that influence an object. They will be used extensively in statics, and
you will use them again in other engineering courses so your effort to master
them now is worthwhile. Although the concept is simple, students often have
great difficulty with them.
CHAPTER 5. RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM 150
Drawing a correct free-body diagram is the first and most important step
in the process of solving an equilibrium problem. It is the basis for all the
equilibrium equations you will write; if your free-body diagram is incorrect then
your equations, analysis, and solutions will be wrong as well.
A good free-body diagram is neat and clearly drawn and contains all the
information necessary to solve the equilibrium. You should take your time and
think carefully about the free-body diagram before you begin to write and solve
equations. A straightedge, protractor and colored pencils all can help. You will
inevitably make mistakes that will lead to confusion or incorrect answers; you
are encouraged to think about these errors and identify any misunderstandings
to avoid them in the future.
Every equilibrium problem begins by drawing and labeling a free-body diagram!
Creating Free Body Diagrams. The basic process for drawing a free-body
diagrams is
Traverse the perimeter of the object and wherever a support was removed
when isolating the body, replace it with the forces and/or couple-moments
which it provides. Label each reaction with a descriptive variable name and
a clear arrowhead. Again, if a vector’s direction is unknown just assume
one.
The reaction forces and moments provided by common two-dimensional
supports are shown in Figure 5.2.1 and three dimensional support in Fig-
ure 5.2.2. Identifying the correct reaction forces and couple-moments com-
ing from supports is perhaps the most challenging step in the entire equi-
librium process.
cable (or other reaction force in-line body contacts roller on force perpendicular
two-force member) with two-force member smooth surface smooth surface to surface
Ball & socket Three reactions Free-axle bearing Four unknowns
ball cannot slide but is free to rotate axle free to slide & rotate
crate. If we were to remove the floor, the cable would be engaged and support
the weight of the crate.
not engaged engaged
T=0 T=W
W W
Figure 5.2.4 One hand holding an object versus two hands holding the same
object.
The vertical force in your right hand engaged instead of the couple-moment
of your left hand. The reaction couples from both hands are available, but the
vertical forces engage first and are sufficient for equilibrium. This phenomena is
described by the saying “reaction forces engage before reaction couple-moments”.
Free-Body Diagram Examples. Given that there several options for repre-
senting reaction forces and couple-moments from a support, there are different,
equally valid options for drawing free-body diagrams. With experience you will
learn which representation to choose to simplify the equilibrium calculations.
Possible free-body diagrams for two common situations are shown in the next
two examples.
CHAPTER 5. RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM 155
Solution.
Begin by drawing a neat rectangle D
B 30°
to represent the beam disconnected
C
from its supports, then add all the
known forces and couple-moments.
Label the magnitudes of the loads
and the known dimensions symboli-
cally.
Choose the standard xy coordinate system, since it aligns well with the
forces.
The wall at A is a fixed support which prevents the beam from translating
up, down, left or right, or rotating in the plane of the page. These con-
straints are represented by two perpendicular forces and a concentrated
moment, as shown in Figure 5.2.1. Label these unknowns as well.
The knowns in this problem are the magnitudes and directions of moment
C, forces B, and D and the dimensions of the beam. The unknowns are
the two force components Ax and Ay and the scalar moment MA caused
by the fixed connection. If you prefer, you may represent force A as a
force of unknown magnitude acting at an unknown direction. Whether
you represent it as x and y components or as a magnitude and direction,
there are two unknowns associated with force A.
The three unknown reactions can be found using the three independent
equations of equilibrium we will discuss later in this chapter.
Solution. In this problem, the knowns are the magnitude and direction
of force B and moment C and the dimensions of the beam.
The constraints are the frictionless pin at A and the rocker at D. The
pin prevents translation but not rotation, which means two it has two
CHAPTER 5. RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM 156
• How do I choose which are the most efficient equations to solve two-
dimensional equilibrium problems?
In statics, our focus is on systems where both linear acceleration a and angu-
lar acceleration α are zero. These systems are frequently stationary, but could
be moving with constant velocity.
Under these conditions Newton’s Second Law for translation reduces to
X
F = 0, (5.3.1)
and, Newton’s second law for rotation gives the similar equation
X
M = 0. (5.3.2)
CHAPTER 5. RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM 157
The first of these equations requires that all forces acting on an object balance
and cancel each other out, and the second requires that all moments balance as
well. Together, these two equations are the mathematical basis of this course
and are sufficient to evaluate equilibrium for systems with up to six degrees of
freedom.
These are vector equations; hidden within each are three independent scalar
equations, one for each coordinate direction.
X ΣFx = 0 X ΣMx = 0
F = 0 =⇒ ΣFy = 0 M = 0 =⇒ ΣMy = 0 (5.3.3)
ΣF = 0 ΣM = 0
z z
Working with these scalar equations is often easier than using their vector equiv-
alents, particularly in two-dimensional problems.
In many cases we do not need all six equations. We saw in Chapter 3 that
particle equilibrium problems can be solved using the force equilibrium equation
alone, because particles have, at most, three degrees of freedom and are not
subject to any rotation.
To analyze rigid bodies, which can rotate as well as translate, the mo-
ment equations are needed to address the additional degrees of freedom. Two-
dimensional rigid bodies have only one degree of rotational freedom, so they
can be solved using just one moment equilibrium equation, but to solve three-
dimensional rigid bodies, which have six degrees of freedom, all three moment
equations and all three force equations are required.
where the subscript z has been replaced with a letter to indicate an arbitrary
moment center in the xy plane instead of a perpendicular z axis.
This is not the only possible set of equilibrium equations. Either force equa-
tion can be replaced with a linearly independent moment equation about a point
CHAPTER 5. RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM 158
For set four, moment centers A, B, and C must form a triangle to ensure the
three equations are linearly independent.
You have a lot of flexibility when solving rigid-body equilibrium problems. In
addition to choosing which set of equations to use, you are also free to rotate the
coordinate system to any orientation you like, pick different points for moment
centers, and solve the equations in any order or simultaneously.
This freedom raises several questions. Which equation set should you choose?
Is one choice ‘better’ than another? Why bother rotating coordinate systems?
How do you select moment centers? Students want to know “how to solve the
problem,” when in reality there are many ways to do it.
The actual task is to choose an efficient approach and carry it out. An efficient
solution is one which avoids mathematical complications and makes the problem
easy to solve. Complications include unpleasant geometries, unnecessary algebra,
and particularly simultaneous equations, which are algebra intensive and error
prone.
So how do you do set up an efficient approach? First, stop, think, and look
for opportunities to make the solution more efficient. Here are some recommen-
dations.
1. Equation set one is usually a good choice, and should be considered first.
2. Inspect your free-body diagram and identify the unknown values in the
problem. These may be magnitudes, directions, angles or dimensions.
4. Take moments about the point where the lines of action of two unknown
forces intersect, which eliminates them from the equation.
This problem will be solved three different ways to demonstrate the ad-
vantages and disadvantages of different approaches.
Solution 1.
Solutions always start with a free- 250 lb
body diagram, showing all forces 60°
and moments acting on the ob- B C
ject. Here, the known loads C = 500 ft-lb D
250 lb (down) and D = 500 ft·lb
(CCW) are red, and the unknown
reactions Ax , Ay and B are blue.
The force at B is drawn along its known line-of-action perpendicular to
the roller surface, and drawn pointing up and right because that will op-
pose the rotation of the frame about A caused by load C and moment D.
The force at A is represented by unknown components Ax and Ay . The
sense of these components is unknown, so we have arbitrarily assigned the
arrowheads pointing left and up.
We have chosen the standard coordinate system with positive x to the
right and positive y pointing up, and resolved force A into components in
the x and y directions.
The magnitude of force B is unknown but its direction is known, so the x
and y components of B can be expressed as
We choose to solve equation set {A}, and choose to take moments about
point A, because unknowns Ax and Ay intersect there. Substituting the
variables into the equation and solving for the unknowns gives
X
Fx = 0
B x − Ax = 0
Ax = B sin 60◦ (1)
X
Fy = 0
CHAPTER 5. RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM 160
B y − C + Ay = 0
Ay = C − B cos 60◦ (2)
X
MA = 0
−Bx (3) − By (7) + C(4) + D = 0
3B cos 60◦ + 7B sin 60◦ = 4C + D
B(3 sin 60◦ + 7 cos 60◦ ) = 4C + D
4C + D
B= (3)
6.098
Of these three equations only the third can be evaluated immediately,
because we know C and D. In equations (1) and (2) unknowns Ax and
Ay can’t be found until B is known. Inserting the known values into (3)
and solving for B gives
4(250) + 500
B=
6.098
1500 ft·lb
=
6.098 ft
= 246.0 lb
Now with the magnitude of B known, Ax and Ay can be found with (1)
and (2).
Ax = B sin 60◦
= 246.0 sin 60◦
= 213.0 lb
Ay = C − B cos 60◦
= 250 − 246.0 cos 60◦
= 127.0 lb
The positive signs on these values indicate that the directions assumed on
the free-body diagram were correct.
The magnitude and direction of force A can be found from the scalar
components Ax and Ay using a rectangular to polar conversion.
q
A = A2x + A2y = 248.0 lb
Ay
θ = tan−1 = 30.8◦
Ax
CHAPTER 5. RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM 161
The final values for A and B, with angles measured counter-clockwise from
the positive x axis are
A = 248.0 lb ∡ 149.2◦ ,
B = 246.0 lb ∡ 30°.
This solution demonstrates a fairly standard approach appropriate for
many statics problems which should be considered whenever the free-body
diagram contains a frictionless pin. Start by taking moments there.
Solution 2.
250 lb
In this solution, we have rotated
60°
the coordinate system 30◦ to align
B C
it with force B and also chosen
500 ft-lb D
the components of force A to
align with the new coordinate sys- 30°
tem.
There is no particular advantage to this approach over the first one, but
with two unknown forces aligned with the x′ direction, Ay′ can be found
directly after breaking force C into components.
X
F x′ = 0
B − C x′ + Ax′ = 0
Ax′ = −B + C sin 30◦ (1)
X
Fy ′ = 0
−Cy′ + Ay′ = 0
Ay′ = C cos 30◦ (2)
X
MA = 0
−Bx (3) − By (7) + C(4) + D = 0
3B cos 60◦ + 7B sin 60◦ = 4C + D
B(3 cos 60◦ + 7 sin 60◦ ) = 4C + D
4C + D
B= (3)
7.56
Solving equation (2) yields
B = 246.0 lb.
The negative sign on this result indicates that our assumed direction for
Ax′ was incorrect, and that force actually points 180◦ to the assumed
direction.
Resolving the Ax′ and Ay′ gives the magnitude and direction of force A.
q
A= A2x′ + A2y′ = 248.0 lb
Ay
θ = tan−1 = 60.8◦
Ax
α = 180◦ − (θ − 30◦ ) = 149.2◦
Again, the final values for A and B, with angles measured counter-
clockwise from the positive x axis are
A = 248.0 lb ∡ 149.2◦ ,
B = 246.0 lb ∡ 30°
This approach was slightly more difficult than solution one because of
the additional trigonometry involved to find components in the rotated
coordinate system.
Solution 3.
250 lb
X
MB = 0
−Ax (3) + Ay (7) − C(3) + D = 0
CHAPTER 5. RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM 163
X
MC = 0
−Ax (3) + Ay (4) − By (3) + D = 0
−3Ax + 4Ay − 3B cos 60◦ = −D
3Ax − 4Ay + 1.5B = 500 (2)
X
MD = 0
−Ax (1.5) − Bx (1.5) − By (7) + C(4) + D = 0
1.5Ax + 1.5B sin 60◦ + 7B cos 60◦ = 4C + D
1.5Ax + 4.799B = 1500 (3)
This set of three equations and three unknowns can be solved with some
algebra.
Adding (1) and (2) gives
Multiplying (4) by 2/3 and subtracting from (5) eliminates Ay and gives
3.049B = 750
B = 246.0 lb,
4 ft
A 5 ft
4 ft
z
x
6 ft
B 4 ft
z x
2i − 4j − 1k
= √ .
21
Multiplying the unit vector by the cable tension gives the force acting
on A as a three-dimensional Cartesian force vector
F = λAB T
2i − 4j − 1k
= √ 500 lb
21
500
= (2i − 4j − 1k) √ lb
21
F = (218i − 436j − 109k) lb.
MC = rCA × F
i j k
500
= 4 0 5 √
21
2 −4 −1
MC = (2182i + 1528 j − 1746k) ft·lb
ΣFx = 0 : Cx + Fx = 0
Cx = −218 lb
ΣT = 0 :
y Cy − F y = 0
ΣF = 0
Cy = +436 lb
ΣTz = 0 : Cz − F z = 0
Cz = +109 lb
CHAPTER 5. RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM 168
ΣMx = 0 : Mx + M C x = 0
Mx = −2180 ft·lb
ΣM = 0 :
y My + M C y = 0
ΣM = 0
My = −1530 ft·lb
ΣMz = 0 : Mz + M C z = 0
Mz = +1750 ft·lb
The resulting vector equations for the reaction force C and reaction
moment M are
if there are more reaction components than degrees of freedom, the system is
both over-constrained and indeterminate. In terms of force and moment
equations, there are more unknowns than equilibrium equations so they can’t all
be determined. This is not to say that it is impossible to find all reaction force
on an over-constrained system, just that you will not learn how to find them in
this course.
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Figure 5.7.1 Rigid body Equilibrium
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Embed
Figure 5.7.2 Cantilever beam
CHAPTER 5. RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM 171
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Figure 5.7.3 Beam with concentrated load
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Figure 5.7.4 Beam with concentrated force and couple moment
CHAPTER 5. RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM 172
CHAPTER 5. RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM 173
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Chapter 6
Equilibrium of Structures
In this chapter you will conduct static analysis of multi-body structures. Broadly
defined, a structure is any set of interconnected rigid bodies designed to serve a
purpose. The parts of the structure may move relative to one another, like the
blades of scissors, or they may be fixed relative to one another, like the structural
members of bridge.
Analysis of structures involves determining all forces acting on and between
individual members of the structure. Fundamentally there is nothing new here;
the techniques you have already learned apply, however structures tend to have
more unknown forces, and so are more involved and provide more opportunities
for error than the problems you have previously encountered. Correct free-body
diagrams and careful work are required, as always.
6.1 Structures
Structures fall into three broad categories: trusses, frames, and machines, and
you should be able to identify which is which.
A truss is a multi-body structure made up of long slender members con-
nected at their ends in triangular subunits. Truss members carry axial forces
only. Trusses are commonly used for spanning large distances without interrup-
tion: bridges, roof systems, stadiums, aircraft hangers, auditoriums for example.
They are also used for crane booms, radio towers and the like. Trusses are light-
weight and relatively strong. Over the years many unique truss designs have
been developed and are often named after the original designer.
A frame is a multi-part, rigid, stationary structure primarily designed to
support some type of load. A frame contains at least one multi-force member,
which a truss never has. This means that, unlike trusses, frame members must
support bending moments as well shear and normal forces. Many common items
can be considered frames. Some examples: building structure, bike frames, lad-
ders, scaffolding, and more.
A machine is very similar to a frame, except that it includes some moving
parts. The purpose of a machine is usually to provide a mechanical advantage
174
CHAPTER 6. EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES 175
Figure 6.1.1 Scissors and bridges are examples of engineering structures. Scis-
sors are a machine with three interconnected parts. The bridge is a truss.
Solving a structure means determining all forces acting on all of its parts.
The solution typically begins by determining the global equilibrium of the entire
structure, then breaking it into parts and analyzing each separate part. The
specific process will depend on the type of structure, but will always follow the
principles covered in the previous chapters.
θ
A AB CA
AB CA
B C
BC
AB CA
B C
BC BC
truss, each joint, and each portion of the truss is also in equilibrium. This
continues all the way down to the atoms of the structure. This universal
equilibrium across spatial scales is one of the governing principles which
allows us to break multi-body systems into smaller solvable parts.
D D
F F
CD
BD
A AB
A B C
BD
AD CD
BD
AD CD
B C
BC A AB
C B
Floor Load
Slab
Columns
Footings
6.3 Trusses
Key Questions
• What are simple trusses and how do they differ from other structural
systems?
• How can we determine the forces acting within simple truss systems?
6.3.1 Introduction
A truss is a rigid engineering structure made up of long, slender members con-
nected at their ends. Trusses are commonly used to span large distances with a
strong, lightweight structure. Some familiar applications of trusses are bridges,
roof structures, and pylons. Planar trusses are two-dimension trusses built
out of triangular subunits, while space trusses are three-dimensional, and the
basic unit is a tetrahedron.
CHAPTER 6. EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES 179
Commonly, rigid trusses have only three reaction forces, resulting in the
equation:
2 × (number of joints) = 3 + (number of members)
CHAPTER 6. EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES 180
Unstable trusses lack the structural members to maintain their rigidity when
removed from their supports. They can also be recognized using the equation
above having more system equations on the left side of the equation above then
system unknowns on the right.
Truss systems with redundant members have fewer system equations on the
left side of the equation above than the system unknowns on the right. While
they are indeterminate in statics, in later courses you will learn to solve these
trusses too, by taking into account the deformations of the truss members.
These trusses are sometimes called fracture critical trusses because the
failure of a single component can lead to catastrophic failure of the en-
tire structure. With no redundancy, there is no alternative load path for
the forces that normally would be supported by that member. You can
visualize the fracture critical nature of simple trusses by thinking about
a triangle with pinned corners. If one side of a triangle fails, the other
two sides lose their support and will collapse. In a full truss made of only
triangles, the collapse of one triangle starts a chain reaction which causes
others to collapse as well.
While fracture critical bridges are being replaced by more robust designs,
there are still thousands in service across the United States. To read more
about two specific fracture critical collapses search the internet for the
Silver Bridge collapse, or the I-5 Skagit River Bridge collapse.
CHAPTER 6. EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES 181
D
DB
A AB BC C
A C
B B
you can save some work if you can spot and eliminate them before you begin.
Fortunately, zero-force members can easily be identified by inspection with two
rules.
A E
BA
ΣFy = 0
DA sin θ = 0
unnecessary, but in the real world, zero-force members are important for
several reasons:
• Truss members are not actually rigid, and long slender members
under compression will buckle and collapse. The so-called zero-force
member will be engaged to prevent this buckling. In the previous
example, members CD and DE are under compression and form an
unstable equilibrium and would definitely buckle at pin D if they
were not replaced with a single member CE with sufficient rigidity.
• Trusses are often used over a wide array of loading conditions. While
a member may be zero-force for one loading condition, it will likely
be engaged under a different condition — think about how the load
on a bridge shifts as a heavy truck drives across.
Solution. Rule 1:
Rule 2:
Try to find all the zero-force members in the truss in the interactive diagram
below, once you believe you have found all of them, check out the step-by-step
solution in the interactive.
CHAPTER 6. EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES 186
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Embed
• How are the solutions found at one joint used to create an accurate
free-body diagram of another joint?
The method of joints is a process used to solve for the unknown forces
acting on members of a truss. The method centers on the joints or connection
points between the members, and it is most useful when you need to solve for
all the unknown forces in a truss structure.
The joints are treated as particles subjected to force by the connected mem-
bers and any applied loads. As the joints are in equilibrium and the forces are
concurrent, ΣF = 0 can be applied, but the ΣM = 0 equation provides no
information.
For planar trusses, each joint yields two scalar equations, ΣFx = 0 and
ΣFy = 0, and so two unknowns can be found. Therefore, a joint can be solved
when there are one or two unknowns forces and at least one known force acting
on it.
Forces are transferred from joint to joint by the connecting members, so when
unknown forces on a joint are found, the corresponding forces on adjacent joints
are also found.
CHAPTER 6. EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES 187
6.4.1 Procedure
The procedure is straightforward application of rigid body and particle equilib-
rium
2. Identify and remove all zero-force members. This is not required, but will
eliminate unnecessary computations. See Subsection 6.3.4.
3. Determine if you need to find the external reactions. If you can identify
a solvable joint immediately, then you do not need to find the external
reactions.
A solvable joint includes one or more known forces and no more than two
unknown forces. If there are no joints that satisfy this condition then you
will need to find the external reactions before proceeding, using a free-body
diagram of the entire truss.
4. Identify a solvable joint and solve it using the methods of Chapter 3. When
drawing free-body diagrams of joints you should
Finally, write out and solve the force equilibrium equations for the joint. If
you assumed that all forces were tensile earlier, negative answers indicate
compression.
5. Once the unknown forces acting on a joint are determined, carry these
values to the adjacent joints and repeat step four until all the joints have
been solved. Take care when transferring forces to adjoining joints to
maintain their sense — either tension or compression.
6. If you solved for the reactions in step two, you will have more equations
available than unknown forces when you reach the last joint. The extra
equations can be used to check your work.
Rather than solving the joints sequentially, you could write out the equations
for all the joints first and solve them simultaneously using a matrix solution, but
CHAPTER 6. EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES 188
only if you have a computer available as large matrices are not typically solvable
with a calculator.
The interactive below shows a triangular truss supported by a pin at A and
a roller at B, and loaded at joint C. You can see how the reactions and internal
forces adjust as you vary the load at C. You can solve it by starting at joint C
and solving for BC and CD, then moving to joint B and solving for AB Joint
A can be used to check your work.
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Embed
Figure 6.4.1 Internal and external forces of a simple truss.
The method of sections is used to solve for the unknown forces within
specific members of a truss without solving for them all. The method involves
dividing the truss into sections by cutting through the selected members and
analyzing the section as a rigid body. The advantage of the Method of Sections
is that the only internal member forces exposed are those which you have cut
through, the remaining internal forces are not exposed and thus ignored.
6.5.1 Procedure
The procedure to solve for unknown forces using the method of sections is
4. Use your imaginary chain saw to cut the truss into two pieces by cutting
through some or all of the members you are interested in. The cut does
not need to be a straight line.
Every cut member exposes an unknown internal force, so if you cut three
members you’ll expose three unknowns. Exposing more than three mem-
bers is not advised because you create more unknowns than available equi-
librium equations.
5. Select the easier of the two halves of the truss and draw its free-body
diagram.
• Include all applied and reaction forces acting on the section, and show
known forces acting in their known directions.
• Draw unknown forces in assumed directions and label them. A com-
mon practice is to assume that all unknown forces are in tension and
label them based on the endpoints of the member they represent.
6. Write out and solve the equilibrium equations for your chosen section. If
you assumed that unknown forces were tensile, negative answers indicate
compression.
7. If you have not found all the required forces with one section cut, repeat
the process using another imaginary cut or proceed with the method of
joints if it is more convenient.
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Figure 6.5.1 Method of sections demonstration.
CHAPTER 6. EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES 190
• Why can the method of joints and method of sections not be used
for frames and machines?
Frame and machines are engineering structures that contain at least one
multi-force member. As their name implies, multi-force members have more
than two concentrated loads, distributed loads, and/or couples applied to them
and therefore are not two-force members. Note that all bodies we investigated
in Chapter 5 were all multi-force bodies.
Frames are rigid, stationary structures designed to support loads and must
include at least one multi-force member.
Machines are non-rigid structures where the parts can move relative to one
another. Generally they have an input and an output force and are designed
produce a mechanical advantage. Note that all machines in this text are in static
equilibrium by their interacting and applied forces.
Though there is a design difference between frames and machines they are
grouped together because they can both be analyzed using the same process,
which is the subject of this section.
Figure 6.6.1 Frames are rigid ob- Figure 6.6.2 Machines contain
jects containing multi-force mem- multi-force members that can move
bers. relative to one another.
CHAPTER 6. EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES 191
• Two-force members.
One equation. Two-force members can be recognized as either a cable or a
weightless link with all forces coming from two frictionless pins. The force
at one pin is equal and opposite to the force on the other placing the body
in tension or compression.
Procedure
The process used to analyze frames and machines is outlined below
CHAPTER 6. EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES 192
2. Draw a free-body diagram for each of the members in the structure. You
must represent all forces acting on each member, including:
• Applied forces and couples and the weights of the components if non-
negligible.
• Interaction forces due to two-force members. There will be force of
unknown magnitude but the known direction at points connected to
two-force members. The forces will act along the line between the
two connection points.
• All reaction forces and moments at the connection points between
members. Forces with an unknown magnitude and direction are usu-
ally represented by unknown x and y components, but can also be
represented as a force with unknown magnitude acting in an unknown
direction.
F F
B D
A E
4. Solve the equilibrium equations for the unknowns. You can do this alge-
braically, solving for one variable at a time, or you can use matrix equations
CHAPTER 6. EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES 193
to solve for everything at once. Negative magnitudes indicate that the as-
sumed direction of that term was incorrect, and the actual force/moment
is opposite the assumed direction.
24" Β θ
40"
F
Β
θ
24" D C
C
D D
These forces and moments must be represented on the free-body diagrams con-
sistently as halves of equal-and-opposite action-reaction pairs.
For this discussion we will progressively exclude parts from the original struc-
ture and draw the free-body diagram of what remains. In so doing we will clarify
the difference between internal and external forces, recognize and take advan-
tage of two-force bodies, and provide some tips for drawing correct free-body
diagrams. In an actual situation you will not need to draw all these diagrams,
instead you should think through the situation and draw only the diagrams you
will need for a solution.
It is helpful to consider which loads are known and which are unknown as you
prepare free-body diagrams. In planar problems a free-body diagram with three
or fewer unknowns may be solved immediately. When there are more than three
unknowns, you must incorporate information from other diagrams to complete
the solution.
Exclude the floor. To begin, we can remove the floor from the system. Every-
thing except the floor is now included as our body; only the floor is excluded.
The floor was in contact with the other objects at the ground and also at the
connection between the floor and the wall.
Since we don’t know how the wall and the floor are connected we will assume
they were fixed together. We also have to model how the wall is attached to the
rest of the world. The fixed support from wall-to-world and wall-to-floor can be
combined to be a single set of three loads which we represent as horizontal and
vertical forces Vx and Vy , and a concentrated moment Mv .
7" 9"
Α
24"
40" Included Excluded
Β
F Lever ABC, Floor
Short Link BD,
θ Wooden Block,
24"
C Roller D, Wall,
D Bearing A
represent the weight of an object as a single force acting at its center of gravity.
Tips.
• Include friction if it’s given or obvious.
• If you need info which you don’t have, select a variable to act as its
name.
Exclude the wall. If you next remove the wall, forces G and F remain from
before, but we now expose four loads from where the wall was connected to what
is now our body; a normal force N at the roller and three loads from the fixed
support between the bearing block and the wall Wx , Wy , and M .
Included Excluded
F
Β Lever ABC, Short Floor, Wall
Link BD, Wooden
θ Block, Roller D,
C Bearing A
N D
Tips.
• Every force needs a point of application and a clear arrowhead.
• Indicate any distances and angles needed and not available on the
original diagram.
• Define a coordinate system unless you are using the standard x-y
axes.
CHAPTER 6. EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES 196
Exclude the bearing at A. We are not interested in the loads between the
bearing block and the wall Wx , Wy , and M and further, the free-body diagram
still includes too many unknowns to solve.
After removing the bearing we reduce the unknowns at A to two because the
bearing block and the lever are connected with a pin while the bearing block
and wall were connected with a fixed support. The loads Wx , Wy , and M and
Vx , Vy , and Mv are not included on this free-body diagram because they don’t
act on this object.
F Included Excluded
Β
Lever ABC, Short Floor, Wall, Bearing A
θ Link BD, Wooden
C
Block, Roller D,
N D
Tips.
• Look for free-body diagrams which include only three unknowns in
two dimensions or six unknowns in three.
Tips.
• If the two forces are not the same don’t identify them by the same
name.
Exclude the wooden block. We can further simplify the diagram by remov-
ing the wooden block, leaving only the roller, short link and lever.
Included Excluded
F
Β Lever ABC, Short Floor, Wall, Bearing A, Wooden
Link BD, Roller Block
θ D
C
N D
Examine the short link BD. The short link BD is a two-force body and as
discussed in Subsection 3.3.3 can only be in equilibrium if the forces at B and
D are equal-and-opposite and act along a line passing through these two points.
This means that the 24:7 slope of the link determines the direction of force BD.
1
(less than about 0.1%)
CHAPTER 6. EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES 198
Β
When drawing free-body diagrams, forces with known directions
should be drawn pointing in that direction rather than breaking
24 them into components, otherwise you may lose track of the fact
that the x and y components are not independent but are actu-
7
D ally related by the direction of the force.
Tips.
• A short-link is a two-force body.
• If you don’t know the sense of a force along its line of action, assume
one. If you guess wrong, the analysis will give you a negative value.
Tips.
• Recognize three-force bodies and use their special properties to your
advantage.
• Use the same name for the exposed forces on interacting bodies since
they are equal-and-opposite halves of an action-reaction pair.
Exclude the roller. We can further simplify the free-body diagram by re-
moving the roller. The roller and short link are connected with a pin but, for
equilibrium, the forces acting on a short link (or any two-force body) must share
the same line of action — the line connecting its endpoints; otherwise, compo-
nents perpendicular to this line would produce an unbalanced moment about
the other endpoint.
F Included Excluded
Β
Lever ABC, Short Floor, Wall, Bearing A, Wooden
7
θ Link BD Block, Roller D
24
C
BD
Exclude the short link. The previous free-body diagram has three unknowns
and can be solved but the free-body diagram of the lever by itself is also correct,
and this is the free-body diagram that most people begin with.
Included Excluded
Β F Lever ABC Floor, Wall, Bearing A, Wooden
Block, Roller D, Short Link BD
7
24 θ
BD C
• the loads between the bearing block and the wall Wx , Wy , and M ,
All of the free-body diagrams we have drawn are correct, though not all
are necessary. Generally we only draw the free-body diagrams needed for the
solution. These diagrams form a chain which connect the known input forces to
the desired output forces. When solving frames and machines, think carefully
about what you know and what you need to solve for: that determines which free-
body diagrams you will need. Taking a few moments to consider what unknowns
you’d have at each step can help you optimize your problem-solving effort.
You should recognize that it is possible to draw incorrect free-body diagrams
which produce correct results. Consider the diagram below.
F
Β This diagram doesn’t accurately represent what is happen-
ing at pin D.
θ
C
N
D
24"
40"
F
Β
θ
24"
C
D
Answer.
BD = 2.52F
Q = 2.42F
Solution. For this problem, we need two free-body diagrams. The first
links the input force F to the link force BD, and the second links BD to
the clamping force Q.
BD
N
Β F
7
24 θ Q
BD C
P
Applying M = 0 at A to the free-body diagram of the lever gives BD
in terms of F .
FBD I: ΣMA = 0
BDx (24) + BDy (7) − Fx (40) − Fy (16) = 0
7 24
BD (24) + BD (7) = (F cos 60◦ )(40) + (F sin 60◦ )(16)
25 25
13.44BD = 33.86F
BD = 2.52F
The positive sign on the answer reveals that our assumption that member
BD was inPcompression was correct.
Applying Fy = 0 to the free-body diagram of the roller will give Q in
terms of F .
Thinking Deeper 6.6.19 Why does the Method of Joints work on trusses
but not on Frames or Machines?
We can solve trusses using the methods of joints and method of sections
because all members of a simple truss are two-force bodies. Cutting a truss
member exposes an internal force which has an unknown scalar magnitude,
but a known line of action. The force acts along the axis of the member,
and causes no bending if the member is straight. Cutting a truss member
exposes one unknown.
Frames and machines are made of multi-force members and cutting these,
in general, exposes:
and six are exposed for a three-dimensional body. The number of un-
knowns quickly eclipses the available equations rendering the problem im-
possible to solve.
Bottom line: use method of sections and joints only for trusses made of
two-force straight members; for all other multi-force rigid body systems
draw and analyze free-body diagrams of the components.
6.7 Summary
The various equilibrium topics we have covered and the associated problem solv-
ing techniques are summarized below.
You should be able to recognize these situations, draw the associated free-
body diagrams and solve for the unknowns of each case.
ΣF = 0,
which produces two scalar equations in two dimensions and three scalar equations
in three dimensions.
Rigid Body Equilibrium. A rigid body can rotate and translate so both
force and moment equilibrium must be considered.
ΣF = 0
ΣM = 0
In two dimensions, these equations produce in two scalar force equations and
one scalar moment equation. Up to three unknowns can be determined.
In three dimension, they produce three scalar force equations and scalar three
moment equations. Up to six unknowns can be determined.
Frames and Machines. Frames and machines are structures which contain
multiple rigid body systems. Frames don’t move and are designed to support
loads. Machines are generally designed to multiply forces, and usually have
moving parts. Both frames and machines can be solved using the same methods.
All interactions between bodies are equal and opposite action-reaction pairs.
When solving frames and machines
• Two-force members provide one useful equilibrium equation, and can de-
termine one unknown.
• In two dimensions, rigid bodies result in two scalar force equations and
one scalar moment equation. Up to three unknowns can be determined.
• In three dimensions, rigid bodies produce three scalar force equations and
scalar three moment equations. Up to six unknowns can be determined.
CHAPTER 6. EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES 205
CHAPTER 6. EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES 206
Standalone
Chapter 7
Keeping your body’s balance: Try standing up with your feet together and
leaning your head and hips in front of your feet. You have just moved your
body’s center of gravity out of line with the support of your feet.
Computing the stability of objects in motion like cars, airplanes, and boats:
By understanding how the center of gravity interacts with the accelera-
tions caused by motion, we can compute safe speeds for sharp curves on a
highway.
Designing the structural support to balance the structure’s own weight and
applied loadings on buildings, bridges, and dams: We design most large
infrastructure not to move. To keep it from moving, we must understand
how the structure’s weight, people, vehicles, wind, earth pressure, and
water pressure balance with the structural supports.
You probably have already developed a good intuition about centroids and
centers of gravity based upon your life experience, and can roughly estimate their
location when you look at an object or diagram. In this chapter you will learn
to locate them precisely using two techniques: integration 7.7 and the method
of composite parts 7.5.
207
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 208
Where ai are the values we are averaging and wi are the corresponding weighting
factors. The weighting factors may be different for each item being averaged, so
wi is the weighting factor for value ai . In this book we will not write the limits
on the sums, and understand that the intent is always to sum over all the values.
Notice that if the weighting factors are all identical, they can be factored out of
the sums so the weighted average and the arithmetic mean will be the same.
Weighted averaging is used to find centroids, centers of gravity and centers
of mass, the subject of this chapter. All three are points located at the “center”
the object, but the meaning of “center” depends on the weighting factors. Area
or volume are the factors used for centroids, weight for center of gravity, and
mass for center of mass.
The mechanics syllabus says that there are two exams worth 25% each,
homework is 10%, and the final is worth 40%. You have a 40 on the first
exam, a 80 on the second exam, and your homework grade is 90.
What do you have to earn on the final exam to get a 70 in the class?
Answer. You need a 77.5 on the final to get a 70 for the class.
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 209
force? Recall from Section 4.8 that statically equivalent systems produce the
same external effect on the object —the net force on the object, and the net
moment about any point don’t change. An upward force at this point will
support the pencil without tipping.
To be equivalent, the total weight must equal the total weight of the parts.
W = W1 + W2 . Common sense also tells us that W will act somewhere between
W1 and W2 .
1 2
Figure 7.2.2 (top) Side view of a pencil representing each half as a particle.
(middle) A force diagram showing the weights of the two particles. (bottom) An
equivalent system consisting of a single weight acting at the pencil’s center of
gravity.
Next, let’s do the mathematical equivalent of sliding your finger back and
forth until a balance point is located. Pick any point O to be the origin, then
calculate the total moment about O due to the two weights.
The sum of moments around point O can be written as:
X
MO = −x1 W1 − x2 W2
Notice that the moment of both forces are clockwise around point O, so the
signs are negative according to the right-hand rule. We want a single equivalent
force acting at the (unknown) center of gravity. Call the distance from the origin
to the center of gravity x̄.
x̄ represents the mean distance of the weight, mass, or area depending on
the context of the problem. We are evaluating weights in this problem, so x̄
represents the distance from O to the center of gravity.
The sum of moments around point O for the equivalent system can be written
as: X
MO = −x̄W
The moment of total weight W is also clockwise around point O, so the sign
of moment will also be negative according to the right-hand rule. Since the two
representation are equivalent we can equate them and solve for x̄.
−x̄W = −x1 W1 − x2 W2
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 211
x1 W1 + x 2 W2
x̄ =
W1 + W2
This result is exactly in the form of (7.1.2) where the value being averaged
is distance x and the weighting factor is the weight of part Wi and the result is
the mean distance x̄.
The pencil was made up of two halves, but this equation can easily be ex-
tended n discrete parts. The resulting general definition of the centroidal coor-
dinate x̄ is: P
x̄i Wi
x̄ = P (7.2.1)
Wi
where:
Question 7.2.3
Can you explain why the center of gravity of a symmetrical object will
always fall on the axis of symmetry?
Answer. If the object is symmetrical, every subpart on the positive side
of the axis of symmetry will be balanced by an identical part on the neg-
ative side. The first moment for the entire shape about the axis will sum
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 212
In other words, the distance from the axis of symmetry of the shape to
the centroid is zero.
10 lb 10 lb 10 lb
a Find the total weight and the distance from the origin to the center
of gravity of the three boxes.
b How would the center of gravity change if the right-most box weighed
20 lb instead of 10 lb?
Answer. a) W = 30 lb x̄ = 2.5 ft
b) W = 40 lb x̄ = 3.25 ft
The total weight increases by 10 lb and the center of gravity shifts to the
right by 0.75 ft. Also, if the weights of box three doubles, the first moment
of weight with respect to the origin of the third box would also double.
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CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 213
W = mg,
where g is the local strength of the gravitational field. In this course you may
take g = 9.81 m/s2 in the SI system, or g = 32.2 ft/s2 in the US customary
system as reasonable approximations for objects on the surface of the earth.
Substituting mi gi = Wi in (7.2.2) gives the equations for the center of mass.
P P P
x̄i mi gi ȳi mi gi z̄i mi gi
x̄ = P ȳ = P z̄ = P . (7.3.1)
mi g i mi g i mi g i
These equations give the coordinates of the center of mass. The numerator
contains the first moment of mass, and the denominator contains the total
mass of the object. As long as the assumption that g is constant is valid, the
center of mass and the center of gravity are identical points and the two terms
may be used interchangeably.
7.4 Centroids
Key Questions
• What is the difference between a centroid, center of gravity and a
center of mass?
• When will the centroid, center of gravity and center of mass refer to
the same point?
• Why do the equations for the center of gravity, mass, volume, and
area all have the same structure?
A centroid is a weighted average like the center of gravity, but weighted with
a geometric property like area or volume, and not a physical property like weight
or mass. This means that centroids are properties of pure shapes, not physical
objects. They represent the coordinates of the “middle” of the shape.
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 214
The defining equations for centroids are similar to the equations for Cen-
ters of Gravity (7.2.2) but with volume used as the weighting factor for three-
dimensional shapes
P P P
x̄i Vi ȳi Vi z̄i Vi
x̄ = P ȳ = P z̄ = P , (7.4.1)
Vi Vi Vi
We will see how to use these equations on complex shapes later in this chapter,
but centroids of some simple shapes can be easily found using symmetry.
If the shape has an axis of symmetry, every point on one side of the axis
is mirrored by another point equidistant on the other side. One has a positive
distance from the axis, and the other is the same distance away in the negative
direction. These two points will add to zero the numerator, as will every other
point making up the shape, and the first moment will be zero. This means that
the centroid must lie along the line of symmetry if there is one. If a shape has
multiple symmetry lines, then the centroid must exist at their intersection.
Question 7.4.2
y 3 cm 1 cm 3 cm
1 cm
1 cm
x
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 215
Answer.
x̄ = ȳ = 3.5 cm
h x′
C
A = bh b/2 h/2
O x
b
y y′
h
x′
bh
b/3 h/3
C 2
x
O
b
y y′
a
h (a + b)h a2 + ab + b2 h(2a + b)
C x′
2 3(a + b) 3(a + b)
x
O
b
y y′
r
x′
C
πr2 r r
x
O
y y′
r
x′ πr2 4r
C r 1
x 2 3π
O
y y′
r
C x′ πr2 4r 4r
x 4 3π 3π
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 217
Note 7.4.4
In this table, all centroids are measured from the indicated origin. You
must make the appropriate adjustments when the origin of your coordinate
system is located elsewhere.
P P P
x̄i Wi ȳi Wi z̄i Wi
x̄ = P ȳ = P z̄ = P
W W W
Pi Pi Pi
ρgt x̄i Ai
ρgt ȳi Ai
ρgt z̄i Ai
x̄ = P ȳ = P z̄ = P .
ρgt Ai
ρgt Ai
ρgt
Ai
The two dimensional centroid equations are sufficient to find the center of
gravity of a three dimensional object.
4r
1
See Example 7.7.14 for proof. ≈ 0.424 r
3π
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 218
• Where do the equations for the shapes in areas and centroids table
come from?
where,
x̄, and ȳ are the coordinates of the centroid of the entire shape.
x̄i , and ȳi are the coordinates of the centroid of composite part i.
The steps to finding a centroid using the composite parts method are:
For more complex shapes, the usual practice is to set up a table to organize
the information needed to calculate the centroid, as we will now show. The
process can be broken into three steps.
1.5 cm
2 cm
3 cm 2 cm 6 cm
There are often several ways to divide a shape, but it’s best to use as
few parts as possible to minimize your computations and opportunities for
error. For example, you could choose to break this shape into either a
5 cm × 4 cm rectangle, a 6 cm × 4 cm right triangle, and an r = 1.5 cm
circular hole,
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 220
1.5 cm
2 cm
2 cm
5 cm 6 cm
2 cm
2 cm 1.5 cm
11 cm 6 cm
Both options will give the same results, and in this case there is no par-
ticular advantage to one choice over the other. However, it would be silly
and unnecessary to break this into more than three parts, and it would
not be a good idea to divide this into a trapezoid minus a hole, unless you
know geometric properties of a trapezoid, which are not available in Sub-
section 7.4.1. Be sure your sub-shapes don’t overlap and don’t get counted
more than once.
The last two columns of the table contain the first moments of area Qx =
Ai ȳi and Qy = Ai x̄i , and are easily filled in by multiplying the values in
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 221
columns two to four. Be sure to attend to positive and negative signs when
multiplying. Note that the moment of area with respect to the x axis uses
the distance from the x axis, which is ȳi , and vice-versa.
The final row of the table are total values, calculated by summing the
entries for Ai , Qx and Qy , so for example the total area of the shape is
X
A= Ai = A1 + A2 + A3 . . .
P P
Don’t sum columns three or four, since x̄i and ȳi are meaningless.
Qy 112.8
x̄ = = = 4.52 cm
A 24.93
Qx 41.86
ȳ = = = 1.692 cm
A 24.93
Finally, plot the centroid (x̄, ȳ) on the diagram. If you have made a calcu-
lation error it will usually be obvious, because the centroid location won’t
“feel right.”
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b/f
Find the center of mass of this composite x 4 ft
t3
493
4 ft
solid. y
2f
t
Answer.
x̄ = −3.22 ft
ȳ = 2.59 ft
z̄ = 3.37 ft
Solution.
Table 7.5.4
Vi γ Wi x̄i ȳi ȳi Wi x̄i Wi ȳi Wi z̄i
Part
[ft3 ] [lb/ft3 ] [lb] [ft] [ft] [ft] [ ft·lb] [ ft·lb] [ ft·lb]
block 216 125 27000 -3 2 4.5 -81000 54000 121500
hole -50.27 125 -6283 -3 2 6 18850 -12566 -37699
wedge 12 493 5916 -4 4.67 1 -23664 27608 5916
26633 -85814 69042 89717
P
Wi x̄i −85814 ft·lb
x̄ = P = = −3.22 ft
Wi 26633 lb
P
Wi ȳi 69042 ft·lb
ȳ = P = = 2.59 ft
Wi 26633 lb
P
Wi z̄i 89717 ft·lb
z̄ = P = = 3.37 ft
Wi 26633 lb
We have actually found the coordinates of the center of gravity, but since
g is constant they are also coordinates of the center of mass.
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 224
The blue hatched rectangle has the same area as the gray shaded region, and
because the areas are the same, the height of the rectangle ȳ, is the average value
of f (x).
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3. Rename the value being averaged to eliminate the index i. We often use
el as a subscript when referring to a differential element.
The two-dimensional centroid equations (7.5.1) become,
P R P R
x̄i Ai x̄el dA ȳi Ai ȳel dA
x̄ = P ⇒ R ȳ = P ⇒ R ,
Ai dA Ai dA
and in the same way the center of gravity equations become
R R R
x̄el dW ȳel dW z̄el dW
x̄ = R ȳ = R z̄ = R .
dW dW dW
Question 7.6.2
How far is it from the earth to the sun?
Answer. 92,958,412 miles
Solution. Siri says that “The average distance from the earth to the sun
is 92,958,412 miles.”
That’s a pretty exact answer. What does it mean, exactly? From what
point on the earth to what point on the sun?
If the earth and sun were perfect spheres, we could use the distance be-
tween their centroids. With more information about shape and density,
we could find their centers of mass and measure between those points.
The bigger problem is that this distance changes continuously as the earth
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 226
revolves around the sun. How can we find an average value for something
which is continuously changing?
We need to use the methods described here, integrating the distance as a
function of time over the course of a year.
• Why are double integrals required for square dA elements and single
integrals required for rectangular dA elements?
In this section we will use the integral form of (7.4.2) to find the centroids of
non-homogenous objects or shapes with curved boundaries.
R R R
x̄el dA ȳel dA z̄el dA
x̄ = R ȳ = R z̄ = R (7.7.1)
dA dA dA
where
• A is the total area enclosed by the shape, and is found by evaluating the
first integral.
• x̄el and ȳel are the coordinates of the centroid of the element. These are
frequently functions of x or y, not constant values.
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 227
• Qx and Qy are the First moments of Area with respect to the x and y
axis.
The procedure for finding centroids with integration can be broken into three
steps:
dy dy
dx
x dx x x
from the left to the right boundaries. Either way, you only integrate
once to cover the enclosed area.
When finding the area enclosed by a single function y = f (x), and the
x and y axes (x, y) represents a point on the function and dA = y dx
for vertical strips, or dA = x dy for horizontal strips.
You must find expressions for the area dA and centroid of the element
(x̄el , ȳel ) in terms of the bounding functions. This is how we turn an integral
over an area into a definite integral which can be integrated.
When you have established all these items, you can substitute them into
(7.7.2) and proceed to the integration step.
Finally, plot the centroid at (x̄, ȳ) on your sketch and decide if your answer
makes sense for area.
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y = kxn
b = kan
b
k= n
a
Next, choose a differential area. For this problem a vertical strip works well.
A vertical strip has a width dx, and extends from the bottom boundary to the
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 230
top boundary. Any point on the curve is (x, y) and a point directly below it on
the x axis is (x, 0). This means that the height of the strip is (y − 0) = y and
the area of the strip is (base × height), so
dA = y dx.
The limits on the integral are from x = 0 on the left to x = a on the right
since we are integrating with respect to x.
With theseR detailsR aestablished, the next step is to set up and evaluate the
integral A = dA = 0 y dx. This is the familiar formula from calculus for the
area under a curve. Proceeding with the integration
Z a
A= y dx (y = kxn )
Z a
0
= kxn dx (integrate)
0
a
xn+1
=k (evaluate limits)
n+1 0
an+1 b
=k k= n
n+1 a
b an+1
= n (simplify)
a n+1
ab
A= (result)
n+1
This result is not a number, but a general formula for the area under a curve
in terms of a, b, and n. Explore with the interactive, and notice for instance
that when n = 0, the shape is a rectangle and A = ab; when n = 1 the shape is
a triangle and the A = ab/2; when n = 2 the shape is a parabola and A = ab/3
etc. This single formula gives the equation for the area under a whole family of
curves.
dA = f (x) (dx) = y dx
|{z} |{z}
height base
x̄el = x
y
It is also possible to find x̄ using a horizontal el-
ement but the computations are a bit more chal-
lenging. First the equation for dA changes to
dy
dA = g(y) (dy) = x dy.
|{z} |{z}
height base
x
Additionally, the distance to the centroid of each element, x̄el , must mea-
sure to the middle of the horizontal element. For this triangle,
x
x̄el = .
2
We find a similar contrast to finding the vertical centroidal distance ȳ
where it is easier to use a dy element to find ȳ than it is to use a dx
element.
y y
dy
dx x x
The interactive below compares horizontal and vertical strips for a shape
bounded by the parabola y 2 = x and the diagonal line y = x − 2. Hor-
izontal strips are a better choice in this case, because the left and right
boundaries are easy to express as functions of y. If vertical strips are cho-
sen, the parabola must be expressed as two different functions of x, and
two integrals are needed to cover the area, the first from x = 0 to x = 1,
and the second from x = 1 to x = 4.
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 232
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7.7.3 Examples
This section contains several examples of finding centroids by integration, start-
ing with very simple shapes and getting progressively more difficult. All the ex-
amples include interactive diagrams to help you visualize the integration process,
and to see how dA is related to x or y.
The first two examples are a rectangle and a triangle evaluated three different
ways: with vertical strips, horizontal strips, and using double integration. The
different approaches produce identical results, as you would expect. You should
try to decide which method is easiest for a particular situation.
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Figure 7.7.7
Answer.
x̄ = b/2 ȳ = h/2 (7.7.3)
Solution 1. This solution demonstrates solving integrals using vertical
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 233
dA = h dx.
x̄el = x
ȳel = h/2
dA = b dy.
x̄el = b/2
ȳel = y
h y 2 ih b 2 h ih
= bh =b = y
2 0 2 0
h2 b b2 h
A = bh Qx = Qy =
2 2
3. Find the centroid.
Substituting the results into the definitions gives
Qy Qx
x̄ = ȳ =
A A
b2 h h2 b
= bh = bh
2 2
b h
= = .
2 2
We will integrate twice, first with respect to y and then with respect
to x. The limits on the first integral are y = 0 to h and x = 0 to b
on the second. For a rectangle, both b and h are constants. In other
situations, the upper or lower limits may be functions of x or y.
2. Solve the integrals.
Substitute dA, x̄el , and ȳel into (7.7.2) and integrate the ‘inside’
integral, then the ‘outside’ integral. The results are the same as
before.
Z Z Z
A = dA Qx = ȳel dA Qy = x̄el dA
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 236
Z bZ h Z bZ h Z bZ h
= dy dx = y dy dx = x dy dx
Z b Z h Z b Z h Z b Z h
0 0 0 0 0 0
= dy dx = y dy dx = x dy dx
0 0 0 0 0 0
Z b h ih Z b h 2 ih Z b h ih
y
= y dx = dx = x y dx
0 0 0 2 0 0 0
Z b Z Z b
h2 b
=h dx = dx =h x dx
0 2 0 0
h ib h 2 h ib h x 2 ib
=h x = x =h
0 2 0 2 0
2 2
hb bh
A = hb Qx = Qy =
2 2
Solution 4.
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Figure 7.7.9
Answer.
2 1
x̄ = b ȳ = h (7.7.4)
3 3
Solution 1. This solution demonstrates finding the centroid of the tri-
angle using vertical strips dA = y dx. Set the slider on the diagram to
y dx to see a representative element.
x̄el = x
ȳel = y/2
Substitute dA, x̄el , and ȳel into (7.7.2) and integrate. In contrast to
the rectangle example both dA and ȳel are functions of x, and will
have to be integrated accordingly.
Z Z Z
A = dA Qx = ȳel dA Qy = x̄el dA
Z b Z b Z b
y
= y dx = (y dx) = x (y dx)
0 0 2 0
Z b Z 2 Z b
h 1 b h h
= x dx = x dx = x x dx
0 b 2 0 b 0 b
Z Z
h h x 2 ib h2 b 2 h b 2
= = 2 x dx = x dx
b 2 0 2b 0 b 0
b
h b2 h 2 h x 3 ib h x3
= = 2 =
b 2 2b 3 0 b 3 0
2
bh hb b2 h
A= Qx = Qy =
2 6 3
We learn that the area of a triangle is one half base times height.
Since the area formula is well known, it would have been more ef-
ficient to skip the first integral. Note that A has units of [length]2 ,
and Qx and Qy have units of [length]3 .
dA = (b − x)dy.
ȳel = y
(b − x) b+x
x̄el = x + = .
2 2
dA = dy dx.
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 241
x̄el = x
ȳel = y
Solution 4.
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 242
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The next two examples involve areas with functions for both boundaries,
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Figure 7.7.11
Answer.
3 2
x̄ = a ȳ b
8 5
Solution. We will use (7.7.2) with vertical strips to find the centroid of
a spandrel.
1. Set up the integrals.
Determining the bounding functions and setting up the integrals
is usually the most difficult part of problems like this. Begin by
drawing and labeling a sketch of the situation.
(a) Place a point in the first quadrant and label it P = (a, b). This
point is in the first quadrant and fixed since we are told that a
and b are positive integers
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 243
y = kx2 , so at P
(b) = k(a)2
b
k= 2
a
dA = (b − y) dx.
x̄el = (x + x)/2 = x
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 244
ȳel = (y + b)/2
For vertical strips, the integrations are with respect to x, and the
limits on the integrals are x = 0 on the left to x = a on the right.
Z Z Z
A= dA Qx = ȳel dA Qy = x̄el dA
Z a Z a Z a
(b + y)
= (b − y) dx = (b − y)dx = x(b − y) dx
2
Z 0
a Z 0
Z 0
1 a 2 a
= (b − kx ) dx
2
= (b − y 2 ) dx = x(b − y) dx
2 0
0
a Z Z o
x3 1 a 2 a
= bx − k = (b − (kx2 )2 ) dx = x(b − kx2 ) dx
3 0 2 0 o
Z Z
a3 1 a 2 a
= ba − k = (b − k 2 x4 ) dx = (bx − kx3 ) dx
3 2 0
3
5 a
o 2 a
b a 1 2 2x bx x4
= ba − = b x−k = −k
a2 3 2 5 0 2 4 0
" 2 5 # 2 4
3ba ba 1 2 b a ba b 4
= − = b a− 2
= −
3 3 2 a 5 2 a2 4
2 1 2 1 2 1 1
= ba = b a 1− = ba −
3 2 5 2 4
2 2 2 1
A = ba Qx = ba Qy = ba2
3 5 4
The area of the spandrel is 2/3 of the area of the enclosing rectangle
and the moments of area have units of [length]3 .
3 2
= a = b.
8 5
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Figure 7.7.13
Find the centroid location (x̄, ȳ) of the shaded area between the two curves
below.
Answer.
1 1
x̄ = ȳ = (7.7.5)
4 20
Solution 1. This solution demonstrates finding the centroid of the area
between two functions using vertical strips dA = y dx. Set the slider on
the diagram to h dx to see a representative element.
1. Set up the integrals.
The bounding functions in this example are the x axis, the vertical
line x = b, and the straight line through the origin with a slope of hb .
Using the slope-intercept form of the equation of a line, the upper
bounding function is
h
y = f (x) = x
b
and any point on this line is designated (x, y).
The strip extends from (x, 0) on the x axis to (x, y) on the function,
has a height of y, and a differential width dx. The area of this strip
is
dA = ydx.
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 246
x̄el = x
ȳel = y/2
x̄el = x
ȳel = y/2
Z 1/8 p
= 4y − 2y dy
0
h 4 i1/8
= 2y 2 − y 3/2
3 0
h1 1i
= −
32 48
1
A=
96
Z Z
Qx = ȳel dA Qy =
x̄el dA
Z 1/8 Z 1/8
x2 + x1
= y(x2 − x1 ) dy = (x2 − x1 ) dy
0 0 2
Z 1/8 p Z
1 1/8 2
= y 2y − 4y dy = x2 − x21 dy
0 2 0
Z 1/8 √ Z
1 1/8
= 2y − 4y
3/2 2
dy = 2y − 16y 2 dy
0 2 0
h 2 √2 i
4 3 1/8
1 2 16 3
1/8
= y − y
5/2
= y − y
5 3 0 2 3 0
h 1 1 i 1h 1 1i
= − = −
320 384 2 64 96
1 1
Qx = Qy =
1920 384
The last example demonstrates using double integration with polar coordi-
nates.
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Figure 7.7.15
Answer. The centroid of a semicircle with radius r, centered at the
origin is
4r
x̄ = 0 ȳ = (7.7.6)
3π
Solution. We will use (7.7.2) with polar coordinates (ρ, θ) to solve this
problem because they are a natural fit for the geometry. In polar coordi-
nates, the equation for the bounding semicircle is simply
ρ = r.
Normally this involves evaluating three integrals but as you will see, we
can take some shortcuts in this problem. Otherwise we will follow the
same procedure as before.
1. Set up the integrals.
Divide the semi-circle into ”rectangular” differential elements of area
dA, as shown in the interactive when you select Show element. This
shape is not really a rectangle, but in the limit as dρ and dθ approach
zero, it doesn’t make any difference.
The radial height of the rectangle is dρ and the tangential width is
the arc length ρdθ. The product is the differential area dA.
dA = (dρ)(ρ dθ) = ρ dρ dθ. (7.7.7)
This is because each element of area to the right of the y axis is bal-
anced by a corresponding element the same distance the left which
cancel each other out in the sum.
All that remains is to evaluate the integral Qx in the numerator of
Qx ȳel dA
ȳ = =
A A
4r
So x̄ = 0 and lies on the axis of symmetry, and ȳ = above the
3π
diameter.
This result can be extended by noting that a semi-circle is mirrored
quarter-circles on either side of the y axis. These must have the same
ȳ value as the semi-circle. Further, quarter-circles are symmetric
about a 45◦ line, so for the quarter-circle in the first quadrant,
4r
x̄ = ȳ = .
3π
Distributed loads are forces which are spread out over a length, area, or
volume. Most real-world loads are distributed, including the weight of building
materials and the force of wind, water, or earth pushing on a surface. Pressure,
load, weight density and stress are all names commonly used for distributed
loads. Distributed load is a force per unit length or force per unit area depicted
with a series of force vectors joined together at the top, and will be designated
as w(x) to indicate that the distributed loading is a function of x.
For example, although a shelf of books could be treated as a collection of
individual forces, it is more common and convenient to represent the weight of
the books as a uniformly distributed load. A uniformly distributed load is
a load which has the same value everywhere, i.e. w(x) = C, a constant.
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 252
weight
total weight = × length of shelf
length
This total load is simply the area under the curve w(x), and has units of
force. If the loading function is not uniform, integration may be necessary to
find the area.
Solution. The weight of one paperback over its thickness is the load
intensity w(x), so
3N
w(x) = = 100 N/m.
3 cm
The total weight is the area under the load intensity diagram, which in this
case is a rectangle. So, a 6 m bookshelf covered with paperbacks would
have to support
The line of action of this equivalent load passes through the centroid of
the rectangular loading, so it acts at x = 3 m.
100 N/m
6m 3m 3m
600 N
10 lb/ft
6 ft 4 ft 2 ft
30 lb
Solution 1. The equivalent load is the ‘area’ under the triangular load
intensity curve and it acts straight down at the centroid of the triangle.
This triangular loading has a 6 ft base and a10 lb/ft height so
1 1
W = bh = (6 ft)(10 lb/ft) = 30 lb.
2 2
and the centroid is located 2/3 of the way from the left end so,
x̄ = 4 ft.
Solution 2.
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CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 255
• You can include the distributed load or the equivalent point force on your
free-body diagram, but not both!
• Since you’re calculating an area, you can divide the area up into any shapes
you find convenient. So, if you don’t recall the area of a trapezoid off the
top of your head, break it up into a rectangle and a triangle.
Answer.
Ax = 0
Ay = 16 N
M = 64 N·m
ΣFx = 0 → Ax = 0
x ΣFy = 0 → Ay = 16 N
4m 2m
ΣMA = 0 → MA = (16 N)(4 m)
16 N
= 64 N·m
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 256
Answer.
Ay = 196.7 lb, Ax = 0 lb, By = 393.3 lb
Solution. Start by drawing a free-body diagram of the beam with the
two distributed loads replaced with equivalent concentrated loads. The
two distributed loads are (10 in)(12 lb/in) = 120 lb each.
120 lb 100 lb 150 lb 100 lb 120 lb
X
Fy = 0
−(12 lb/in)(10 in) + By − 100 lb − 150 lb
−100 lb + By − (12 lb/in)(10 in) = 0 → By = 196.7 lb
X
Fx = 0 → Ax = 0
y y
1. The pressure due to the fluid always acts perpendicular the surface.
2. A particle underwater will feel the same pressure from all directions.
4. P = ρgh assumes a constant density and thus is valid only for incompress-
ible fluids like water or oil, but not for compressible fluids like air.
Question 7.9.2
Does fluid pressure depend on the surface area of the container? For
instance, is the pressure below the Atlantic Ocean less than the pressure
below the Pacific Ocean since the Pacific is larger?
Answer. No. Fluid pressure is a function of density and depth only, so
the surface area of an ocean or tank is insignificant.
P = ρgh.
Assuming that the density of seawater and g are the same everywhere
under the ocean, the gage pressure depends on depth only.
Question 7.9.3
Compare the pressure at three feet and thirty feet below the surface of
freshwater to the atmospheric pressure.
Answer. The gage pressure at 3 ft is
This is
14.7 lb/in2 + 1.3 lb/in2
= 1.088,
14.7 lb/in2
approximately 9% greater than atmospheric pressure.
At 30 ft below the surface, the pressure is 10 times higher, 13.0 lb/in2
which is nearly twice atmospheric pressure.
a=2m
b=3m
F
The pressure at the top and the bottom of the window are
Since the loading is linear, the average pressure acting on the window is
The total force acting on the window is the average pressure times the
area of the window
If you prefer, you may use the formula from the Centroid table to locate
the centroid of the trapezoid instead.
CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 261
Solution 2.
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0.8 m
Find the depth h of mud for which the 3 m tall
concrete retaining wall will be on the verge of tipping
over. 3.0 m
Assume the density of mud is 1760 kg/m3 and the h
Answer.
h = 1.99 m
Solution.
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CHAPTER 7. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 262
Answer.
d ≥ 1.50 m
Solution 1. For the gate to tip, the force of the water must act at or
above A. That happens when the centroid of the load intensity diagram
from the water has its equivalent point force at or above A, so
d
≥ 500 mm
3
d ≥ 1500 mm.
Solution 2.
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Ay = 2795 N up
Solution.
Standalone
Chapter 8
Internal Forces
One of the fundamental assumptions we make in statics is that bodies are rigid,
that is, they do not deform, bend, or change shape. While we know that this
assumption is not true for real materials, we are building the analytical tools
necessary to analyze deformation. In this chapter you will learn to compute the
forces and moments inside a object which hold it together as it supports its own
weight and any applied loads.
The chapter begins with a discussion of internal forces and moments and
defines a new sign conventions especially for them. Next we will determine
internal forces at a specific point within a rigid body. Finally, we develop three
techniques to find internal forces at every point throughout a beam. Note that
we use the words internal forces when we are referring to both “internal forces
and internal bending moments.”
Determination of the internal forces is the first step in the engineering design
of a structure. A properly designed structure must safely support all expected
external loads, including live loads, dead loads, wind and earthquake loads. Ex-
ternal loads produce internal forces, which in turn creates stresses, strains, and
deformations in the structure. In a successful design, the shape, size, and mate-
rial must all be carefully chosen to limit them to safe values. You are advised
to pay attention, and master this topic.
266
CHAPTER 8. INTERNAL FORCES 267
You are familiar with straight, two-force members which only exist in equi-
librium if equal and opposite forces act on either end. Now imagine that we
cut the member at some point along its length. To maintain equilibrium, forces
must exist at the cut, equal and opposite to the external forces. These forces
are internal forces.
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Figure 8.1.1 Internal forces in a straight two-force member.
Now let’s examine the two-force member shown in Figure 8.1.2. This time,
the member is L shaped, not straight, but the external forces must still share the
same line of action to maintain equilibrium. If you cut across the object, you will
obtain two rigid bodies which must also be in equilibrium. However, adding an
equal and opposite horizontal force at the cut won’t produce static equilibrium
because the two forces form a couple which causes the piece to rotate. This
means that something is missing!
F F
F F
F F
M M
F F
F F
Figure 8.1.3 The internal forces are represented as an equal and opposite force
F and a bending moment M
The horizontal force can also be resolved into orthogonal components parallel
and perpendicular to the cut. These components have special names in the
context of internal forces.
N V
M M
F F
V N
F F
Figure 8.1.4 The internal forces are represented as a normal force N, a shear
force V, and bending moment M
The internal force component perpendicular to the cut is called the normal
force. This is the same internal tension or compression force that we assumed
to be the only significant internal load for trusses. If the object has an axis, and
the cut is perpendicular to it, the normal force may also be properly called an
axial force.
The internal force component parallel to the cut is called the shear force.
The word shear refers to the shearing that occurs between adjacent planes due
to this force. You can get a feel for shearing adjacent planes by sliding two pieces
of paper together.
The internal couple-moment is called the bending moment because it tends
to bend the material by rotating the cut surface.
The shear force is often simply referred to as shear, and the bending moment
as moment; together with the normal or axial force the three together are
referred to as the “internal forces”. The symbol V is commonly chosen for the
shear force, and A, P or N for the normal force and M for the bending moment.
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Figure 8.1.5 Internal Loading in a L shaped member.
CHAPTER 8. INTERNAL FORCES 269
• Positive Shear.
CHAPTER 8. INTERNAL FORCES 270
Question 8.2.1
We have defined positive internal forces by looking at the “front” side of
the object. Would the results change if you walked around the object and
analyzed it from the other side?
A=F
V =0
M = wL2 /8
Solution.
1. Find the external reactions.
Begin by drawing a free-body diagram of wL
the entire beam, simplified by replacing
the distributed load w with an equivalent F
concentrated load at the centroid of the B
rectangle.
The magnitude of the equivalent load W is equal to the “area” under
the rectangular loading curve.
W = w(L)
ΣFx = 0
−Ax + F = 0
Ax = F
ΣFy = 0
Ay − wL + By = 0
Ay = wL − wL/2
= wL/2
CHAPTER 8. INTERNAL FORCES 273
F
B
w
F
L/2 L/2
B
F
B
ΣFx = 0
−Ax + N = 0
N = Ax
ΣFy =0
Ay − wL/2 − V =0
V = wL/2 − wL/2
V =0
ΣMcut =0
(wL/2)(L/4) − (Ay )(L/2) + M =0
M = −wL2 /8 + wL2 /4
M = wL2 /8
ΣFx = 0
−N + F = 0
N =F
ΣFy = 0
CHAPTER 8. INTERNAL FORCES 275
V − wL/2 + By =0
V = wL/2 − By
V = wL/2 − wL/2
V =0
ΣMcut = 0
−M − (L/4)(wL/2) + (L/2)(By ) = 0
M = −wL2 /8 + wL2 /4
M = wL2 /8
Regardless of which side is chosen, we get the same results for the internal
forces at the chosen point.
When you solve for the internal forces, the results can be either positive,
negative, or sometimes zero. Negative values indicate that the actual direction of
the load is opposite to the assumed direction. Since we assumed all three internal
forces were positive as defined by the standard sign convention, a negative answer
means that the load actually acts in the opposite direction to the vector shown
on the free-body diagram.
N =F
V =p
M = −P l + P a = −P (L − a) = −P b
Solution.
Notice that only the applied loads and support reactions are included
on this uncut beam fbd. The internal forces are only exposed and
shown on a fbd after the beam is cut.
Use this free-body diagram and the equations of equilibrium to de-
termine the external reaction forces.
ΣFx = 0 =⇒ Ax = F
ΣFy = 0 =⇒ Ay = P
ΣMA = 0 =⇒ MA = P L
a b P
The free-body diagrams of both portions have been drawn with the
internal forces and moments drawn in the positive direction defined
by the standard sign convention.
The axial force is shown in tension on both parts. This force has
been named N so its name doesn’t conflict with the forces at point
A.
The shear force V is positive when the shear is down on the right
face of the cut and up on the left face.
The bending moment M is positive if the bending direction would
tend to bend the beam into a concave upward curve.
Always assume that the unknown internal forces act in the positive
direction as defined by the standard sign convention.
Solving the other free-body diagram would produce the same results
CHAPTER 8. INTERNAL FORCES 277
Once you have found the reactions and drawn a free-body diagram of
the simpler portion with the normal force, shear force, and bending
moment assumed positive, you then solve for the unknown values
and signs just like any other equilibrium problem.
• Assuming that the internal forces act in the positive direction and drawing
a free-body diagram accordingly
• Using ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0, and ΣMz = 0 to solve for the three unknown
internal forces.
The shear force V , normal force N , and bending moment M are scalar com-
ponents and they may be positive, zero, or negative depending on the applied
loads. The signs of the scalar components together with the sign convention for
internal forces establish the actual directions of the shear force, normal force
and bending moment vectors.
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x x
The plots of the equations for V (x) and M (x) are shown below in Figure 8.5.2.
These equations indicate that the shear force V (x) is constant P over the length
of the beam and the moment M (x) is a linear function of the position of the cut,
x starting at −P L at x = 0 and linearly increasing to zero at x = L. Note that
the graphs are only valid from 0 ≤ x ≤ L, so the curves outside this range is
show as dotted lines. These two graphs are usually drawn stacked beneath the
diagram of the beam and loading.
CHAPTER 8. INTERNAL FORCES 280
x
P
x
w w B w B C
A x A x A x
A x B
Figure 8.6.1 A simply supported beam with a distributed load that is a function
of beam position w(x).
If we select a small section of this beam from x to x + ∆x to look at closely,
we have the free-body diagram shown in Figure 8.6.2.
Figure 8.6.2 A free-body diagram of a small section of the beam with a width
of ∆x
Since ∆x is infinitely narrow, we can assume that the distributed load over
this small distance is constant and equal to the value at x, and call it w.
Applying the force equilibrium in the vertical direction gives the following
result:
X
Fy = 0
V + w(∆x) − (V + ∆V ) = 0
∆V
=w
∆x
Taking the limit of both sides as ∆x approaches 0, we get this important
result
∆V
lim = lim (w)
∆x→ 0 ∆x ∆x→ 0
dV
=w
dx
This equation tells us that, at a given location x, the slope of the shear
function V (x) there is the value of the loading directly above, w(x). Furthermore,
if we multiply both sides by dx, we can integrate to find that
Z
∆V = w(x) dx
In words, this equation says that over a given distance, the change in the
shear V between two points is the area under the loading curve between them.
Now looking at the internal bending moments on the fbd in Figure 8.6.2,
when we apply moment equilibrium about the centroid of the element, and take
the limit similarly,
CHAPTER 8. INTERNAL FORCES 282
X
M =0
∆x ∆x
− V − (V + ∆V ) − M + (M + ∆M ) = 0
2 2
∆M 1
= (2V + ∆V )
∆x 2
∆M ∆V
lim = lim V +
∆x→ 0 ∆x ∆x→ 0 2
dM
=V
dx
This final equation tells us that, the slope of the moment diagram is the value
of the shear. Furthermore, if we multiply both sides by dx, we can integrate to
find that
Z
∆M = V dx
In words, this equation says that over a given segment, the change in the
moment value is the area under the shear curve.
Hence, the functional relationships between the internal shear force V (x),
internal bending moment M (x) at a point x, and the value of the loading at
that point w(x) are simply the derivatives and integrals that you learned in
Calculus I. These relationships are summarized below.
The slope of the shear function dV
at x is the value of the loading = w(x) (8.6.1)
dx
function at the same position.
An upward load is considered a
positive load.
The change in the shear value
Z b
between two points is the area
under the loading function be- ∆V = w(x) dx (8.6.2)
a
tween those points.
The slope of the moment func- dM
tion at x is the value of the shear = V (x) (8.6.3)
dx
at the same position.
The change in the moment value
Z b
between two points is the area
under the shear curve between ∆M = a V (x) dx (8.6.4)
those points.
Shear and bending moment diagrams show the effect of the load on the
internal forces within the beam and are a graphical representation of equations
(8.6.1)–(8.6.4). The diagrams are made up of jumps, slopes and areas as a result
of the load.
CHAPTER 8. INTERNAL FORCES 283
• Slopes are gradual changes in shear and moment diagrams. Positive slopes
go up and to the right.
• Areas are “areas” under the loading and shear curves, i.e. integration.
The area under the loading curve is actually the force, and the area under
the shear curve is actually the bending moment.
Table 8.6.3 Effect of load on shear and bending moments.
Diagram Jumps Slopes Areas
Shear Concentrated forces The slope of the shear The change in the
cause the shear diagram at a point is shear between two
diagram to jump by the equal to the value of points is equal to the
same amount. Upward the distributed load corresponding area
loads cause upward above that point. A under the loading
jumps. downward distributed curve.
load will give the shear
Concentrated moments
diagram a negative
on the beam have no
slope.
effect on the shear
diagram.
Moment Concentrated moments The slope of the Change in the moment
cause jumps on the moment diagram at a between two points is
moment curve. point is equal to the equal to the
Counterclockwise value of shear at that corresponding area
moments cause point. A positive shear under a shear curve.
downward jumps and causes a positive slope
vice-versa. on the moment
diagram and vice-versa.
You can use the interactive below to explore how changes to concentrated load
P and distributed load w affects the slopes, jumps, and areas of the resulting
shear and bending moment diagrams.
CHAPTER 8. INTERNAL FORCES 284
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7. Establish the moment graph with a horizontal axis below the shear diagram
and a vertical axis to represent moment. Positive moments will be plotted
above the x axis and negative below.
8. Draw and label dots on the moment diagram by starting with a dot at
x = 0, M = 0 then proceed from left to right placing dots until you reach
the end of the beam. As you move over each segment move up or down
from the current value by the “area” under the shear curve for that segment
and place a dot on the graph. In this step, you are applying (8.6.4).
(a) Positive areas cause the moment to increase, negative areas cause it
to decrease.
(b) If you encounter a concentrated moment, jump straight up or down
by the amount of the moment and place a dot. Clockwise moments
cause upward jumps and counter-clockwise moments cause downward
jumps.
(c) When you reach the end of the beam you should return to M = 0. If
you don’t, then recheck your work.
9. Connect the dots with correctly shaped lines. Segments under constant
shear are straight lines, segments under changing shear are curves. The
general curvature of the lines can be determined by considering equation
(8.6.3).
but instead of finding areas and slopes using geometry, we will integrate the load
function w(x) to find the ∆V , then integrate that result to find the ∆M .
These results are the change in shear and moment over a segment; to find the
actual shear and moment functions V (x) and M (x) for the entire beam we will
need to find initial values for each segment. This is equivalent to using boundary
conditions to find the constant of integration when solving a differential equation.
The initial values come from either the final value of the previous segment or
from point loads or point moments. Because of the requirement for these segment
starting values, no segment can be computed in isolation from the other segments.
Physically this means that the shear and moment along a beam are not just due
to the loading in one segment, but are related to the loading on the rest of the
beam as well.
• No load.
Whenever there is no load at all on a segment there will be no change in
the shear on the segment. On such sections the loading function is
w(x) = 0.
Note that this can only occur when the weight of the beam itself is ne-
glected.
• Point Load.
A point load is a concentrated force acting at a single point which causes
a jump in the shear diagram.
w(x) = C V (x) = Cx + b.
The constant value is negative if the load points down, and positive if it
points upward.
mx2
w(x) = mx + b V (x) = + bx + c.
2
The slope m, intercept b, and constant c must be determined from the
situation, and will depend on whether you are writing a global or local
equation.
• Arbitrary Load.
The loading function will be a given function of x.
w(x) = f (x),
Most gravitational distributed loads are drawn with the arrows pointing
down and resting on the beam. If you slide these along their line of action
so that their tails are on the beam, the tips define the loading equation.
This interactive compares the local and global equations for a beam segment
with a uniformly varying load.
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Figure 8.8.1 Global vs. Local coordinate systems.
CHAPTER 8. INTERNAL FORCES 289
Solution.
CHAPTER 8. INTERNAL FORCES 290
This beam has only one load section, and on that section the load is
constant so,
w(x) = −w.
There is a pinned connection at x = 0 which provides a vertical force and
no concentrated moment, so the initial conditions there are V (0) = wL/2,
and M (0) = 0.
Integrating equations (8.6.2) and (8.6.4) we have.
Z x
∆V = − w(x) dx
0
wL/2
*
V (x) −
V(0) = −wx x
wL
V (x) = − wx L
2
L
=w −x
2
Z x
∆M = V (x) dx
Z x
0
*0
L
M (x) −
M(0) = w − x dx x
0 2
w
M (x) = (Lx − x2 )
2
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CHAPTER 8. INTERNAL FORCES 292
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CHAPTER 8. INTERNAL FORCES 293
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CHAPTER 8. INTERNAL FORCES 294
8.10 Summary
You have likely realized that in engineering (and life) that there are multiple
ways to solve a problem. The four different techniques to compute internal
forces discussed in this chapter are a demonstration of this. In the end, the
choice of which method to use is yours; the better you know each method the
easier it will be to choose the one which is most applicable and efficient.
The list below summarizes each of the four approaches and their advantages
and disadvantages.
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Chapter 9
Friction
Friction is the force which resists relative motion between surfaces in contact
with each other.
Friction is categorized by the nature of the surfaces in contact and the con-
ditions under which they are interacting. There are many different types of
friction, some of which are listed below.
1. Dry friction, which is the force that opposes one solid surface sliding
across another solid surface.
4. Skin friction, also called drag, is the friction that occurs between a fluid
and a moving surface.
297
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 298
• How do you decide when you can use the equation F = µs N and
when you can not?
• Can you show graphically how friction and normal force vectors are
related to the friction resultant vector and the friction angle at im-
pending motion?
Dry Friction. Dry friction, also called Coulomb friction, is a force which
appears between two solid surfaces in contact. This force is distributed over
the contact area and always acts in whichever direction opposes relative motion
between the surfaces. We will usually simplify the distributed frictional force
by representing it as a single concentrated force acting at a point, as we did in
Section 7.8.
Depending on the details of the situation, dry friction will either hold the
object in equilibrium, in which case it is called static friction, or it will retard
but not prevent motion, in which case it is called kinetic friction.
Consider the football training sled shown in Figure 9.1.1. Initially, the sled’s
weight is supported by a normal force acting on the bottom surface that can be
considered as a point force directly beneath the center of gravity; there is no
friction force.
When players begin to push the sled, a friction force will appear along the
bottom surface which opposes sliding to the right. Both the friction and normal
forces can be represented by concentrated horizontal and vertical forces located
to the right of the center of gravity. This offset is required to maintain rotational
equilibrium against the pushing force. If the players push hard enough, equilib-
rium will break and the sled will begin to slide in the direction of the push. At
this point static friction has transitioned to kinetic friction.
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 299
Impending Motion
Weight
Push
Friction
Normal
Motion
Weight
Friction
Thrust
Normal Normal
W W W
P P P
F F
F+N N N R
P P
F
N
(a) Block on rough surface. (b) fbd showing normal and friction
forces.
Figure 9.1.5
Friction has two distinct regions as shown in Figure 9.1.6, and the value of
µ is different in each region. The region from point one to point two, where the
force of friction increases linearly with load is called the static friction region.
Here you must use the coefficient of static friction µs . The region from point
two to point three, where the friction remains roughly constant is called the
kinetic friction region. In this region you must use the coefficient of kinetic
friction µk .
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 301
Static
Not Impending Kinetic
1
P
Figure 9.1.6 Phases of Coulomb friction.
The coefficient of friction suddenly drops at point two, causing the friction
force Ff to drop as well. Point two is called the point of impending motion,
because here the situation is unstable. If the applied force increases ever so
slightly, the opposing friction force suddenly decreases and the object begins to
move.
To better understand the behavior of Coulomb friction imagine an object
resting on a rough surface as shown in Figure 9.1.5(b). When force P is gradually
increased from zero, the normal force N and the frictional force Ff both change in
response. Initially both P and Ff are zero and the object is in equilibrium. The
interaction between the two surfaces in contact means that friction is available
but it is not engaged Ff = P = 0.
As P increases, the opposing friction force Ff increases as well to match and
hold the object in equilibrium. In this static-but-not-impending phase Ff = P .
When P reaches point two, motion is impending because friction has reached
its maximum value. Ffmax = µs N = P . If force P increases slightly beyond Ffmax ,
the friction force suddenly drops to the kinetic value Ff = µk N . The applied
force exceeds the frictional force breaking equilibrium and causing the object to
accelerate, and accelerating bodies are beyond the scope of Statics!
Notice that static friction at impending motion is greater than kinetic friction,
because the coefficient µs > µk for most materials. Practically, this tells us that
once a material starts to move it is easier to keep moving than it was to get it
started from rest.
If you wonder why we include kinetic friction in a statics course, remember
that a sliding body moving at constant velocity is in equilibrium.
The friction angle ϕs is defined as the angle between the friction resultant
and the normal force. At impending motion, the friction angle reaches its maxi-
mum value. The friction resultant and friction angle are used for screw, flexible
belt, and journal bearing type problems.
The maximum friction angle ϕs is directly related to the coefficient of static
friction µs since the friction angle ϕs is the internal angle of the right triangle
formed by the normal force N , the friction resultant R, and the friction force F .
Hence:
F −1 F
tan ϕs = ϕs = tan (9.1.2)
N N
In Figure 9.1.7 a block of weight W is pushed sideways by force P . The
reaction forces can be represented as separate friction and normal forces, or as
combined friction force R acting at friction angle ϕs , measured from the normal
direction.
W W
P P
F
N R
(a) Force components. (b) Resultant and Friction angle.
Figure 9.1.7
the point shifts to the right. If the point shifts off the physical object then the
required friction is greater than the friction available and motion begins.
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Figure 9.1.8 Distributed Normal force changes with load and weight.
Example 9.1.9
A moment of 20 N · m is applied to a wheel held static by a brake arm.
What is the friction force between the wheel and the brake arm?
Example 9.1.10
A box sits on a slope, find the resultant of the friction and normal forces
on the box.
Example 9.1.11
What is the maximum force applied to the box before it will start to move?
Example 9.1.12
What is the minimum coefficient of static friction that will keep the box
static? What is the lightest box which will not slip or tip on this slope?
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 304
Example 9.1.13
What is the lightest box which will not slip or tip on this slope?
Example 9.1.14
A 40 kg box is sliding down a 20° slope, what is the coefficient of friction
to keep the velocity constant?
Example 9.1.15
A rope slips over a surface at constant velocity, what is the contact angle
of the rope?
This section focuses on the various ways a rigid body in equilibrium might
begin to move. The point at which an object starts to move is called the point
of impending motion.
The interactive in Figure 9.2.1 shows a box sitting on a rough surface. Imag-
ine that we start pushing on the side of the box with a gradually increasing
force. Initially, friction between the block and the incline will increase to main-
tain equilibrium, and the box will sit still.
As we continue to increase the force there are two possibilities; the maximum
static friction force will be reached and the box will begin to slide, or the pushing
force and the friction force will create a sufficient couple to cause the box tip on
its corner.
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 305
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Figure 9.2.1 Slipping vs. Tipping
The easiest way to determine whether the box will slip, tip, or stay put is to
solve for the maximum load force P twice, once assuming slipping and a second
time expecting tipping, then compare the actual load to these maximums. This
process is summarized in the following three steps:
1. Check slipping.
As in all dry friction problems, the maximum
friction force is equal to the static coefficient of W
P
friction times the normal force
h d
Ff max = µs N .
9.3 Wedges
Key Questions
• Why is the normal force always perpendicular to the contact surface
while the friction force always lies parallel to it?
A wedge is a tapered object which converts a small input force into a large
output force using the principle of an inclined plane. Wedges are used to separate,
split or cut objects, lift weights, or fix objects in place. The mechanical advantage
of a wedge is determined by the angle of its taper; narrow tapers have a larger
mechanical advantage.
Wedges are used in two primary ways:
Low friction wedges are a simple machines which allows users to create large
output forces to move objects using comparatively small input forces. In the log
splitter in Figure 9.3.1(a), hydraulic ram pushes a log into a stationary wedge.
The normal force pushes the two halves of the log apart while the friction force
Ff is opposes the pushing force P .
High-friction (self-locking) wedges control the location of objects or hold them
in place. Examples include doorstop wedges and carpentry wedges. The sailor
in Figure 9.3.1(b) is hammering two wooden wedges towards each other to cre-
ate large compressive forces to secure shoring timbers during a damage control
operation.
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 307
(a) A low friction wedge is used to (b) High friction wedges are used to
split logs. secure shoring timbers.
Example 9.3.2
Answer.
P = 9.35 lb
F1 = N1 µs = 2 lb.
There are still two unused equilibrium equations for this free-body diagram,
but they are not sufficient to find unknown forces P and R because the
point where resultant friction force acts is also unknown.
Next, consider equilibrium of the block, Figure 9.3.3(b). A detail of N2
and F2 in Figure 9.3.4 shows how the their x and y components are related
to the wedge angle θ.
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 309
ΣFy = 0
−W + N2y − F2y = 0
−W + N2 cos θ − µs N2 sin θ = 0
N2 (cos θ − µs sin θ) = W
N2 = 12.17 lb
Figure 9.3.4
Since the wedge is at the point of impending motion,
F 2 = µs N2
= 2.43 lb
With the friction and normal forces on both sides of the wedge known,
we can now find the required force P using the free body diagram of the
wedge 9.3.3(c).
ΣFx =0
P − F 1 − F 2x − N2 x =0
P = F1 + F2 cos θ + N2 sin θ
P = 9.35 lb
Example 9.3.5
Using the same system as in Example 9.3.2, find the minimum force P ′ to
prevent the wedge from slipping out from under the block
This is similar to the previous example, but the free-body diagrams need
to change in the following ways:
Note that for forces between P and P ′ , the system is static and the friction
forces are static-but-not-impending.
Answer.
P ′ = 0.94 lb
Solution. The solution is left as an exercise for the reader.
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 310
• Contrast the different types of screw motion, with and against ap-
plied loads, and match the motion cases to their corresponding equa-
tion.
A screw thread is uniform shape which spirals around the inside or outside
surface of a cylinder or cone. Like wedges, screws are simple machines. They are
essentially a ramp or inclined plane wrapped into a helix, and the input to screws
is torque rather than linear force. The mechanical advantage of a screw depends
on its lead, which is the linear distance the screw travels in one revolution.
Screws used to fix objects in place are called fasteners, and screws used to
move objects are called power screws or lead screws. In this chapter we will
focus on power screws.
A power screw assembly includes a nut with matching internal threads which
fits around the screw. There are two ways that a power screw can operate based
on the movement of the screw and nut. In a scissors jack, the operator rotates the
threaded rod with a crank fitted to the nut on the right, which is not threaded
but acts as a thrust bearing. The nut on the left moves along the stationary
screw to raise the load. In the C-clamp, the nut is stationary and the screw
translates through as it rotates. In either case, a small moment on the screw
can cause enormous forces on the nut, with the added benefit of the force being
applied at a precise location as controlled by the screw.
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 311
(a) A scissors jack uses fixed (b) A C-clamp screw rotates and translates
screw and a moving a nut. through a fixed nut.
Figure 9.4.1 Power Screws
• machines where the movement of the screw creates dual motion, like a
hand-screw wood clamp.
To visualize these terms, imagine unwrapping a thread from around the screw,
as shown in Figure 9.4.4.
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 313
l
l
r
(a) l = pitch, r = mean (b) α = lead angle
radius
Figure 9.4.4 Thread properties
The mean radius is the distance from the centerline to a point halfway be-
tween the tip and the root of the thread. Twice this value is the effective diam-
eter.
The lead is the linear travel the nut makes in one revolution, which is also the
distance from a point on the screw thread to a corresponding point on the same
thread after one rotation. Threads are commonly designated by the number of
threads per-inch or per-centimeter, and pitch is the inverse of this value.
The lead angle is related to the pitch and the mean radius by trigonometry.
Using the right triangle shown in Figure 9.4.4(b), the thread lead angle α is the
inverse tangent of the ratio of the lead over the circumference
−1 l
α = tan
2πr
ure 9.4.5(a). To eliminate any references to the orientation of the screw and
force like up, down, left, or right, this type of motion will be described as “the
applied force opposes impending motion.” This case occurs any time you are
applying a force to an object with a screw.
The free-body diagram in Figure 9.4.5(b) shows the moment M required to
raise a load W and the friction and normal forces acting on a slice of thread.
These must be summed over the entire length of the thread to find the total
friction and normal forces.
W
M
X X
Fx = 0 Fy = 0
Pi = R sin(α + ϕs ) Wi = R cos(α + ϕs )
By summing the forces across all elements of one wrap of the screw we find:
X X
Fx = 0 Fy = 0
M
= ΣR sin(α + ϕs ) W = ΣR cos(α + ϕs )
r
We next need to reduce these two equations to a single equation and also
eliminate the difficulty to quantify ΣR term. Thus we solve both equations for
ΣR.
M
ΣR =
r sin(α + ϕs )
W
ΣR =
cos(α + ϕs )
Then, set them equal to each other and solve for the moment M .
M = W r tan(ϕs + α) (9.4.1)
1. Self-locking. ϕs > α.
In this case the load will not cause the screw to rotate by itself,
2. Unwind-with-load.ϕs < α.
In this case, the load will move the screw without assistance, and
3. Impending motion. ϕs = α.
This case is the boundary between the two other cases.
In all three cases the thread angle α is the angle between the normal force N
and the centerline of the screw, and the friction angle ϕs is the angle between
the friction resultant force R and the normal force N .
The derivations of the relationships are quite similar to the derivation of
(9.4.1), but use subtly different free-body diagrams for each of the three cases.
See Figure 9.4.7 below.
W W W
M M''
Self-locking screw. Self-locking screws are the type of screws that you will
encounter most often in mechanical systems as they are highly predictable. They
have sufficient friction available to hold their applied load even with no moment
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 317
applied. Thus, they can safely carry a load in a static-but-not impending condi-
tion until you wish to overcome the excess friction by applying a moment M ′ to
push them to impending motion.
Summing the forces in the x and y directions for the free-body diagram in
Figure 9.4.7(a) yields:
M ′ = W r tan(ϕs − α) (9.4.2)
Unwind-with-load screw As its name implies, an unwind-under-load screw
will start turning unless a moment M ′′ is applied to keep the screw at or beyond
impending motion. The moment to push a self-locking screw to impending mo-
tion M ′ is in the opposite direction as the moment to keep unwind-under-load
screws at impending motion M ′′ , as M ′′ is in the same direction as the moment
to loosen (or raise) a screw. These unwind-with-load screws are not often found
in mechanical systems, except for in dynamic motion control systems, where the
screw is used to slow down motion.
To be designed in an unwind-with-load condition, a screw must have a quite
steep thread angle α and minimal friction between the threads and nut, which
reduces ϕs .
Summing the forces in the x and y directions for the free-body diagram in
Figure 9.4.7(c) yields:
M ′′ = W r tan(α − ϕs ) (9.4.3)
Impending-motion screw As the derived equations for all three unwind-
with-load screw cases push the screw towards impending motion, when a screw
is already at impending motion, it requires no applied moment to maintain
equilibrium; however, this case is mechanically unstable. If the load increases
slightly the screw will begin to unwind-under-load, whereas if the load decreases
slightly the screw will become self-locking.
Summing the forces in the x and y directions for the free-body diagram in
Figure 9.4.7(b) yields:
• How do you compute the contact angle β between the belt and pulley
or cylinder?
T T T T
(a) fbd Belt and (b) fbd of belt (c) fbd of cylinder
pulley
Figure 9.5.2 Free-body diagrams, equal tension.
Without friction, the two tensions must be equal otherwise the belt would
slip around the cylinder. The only interaction force between the belt and pulley
is the distributed normal force. Due to the symmetry of this example, the x
components of the distributed force all cancel and the resultant is purely vertical.
In other situations this will not be true.
belt. The arrow indicates that the impending relative motion of the pulley with
respect to the belt is counter-clockwise. The actual direction of rotation is not
known or indicated. Friction always acts opposite to the direction of relative
motion.
(a) fbd of Belt and (b) fbd of Belt (c) fbd of pulley
Pulley
Figure 9.5.3 Unequal Tensions
Increasing M or the belt tension ratio T+ /T− will increase the power trans-
mitted until the belt starts to slip. This occurs when the friction increases to
the maximum available value Fmax = µs M . At this point, motion (slipping) is
impending.
We are interested in determining the range of values for the tension forces
where the belt does not slip relative to the surface. For a flat belt, the maximum
value for T+ depends on the magnitude of T− , the static coefficient of friction
between the belt and the surface µs , and the contact angle β between the belt
and the surface.
Contact Angle β
You will need to use the geometry of the pulleys to find the contact angle β be-
tween the belt and pulley. The belt will depart the pulley at a point of tangency,
which is always perpendicular to a radius. To find β create one or more right
triangles using the incoming and outgoing belt paths and apply complementary
angles to relate the belt geometry to the contact angle. There is no simple rule
for transferring cable angles over to the contact angle, but in general, extend
radial lines from the center of the pulley out to the belt’s tangential lines. Next,
create right triangles with each radial line and work to find all the angles which
add up to the contact angle β.
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 321
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Figure 9.5.4 Relationship between pulley geometry and contact angle β.
Belt Tension
We have seen that when there is friction between a belt and a pulley, the tensions
on either end of the belt are not the same. In previous problems, we simply
guessed a direction for an unknown force, and then used the sign of the numerical
answer to confirm or reverse our assumption. Unfortunately, this does not work
for flexible belts, where we must make the correct determination before starting
computations. So, how can we determine which side has the larger tension, and
which side is smaller?
The following discussion guides you through two methods to make this deci-
sion. Figure 9.5.5 shows a pulley and belt system and the associated free body
diagrams. The pulley is driven by a motor which supplies a counterclockwise mo-
ment of M . The belt is fixed, and holds the pulley in equilibrium until slipping
occurs. Both the pulley and belt are assumed massless.
The grey arrows indicate the direction of impending motion. This is the
motion which will occur if the belt slips. For the belt, which is fixed, this
impending motion is relative to the pulley. For the pulley, motion is impending
relative to the belt, but since it can actually rotate it also has absolute impending
motion with respect to the earth.
know the direction of the friction force. You can find out which tension
is larger and which is smaller by drawing a free-body diagram of the belt
and summing forces along it.
The free-body diagram Figure 9.5.5(b) shows the forces acting on the pul-
ley, which are:
The free-body diagram Figure 9.5.5(c) shows the forces acting on the belt,
which are:
• The belt’s internal tension forces, labeled T1 and T2 since at this point
we don’t know their relative magnitudes.
• A distributed normal force ΣN acting radially along the contact sur-
face between the pulley and belt. These are the distributed normal
forces on the pulley transferred equal-and-opposite to the belt.
• A distributed friction force ΣF acting along the surface of the belt,
again equal-and-opposite to the corresponding forces on the pulley.
Since the belt is not actually moving these forces oppose the belt’s
relative impending motion with respect to the pulley.
Summing forces along the belt, we find that the tension T1 plus the dis-
tributed friction force ΣF must equal T2 for equilibrium.
ΣFbelt = 0
T1 + ΣF − T2 = 0
T2 = T1 + ΣF
There are multiple ways to determine the smaller and larger tensions in
a flexible belt system. You can use the interactive below to develop your
intuition on the relationship between belt tension, pulley moment, friction
and relative motion.
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Figure 9.5.6 Friction transmits power between the belt and pulley.
dN = T sin(dθ/2) + (T + dT ) sin(dθ/2)
dN = (2T + dT ) sin(dθ/2)
≈ 2T (dθ/2) + dT (dθ/2)
where we have used the small angle approximation sin(dθ/2) ≈ dθ/2. Dropping
the second order differential term dT dθ as negligible, yields
dN = T dθ.
Solving simultaneously by eliminating dN leaves us with
dT
= µ dθ,
T
which we can integrate between T− and TL to find
Z T+ Z β
dT
=µ dθ
T− T 0
T+
ln = µβ.
T−
Integrating both sides gives:
T+
= eµβ ,
T−
where e is the natural log base 2.718, µ is the friction coefficient between the belt
and pulley, and β is the contact angle between the belt and pulley in radians.
The larger this ratio is, the more torque the belt can transmit.
Notice that the belt tension ratio is independent of the surface size and shape,
provided the belt makes continuous contact.
Tight Side +
Slack Side -
(a) Belt Drive System (b) Driving Pulley (c) Load
Pulley
Figure 9.5.8 Unequal Tensions
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 325
Start by solving for the resting tension T− . This is the tension the belts prior
to any motion or power transfer. Practically, machines provide adjustments
to pre-tension the belt to insure sufficient normal force when started. When
we turn on the machine and increase the torque, the resting tension remains
constant while the tension on the drive side T+ increases.
If the pulleys have the same coefficients of friction, it can be assumed that
the belt will first slip at the smaller of the two pulleys as the smaller pulley has
a smaller contact angle β. See Figure 9.5.4.
Once we have the maximum value for T− , we can use that to find the maxi-
mum input and output moments. Next, to find the torque, we then find the net
moment exerted by the two tension forces, where the radius of the pulley is the
moment arm.
The maximum input torque Mi before slipping is
9.5.4 V-Belts
A flat belt pulley interacts with one surface of the belt. A V shaped pulley
allows the belt to wedge tightly in the groove, increasing friction and torque
transmission. A V-belt’s enhanced friction comes from the increased normal
forces which are a function of the groove angle α.
The sum of the normal force vertical components is the same for a flat belt
or V-belt. However, the horizontal components of the normal forces in a V-belt,
effectively pinch the belt, thereby increasing the available friction force. The
belt should not contact the bottom of the groove, or else the wedge effect is lost
µs β
T+ sin (α/2)
=e . (9.5.3)
T−
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 326
N N
P P P
M M
P P P
r
M M
F F
R N N
R R
(a) No Moment (b) Clockwise Moment (c) Counterclockwise
Moment
Figure 9.6.2 Shaft Free-body Diagrams
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 328
The most straightforward process to relate the load, normal and friction
forces for a journal bearing is by performing the following steps:
1. Assume that the shaft and bearing opening have the same radius, but
draw the shaft a bit smaller to emphasizes the contact point at the point
of tangency.
2. Combine the normal and friction forces into a single friction resultant force
R = F + N.
3. Determine the radius of the friction circle, rf , which is a circle around the
center tangent to the friction resultant R. The friction circle radius is a
function of the shaft radius r and the friction angle ϕs .
rf = r sin ϕs = tan−1 F /N .
4. Finally, draw a free-body diagram of the shaft with all applied loads and
the friction resultant R, then solve the equations of equilibrium to find the
unknowns.
M M
F
N
R
motion of the shaft; This is true for dry friction bearings, but with oil
lubricated bearings, the shaft starts by a shift this way, but as the shaft
speed increases a hydrodynamic oil wedge forms which shifts the shaft in
the other direction in much the same way that a water skier lifts up and
skims the water at high speeds.
• Compute the possible moment the friction forces from disc friction
can resist.
Figure 9.7.1 This orbital sander rotates a circular sanding disc against a sta-
tionary surface. The disc friction between the sanding disc and the surface exert
a moment on both the surface and the sander.
Collar
dFf = µk dFN
dFi = dFo
ri < ro
dMi < dM0
dM = µk pr dA.
Z
M= dM
ZA
= µk pr dA
A
The coefficient of friction and pressure terms are constant so can be moved
outside the integral, and since pressure is defined as force per unit are area
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 331
p = F /A, the pressure term can be replaced with the applied load divided by
the bearing contact area,
P
p= .
π(ro2 − ri2 )
A differential element of area dA can be expressed in terms of radial distance
r allowing us to integrate with respect to r.
dA = 2πrdr,
Integrating this integral, evaluating the limits and simplifying gives the final
result 3
2 ro − ri3
M = µk P . (9.7.1)
3 ro2 − ri2
Figure 9.7.5 The contact area in disc brakes is often approximated as a circular
arc with a contact angle θ.
Disc brakes, due to their smaller contact area, have higher pressure for the
same applied force but a smaller area over which to exert friction. In the end,
these factors cancel out and we end up with the same formula we found in
Subsection 9.7.2. Notice that this formula is independent of θ.
Brake pad on one side:
3
2 ro − ri3
M = µk P (9.7.3)
3 ro2 − ri2
Most disc brakes, however, have two pads one on each side of the rotating
disc, so we will need to double the moment if so.
Brake pads on each side:
3
4 ro − ri3
M = µk P (9.7.4)
3 ro2 − ri2
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 333
CHAPTER 9. FRICTION 334
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Chapter 10
Moments of Inertia
Warning 10.0.1
The mass moment of inertia you learned about in Physics is not the same
as the area moment of inertia in Statics!
This can be confusing since both are commonly shortened to “moment
of inertia” and both use the same symbol, I. They have different units
however, and the intended moment of inertia can easily be determined
from context or with a unit analysis.
As you know, two dimensional shapes like rectangles and circles have proper-
ties such as area, perimeter, and centroid. These are purely geometric properties
335
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 336
since they belong to the shape alone, in contrast to physical properties like weight
and mass which belong to real physical objects.
In this section we introduce several new geometric properties useful in engi-
neering including the Area Moment of Inertia.
The integral properties of shapes, along with the names and symbols com-
monly used to represent them are given in the table below. You are already
familiar with area from Geometry and the first moment of area from Chapter 7.
The remaining properties are the subject of this chapter. They all have a similar
form, and can be evaluated using similar integration techniques.
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Z
A= dA Area Subsection 7.7.2
A
Z
First Moment of Area
Qx = y dA Chapter 7
A
(with respect to the x axis)
Z
First Moment of Area
Qy = x dA Chapter 7
A
(with respect to the y axis)
Z
JO = r2 dA Polar Moment of Inertia Section 10.5
A
Z
Ixy = x y dA Product of Inertia Section 10.7
A
All of these properties are defined as integrals over an area A. These integrals
may be evaluated by double-integrating over x and y in Cartesian coordinates or
r and θ in polar coordinates. They can also be evaluated using single integration
using the methods demonstrated in Subsection 10.2.2.
None of these integrals can be evaluated until a specific shape is chosen.
When shape has been specified, the bounding functions and integration limits
can be determined and only then may the integral be solved using appropriate
integration techniques. If the shape is specified in general terms, say a rectangle
with base b and height h, then the result of the integration will be a formula for
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 338
10.1.1 Area
The total area of a shape is found by integrating the differential elements of
area over the entire shape. Z
A= dA. (10.1.1)
A
The limit on this integral is indicated with an A to indicate that the integration
is carried out over the entire area. The resulting value will have units of [length]2
and does not depend on the position of the shape on the coordinate plane.
Since the area formulas for common shapes are well known, you only need
to use integration in uncommon situations.
As you can see, these equations are similar to the equations for the first
moment of area (10.1.2), except that the distance terms x and y are now squared.
In recognition of the similarity, the area moments of inertia are also known as
the second moments of area. We will use the terms moment of inertia and
second moment interchangeably. These two quantities are sometimes designated
as rectangular moments of inertia to distinguish them from the polar moment of
inertia described in the next section.
Like the first moment, the second moment of area provides a measure of the
distribution of area around an axis, but in this case the distance to each element
is squared. This gives increased importance to portions of the area which are far
from the axis. Squaring the distance means that identical elements on opposite
sides of the axis both contribute to the sum rather than cancel each other out
as they do in the first moment. As a result, the moment of inertia is always a
positive quantity.
Two identical shapes can have completely different moments of inertia, de-
pending on how the shape is distributed around the axis. A shape with most of
its area close to the axis has a smaller moment of inertia than the same shape
would if its area was distributed farther from the axis. This is a non-linear effect,
because when the distance term is doubled, the contribution of that element to
the sum increases fourfold.
Question 10.1.2
These three triangles are all the same size. Rank them from largest to
largest smallest moment of inertia with respect to the y axis.
A B C
Moving a shape away from the axis (or moving the axis away from the shape)
increases its moment of inertia, and moving it closer to the axis decreases it, until
it crosses to the other side of the axis, and then its moment of inertia will begin
to increase again.
The minimum moment of inertia occurs when the centroid of the shape falls
on the axis. When this occurs, the moment of inertia is called the centroidal
moment of inertia. A bar over the symbol I is used to indicate that a moment
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 340
of inertia is centroidal. So for example, I¯x and I¯y represent the “centroidal
moment of inertia with respect to the x axis” and the “the centroidal moment
of inertia with respect to the y axis.” The bar in this case does not mean that
moment of inertia is a vector quantity. Note that a shape can have multiple
centroidal moments of inertia, because more than one axis can pass through the
centroid of a shape. In this text, we will only the vertical and horizontal axes,
but they are not the only possibilities.
The centroidal moment of inertia is particularly important. We will see in
(10.3.1) that if we know a shape’s centroidal moment of inertia for some axis
direction, it is a simple process to calculate the moment of inertia of the shape
about any other parallel axis. The moment of inertia is used in Mechanics of
Materials to find stress and deflection in beams and to determine the load which
will cause a column to buckle.
We stated earlier that the centroidal moment of inertia is the minimum mo-
ment of inertia, but by this we mean, the minimum moment of inertia for a
particular axis direction, for example horizontal. Other centroidal axes may
have a different moment of inertia, either larger or smaller than the moment of
inertia about a horizontal centroidal axis. The centroidal axes which have the
absolute minimum and maximum moment of inertia are called the principle axes.
The principle axes are not necessarily horizontal and vertical.
P L3
δmax =
48EI
Thinking Deeper 10.1.6 Why don’t we call the polar moment of inertia
Iz ?
The squared distance in the polar moment of inertia formula is the distance
from the z axis, so it would seem reasonable to name the polar moment
Iz to be consistent with Ix and Iy , which use distances from the x and y
axes.
Instead engineers use the letter J to represent this quantity. Why?
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 343
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where x and y are defined as in Figure 10.1.1. Like the others, the units as-
sociated with this quantity are [length]4 . The name was chosen because the
distance squared term in the integral is the product of the element’s coordinates.
In contrast to the other area moments, which are always positive, the product
of inertia can be a positive, negative or zero.
We will begin with the simplest case: the moment of inertia of a rectangle
about a horizontal axis located at its base. This case arises frequently and is
especially simple because the boundaries of the shape are all constants.
dA = dx dy = dy dx. (10.2.1)
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Figure 10.2.1 Rectangle divided into vertical and horizontal differential strips
It would seem like this is an insignificant difference, but the order of dx and
dy in this expression determines the order of integration of the double integral.
We will try both ways and see that the result is identical.
Using dA = dx dy
First, we will evaluate (10.1.3) using dA = dx dy.
If you are not familiar with double integration, briefly you can think of a
double integral as two normal single integrals, one ‘inside’ and the other ‘outside,’
which are evaluated one at a time from the inside out. Our integral becomes
Z
Ix = y 2 dA
ZAZ
= y 2 dx dy
| {z }
dA
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 345
Z top Z right
2
= y dx dy
bottom left
| {z }
inside
| {z }
outside
The limits on double integrals are usually functions of x or y, but for this
rectangle the limits are all constants. The bottom and top limits are y = 0 and
y = h; the left and right limits are x = 0 and x = b. Note that the y 2 term can
be taken out of the inside integral, because in terms of x, it is constant.
Inserting dx dy for dA and the limits into (10.1.3), and integrating starting
with the inside integral gives
Z
Ix = y 2 dA
A
Z hZ b
= y 2 dx dy
0 0
Z h Z b
= y2 dx dy
0 0
Z h
= y 2 b dy
0
Z h
=b y 2 dy
0
3 h
y
=b .
3 0
dA = b dy.
the axis. Doubling the width of the rectangle will double Ix but doubling the
height will increase Ix eightfold. In all moment of inertia formulas, the dimension
perpendicular to the axis is always cubed.
Warning 10.2.2
This result is for this particular situation; you will get a different result
for a different shape or a different axis.
Using dA = dy dx
Now, we will evaluate (10.1.3) using dA = dy dx which reverses the order of
integration and means that the integral over y gets conducted first. Since the
distance-squared term y 2 is a function of y it remains inside the inside integral
this time and the result of the inside integral is not an area as it was previously.
Inserting dy dx for dA and the limits into (10.1.3), and integrating gives
Z
Ix = y 2 dA
A
Z bZ h
= y 2 dy dx
0 0
Z b 3 h
y
= dy dx
0 3 0
Z b
h3
= dx
0 3
Z b3
h
= dx
3 0
bh3
Ix = .
3
As before, the result is the moment of inertia of a rectangle with base b
and height h, about an axis passing through its base. We have found that the
moment of inertia of a rectangle about an axis through its base is (10.2.2), the
same as before.
The boxed quantity is the result of the inside integral
times dx, and can be interpreted as the differential mo-
ment of inertia of a vertical strip about the x axis. This
is consistent our previous result. The vertical strip has
a base of dx and a height of h, so its moment of inertia
by (10.2.2) is
h3
dIx = dx. (10.2.3)
3
We will use these results to set up problems as a single integral which sum
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 347
the moments of inertia of the differential strips which cover the area in Subsec-
tion 10.2.3.
Answer.
1
Iy = hb3
3
Solution 1. Following the same procedure as before, we divide the rec-
tangle into square differential elements dA = dx dy and evaluate the dou-
ble integral for Iy from (10.1.3) first by integrating over x, and then over
y.
Z
Iy = x2 dA
A
Z hZ b
= x2 dx dy
Z h Z b
0 0
2
= x dx dy
0 0
Z h b
x3
= dy
0 3 0
Z h
b3
= dy
0 3
3
b h
= y
3 0
b3 h
Iy =
3
The formula for Iy is the same as the formula as we found previously for
Ix except that the base and height terms have reversed roles. Here, the
horizontal dimension is cubed and the vertical dimension is the linear term.
In all moment of inertia formulas, the dimension perpendicular to the axis
is cubed.
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 348
Solution 2. This solution demonstrates that the result is the same when
the order of integration is reversed. This time we evaluate Iy by dividing
the rectangle into square differential elements dA = dy dx so the inside
integral is now with respect to y and the outside integral is with respect
to x.
Z
Iy = x2 dA
Z b Z h
A
2
= x dy dx
0 0
Z b
= x2 h dx
0
Z b
=h x2 dx
0
3 b
x
=h
3 0
3
hb
Iy =
3
y y′
b/2 b/2
Use integration to find the moment of inertia of a
h/2
(b×h) rectangle about the x′ and y ′ axes passing
through its centroid.
x′ Indicate that the result is a centroidal moment
of inertia by putting a bar over the symbol I.
h/2
Answer.
1
I¯x′ = bh3
12
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 349
1
I¯y′ = hb3 .
12
Solution. We can use the same approach with dA = dy dx, but now the
limits of integration over y are now from −h/2 to h/2.
Z
¯
I x′ = y 2 dA
A
Z b Z h/2
= y 2 dy dx
0 −h/2
Z b h/2
y3
= dy dx
0 3 −h/2
Z
h3 b
= dx
12 0
bh3
I¯x′ =
12
Notice that the centroidal moment of inertia of the rectangle is smaller
than the corresponding moment of inertia about the baseline.
The solution for I¯y′ is similar.
Answer.
bh3 b3 h
Ix = Iy = (10.2.4)
12 4
Solution. As we did when finding centroids in Section 7.7 we need to
evaluate the bounding function of the triangle. The bottom are constant
values, y = 0 and x = b, but the top boundary is a straight line passing
through the origin and the point at (b, h), which has the equation
h
y(x) = x. (10.2.5)
b
By inspection we see that the a vertical strip extends from the x axis to
the function so dA = y dx.
Since vertical strips are parallel to the y axis we can find Iy by evaluating
this integral with dA = y dx, and substituting hb x for y
Z
Iy = x2 dA
A
Z b
= x2 y dx
Z b
0
h
= x2 x dx
0 b
Z
h b 3
= x dx
b 0
b
h x4
=
b 4 0
hb3
Iy = .
4
Similarly we will find Ix using horizontal strips, by evaluating this integral
with dA = (b − x)dy
Z
Ix = y 2 dA.
A
Z h
= y 2 (b − x) dy
Z h
0
b
= y b − y dy
2
0 h
Z h Z
b h 3
=b y dy −
2
y dy
0 h 0
bh3 b h4
= −
3 h 4
bh3
Ix =
12
This is the moment of inertia of a right triangle about an axis passing
through its base. By reversing the roles of b and h, we also now have the
moment of inertia of a right triangle about an axis passing through its
vertical side.
hb3
Iy = .
12
y23 y13 1
dIx = − = (y23 − y13 )
3 3 3
This approach is illustrated in the next example.
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 355
y1 = x2 /2 and,
y2 = x/4.
Answer.
Solution.
y2 = x/4 y2 = x2 /2
2. Find Iy .
For vertical strips, which are parallel to the y axis we can use the
definition of the Moment of Inertia.
Z
Iy = x2 dA
Z 0.5
x x2
= x 2
− dx
0 4 2
Z 1/2 3
x x4
= − dx
0 4 2
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 356
1/2
x4 x5
= −
16 12
! 0
(1/2)4 (1/2)5
= −
16 10
1 1 1
= −
64 4 5
1
Iy = = 7.81 × 10−4 cm4
1280
3. Find Ix .
For vertical strips, which are perpendicular to the x axis, we will
take subtract the moment of inertia of the area below y1 from the
moment of inertia of the area below y2 .
Z Z
Ix = dIx − dIx
A2 A1
Z 1/2 Z
1/2 3
y23 y1
= dx − dx
3 3
0
Z " 0
2 3 #
1 1/2 x 3 x
= − dx
3 0 4 2
Z
1 1/2 x3 x6
= − dx
3 0 64 8
1/2
1 x4 x7
= −
3 256 56 0
1
Ix = = 3.49 × 10−6 cm4
28672
we used strips parallel to the axis of interest to find Ix and Iy ; all points on
the differential ring are the same distance from the origin, so we can find the
moment of inertia using single integration.
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JO = I x + I y
JO πr4
x I¯x = I¯y =
2
=
4
. (10.2.10)
¯ πr4
x′ Ix = Iy = . (10.2.11)
8
x
Similarly, the moment of inertia of a quarter circle is half the moment of
inertia of a semi-circle, so
y y′
πr4
x′ Ix = Iy = . (10.2.12)
16
x
In these diagrams, the centroidal axes are red, and moments of inertia about
centroidal axes are indicated by the overbar. We will see how to use the parallel
axis theorem to find the centroidal moments of inertia for semi- and quarter-
circles in Section 10.3.
of this approach is that you need to set up and compute a double integral. Iden-
tifying the correct limits on the integrals is often difficult.
If you would like to avoid double integration, you may use vertical or hori-
zontal strips, but you must take care to apply the correct integral. If you use
vertical strips to find Iy or horizontal strips to find Ix , then you can still use
(10.1.3), but skip the double integration. When the entire strip is the same
distance from the designated axis, integrating with a parallel strip is equivalent
to performing the inside integration of (10.1.3).
As we have seen, it can be difficult to solve the bounding functions properly
in terms of x or y to use parallel strips. In this case, you can use vertical strips to
find Ix or horizontal strips to find Iy as discussed by integrating the differential
moment of inertia of the strip, as discussed in Subsection 10.2.3.
Table 10.2.10 Moment of Inertia Integration Strategies
Element dA dI
dA = dx dy dIx = y 2 dA
x
or
y dA = dy dx dIy = x2 dA
dIx = y 2 dA
x
dA = (a − x) dy (a3 − x3 )
y dIy = dx
3
a
x y3
dIx = dx
y dA = y dx 3
dIy = x2 dA
a
10.3.1 Derivation
We will use the defining equation for the mo-
ment of inertia (10.1.3) to derive the parallel dA
axis theorem.
The diagram shows an arbitrary shape, and
y′ C x′
two parallel axes: the x′ axis, drawn in red,
passes through the centroid of the shape at y
C, and the x axis, which is parallel and sep-
arated by a distance, d. The shape has area
A
A, which is divided into square differential d
elements dA. The distance from the x axis
to the element dA is y, and the distance from x
the x′ axis is y ′ .
By (10.1.3), the moment of inertia of the
shape about the x and x′ axes are Figure 10.3.1 Definitions for
Z Z the parallel axis theorem.
Ix = 2
y dA Ix′ = (y ′ )2 dA
¯
A A
The first is the value we are looking for, and the second is the centroidal
moment of inertia of the shape. These two are related through the distance
d, because y = d + y ′ . Substituting that relation into the first equation and
expanding the binomial gives
Z
Ix = (d + y ′ )2 dA
ZA
′ 2
= (y ) + 2 y ′ d + d2 dA
ZA Z Z
′ 2 ′ 2
= (y ) dA + 2d y dA + d dA.
A A A
You should recognize these three integrals. The first is the centroidal moment
of inertia of the shape I¯x′ , and the third is the total area of the shape, A. The
middle integral is Qx′ , the first moment of area (10.1.2) with respect to the
centroidal axis x′ . So we have,
Ix = I¯x′ + 2dQx′ + d2 A.
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 361
Furthermore, Qx′ is exactly zero because the x′ axis passes through the cen-
troid, meaning that elements of area above and below the centroidal axis exactly
balance and cancel each other out. After dropping the middle term we get the
version of the parallel axis theorem which you should remember,
I = I¯ + Ad2 . (10.3.1)
The subscripts designating the x and x′ axes have been dropped because this
equation is applicable to any direction of parallel axes, not specifically horizontal
axes.
This equation says that you find the moment of inertia of a shape about
any axis by adding Ad2 to the parallel centroidal moment of inertia. You can
consider the Ad2 term as ‘correction factor’ to account for the distance of the
axis from the centroid. This term is always positive, so the centroidal moment of
inertia is always the minimum moment of inertia for a particular axis direction.
The next example show how the parallel axis theorem is typically used to
find the moment of inertia of a shape about an axis, by using then centroidal
moment of inertia formulas found in Subsection 10.3.2.
y y′
Use the parallel axis theorem to find
d the moment of inertia of the circular
ring about the y axis.
a
The dimensions of the ring are Ri =
30 mm, Ro = 45 mm, and a =
80 mm.
Answer.
Iy = 57.8 × 106 mm4
Solution. To apply the parallel axis theorem, we need three pieces of
information
The area of the ring is found by subtracting the area of the inner circle
from the area of the outer circle. The centroidal moment of inertia is
calculated similarly using (10.2.10). The distance between the y and y ′
axis is available from the diagram. Inserting these values into the parallel
axis theorem gives,
Iy = Iy + Ad2
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 362
π 4 2
= ro − ri4 + π ro2 − ri2 a + ro
|4 {z } | {z } | {z }
I¯y A d2
π
= 454 − 30 + π 452 − 30 (80 + 45)2
4 2
4
= 2.58 × 106 mm4 + 55.2 × 106 mm4
Iy = 57.8 × 106 mm4
The parallel axis theorem can also be used to find a centroidal moment of
inertia when you already know the moment of inertia of a shape about another
axis, by using the theorem ‘backwards’,
I = I¯ + Ad2 → I¯ = I − Ad2 .
Example 10.3.3 Centroidal Moment of Inertia of a Triangle.
y y′
Find the centroidal moment of iner-
tia of a triangle knowing that the mo-
ment of inertia about its base is
x′
1 3
Ix = bh .
h/3 12
x
b/3
Answer.
bh3
I¯x =
36
b3 h
I¯y =
36
Solution. For the triangle the moment of we have the following infor-
mation: Ix = bh3 /12, A = bh/2, and d = ȳ = h/3.
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 363
y
Find the centroidal moment of inertia of
a semi-circle knowing that the moment
of inertia about its base is
x′
π 4
Ix = r .
8
x
Answer.
π 8
I¯x′ = − r4
8 9π
πr 2
Solution. The area of a semicircle is A = 2
and the distance between
4r
the parallel axes is d = 3π , so
I¯x′ = Ix − Ad2
2 2
π 4 πr 4r
= r −
8 2 3π
π 8
I¯x′ = − r4
8 9π
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 364
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Figure 10.3.8 Moment of Inertia of a Semi-Circle
1 1
h x′
I¯x′ = bh3 Ix = bh3
C
(b/2, h/2) 12 3
1 1 3
I¯y′ = b3 h Iy = b h
O x 12 3
b
y y′
1 1 3
h I¯x′ = bh3 Ix = bh
x′ 36 12
(b/3, h/3)
C 1 1
x I¯y′ = b3 h I y = b3 h
O
36 12
b
y y′
r
x′ π 5π 4
C
(r, r) I¯x′ = I¯y′ = r4 Ix = Iy = r
4 4
x
O
y y′
I¯x′ =
π 4
r π
8
− 9π 8
r4 Ix = r
x′ 4r 8
r,
C
x 3π I¯x′ ≈ 0.1098 r4 5π 4
O π Iy = r
I¯y′ = r4 8
8
y y′
I¯x′ =
r
C x′ 4r 4r
1
2
π
8
− 9π
8
r4 π 4
, Ix = Iy = r
x 3π 3π I¯x′ = I¯y′ ≈ 16
0.0549 r4
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 366
• About which point do you find the smallest area moments of inertia?
What is it about this point that is so special?
In this section we will find the moment of inertia of shapes formed by com-
bining simple shapes like rectangles, triangles and circles much the same way we
did to find centroids in Section 7.5.
The procedure is to divide the complex shape into its sub shapes and then
use the centroidal moment of inertia formulas from Subsection 10.3.2, along with
the parallel axis theorem (10.3.1) to calculate the moments of inertia of parts,
and finally combine them to find the moment of inertia of the original shape.
x x
Which of the arrangements will be the stiffest, and what is the ratio of the
two moments of inertia?
Answer.
The I-beam has more than 3.6 times the stiffness of the sandwich beam!
Solution. Given: b = 1.5 in, h = 5.5 in.
In case 1 the centroids of all three rectangles are on the x axis, so the
parallel axis theorem is unnecessary.
X
3
(Ix )1 = I¯ + Ad2
i=1
bh3
=3
12
(1.5)(5.5)3
=
4
(Ix )1 = 62.4 in4
This value is the same as the moment of inertia of a (4.5 in × 5.5 in)
rectangle about its centroid.
In case 2, the parallel axis theorem must be used for the upper and lower
rectangles, since their centroids are not on the x axis.
X
3
(Ix )2 = I¯ + Ad2
i=1
bh3 1 3 2
= +2 hb + (bh)(h/2 + b/2)
12 12
(1.5)(5.5)3 (1.5)3 (5.5)
= +2 + (1.5 × 5.5)(3.5) 2
12 12
= 20.8 in4 + 2 1.547 in4 + 101.6 in4
(Ix )2 = 226 in4
The I-beam is about 3.6 times stiffer than the sandwich beam. This opti-
mization of material usage is the reason we use I-beams.
20 mm
Find the moment of inertia of the T
shape about the x and y axes.
60 mm
x
30 30 30
mm mm mm
Answer.
Solution.
1. Strategy.
Divide the T shape into a 30 mm×60 mm vertical rectangle (1), and
a 90 mm × 20 mm horizontal rectangle (2) then add the moments of
inertia of the two parts.
bh3 (30)(60)3
(Ix )1 = = = 2.16 × 106 mm4 .
3 3
(Ix )2 = I¯ + Ad2
bh3
= + (bh)d2
12
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 369
(90)(20)3
= + (90 × 20)(70)2
12
(Ix )2 = 8.88 × 106 mm4 .
The moment of inertia of the entire T shape about the x axis is the
sum of these two values,
3 in
3 in
9 in x
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 370
Answer.
Ix = 1080.6 in4
Solution.
1. Strategy.
y
First, divide the area into four parts:
3
(a) a 9 in × 3 in rectangle 4 in
(b) a 6 in × 3 in rectangle 2 4
3 in
Then set up a table and apply the parallel axis theorem (10.3.1) as in
the previous example. Since the quarter-circle is removed, subtract
its moment of inertia from total of the other shapes.
The distance from the top edge of the quarter-circle down to its
4r
centroid is = 1.273 in, so the distance from the x axis to its
3π
centroid is
d = 6 − 1.27 = 4.727 in.
Answer.
Solution.
1. Strategy.
Organize all the necessary information into a table, then total the
moments of inertia of the parts to get the moment of inertia of the
whole shape. Remember that the hole is removed from the shape,
so its contribution to the total moment of inertia is negative.
2. Table.
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 372
3. Total.
(Ix )1 = I¯x + Ad2y 1 = 2427 in4 (Iy )1 = I¯y + Ad2x 1 = 9147 in4
(Ix )2 = I¯x + Ad2y 2 = 1093 in4 (Iy )2 = I¯y + Ad2x 2 = 11253 in4
(Ix )3 = I¯x + Ad2y 3 = −318.1 in4 (Iy )3 = I¯y + Ad2x 3 = −1449 in4
X X
Ix = (Ix )i = 3202 in4 Iy = (Iy )i = 18951 in4
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Figure 10.4.7 AISC Standard Sections: Left to right -- Wide-Flange (W), Amer-
ican Standard (S), Channel (C), Equal Angle (L), Unequal Angle (L), Structural
Tee (T), Rectangle (HSS), Square (HSS), Round (HSS).
Designers and engineers must select the most appropriate and economical
section which can support the potential tension, compression, shear, torsion and
bending loads. Tables of properties of Standard Steel Sections are published
by the American Institute of Steel Construction, and are used to simplify the
process. The tables contain important properties of the sections, including di-
mensions, cross sectional area, weight per foot, and moment of inertia about
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 374
vertical and horizontal axes. An abbreviated subset of the AISC tables are
available in Appendix D.
In this section we will use the information in the AISC tables to find the mo-
ments of inertia of standard sections and also of composite shapes incorporating
standard sections.
The top and bottom pieces of an I-beam are called
flanges. The middle portion is referred to as the web.
e
The flanges take most of the internal compression lp
lan
u tra
and tension forces as they are located the furthest Ne
from the neutral axis, and the web mainly acts to depth
Neutral Axis
support any shear forces and hold the two flanges
apart. The transverse axis through the centroid of
the cross section is called the neutral axis, and cut-
ting plane through the beam at the neutral axis is
called the neutral plane, or neutral surface. This sur- Figure 10.4.8 Beam
face does not lengthen or shorten during bending. Nomenclature
Example 10.4.9 Built-up beam.
A built-up beam consists of two L6×4×1/
2 angles attached to a 8×1 plate as
shown. Determine
ȳ = 0.846 in
I x′ = 61.98 in4
Solution.
1. Strategy.
Determine the properties of the sub shapes with respect to the x
axis, and then use them to find the neutral axis.
Use the parallel axis theorem to find the moment of inertia of the
parts with respect to the neutral axis.
Take advantage of the fact that the two angles are identical and
positioned similarly.
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 375
The polar moment of inertia describes the distribution of the area of a body
with respect to a point in the plane of the body. Alternately, the point can be
considered to be where a perpendicular axis crosses the plane of the body. The
subscript on the symbol j indicates the point or axis.
There is a particularly simple relationship between the polar moment of
inertia and the rectangular moments of inertia. Referring to the figure, apply
the Pythagorean theorem r2 = x2 + y 2 to the definition of polar moment of
inertia to get
Z
JO = r2 dA
ZA
= (x2 + y 2 ) dA
ZA Z
2
= x dA + y 2 dA
A A
JO = I x + I y . (10.5.2)
Figure 10.5.2 Section cut through a shaft, showing the shearing stresses
developed to withstand an external torsion, T .
The force at any point is dF = τ dA, and the moment dM exerted at any
point is dF times the moment arm, r. The total moment is the integral
of this quantity over the area of the cross section, and is proportional to
the polar moment of inertia.
Z
T = dM
Z
= r dF
Z
r
= r τmax dA
c
A Z
τmax
= r2 dA
c A
τmax
T = JO
c
Tc
τmax =
JO
This is the relationship between the maximum stress in a circular shaft,
the applied torque T , and the geometric properties of the shaft JO and c.
axis as the original shape. Compared to the moment of inertia, the radius of
gyration is easier to visualize since it’s a distance, rather than a distance to the
fourth power.
The radius of gyration, k and the corresponding moment of inertia I are
related, and both must refer to the same axis. If one is known, the other is
easily found.
The radius of gyration with respect to the x and y axes and the origin are
given by these formulas
r r r
Ix Iy Jo
kx = ky = ko = . (10.6.1)
A A A
In engineering design, the radius of gyration is used to determine the stiffness
of structural columns and estimate the critical load which will initiate column
buckling.
Question 10.6.1
How are kx , ky , and ko related to each other?
Answer.
kx2 + ky2 = ko2
Solution. Start with (10.5.2)
y y′
The product of inertia is another
integral property of area, and is de-
fined as
Z
Ixy = xy dA. (10.7.1)
A
x′
The parallel axis theorem for prod-
ucts of inertia is
T = Iα.
This formula is the rotational analog of Newton’s second law F = ma. Here,
the I represents the mass moment of inertia, which is the three-dimensional
measure of a rigid body’s resistance to rotation around an axis. Mass moment
of inertia plays the same role for angular motion as mass does for linear motion.
Mass moment of inertia is defined by an integral equation identical to (10.1.3),
except that the differential area dA is replaced with a differential element of
mass, dm. The integration is conducted over a three dimensional physical object
instead of a two dimensional massless area.
The units of mass moment of inertia are [mass][length]2 , in contrast to area
moment of inertia’s units of [length]4 .
Mass moments of inertia are covered in more detail and used extensively in
the study of rigid body kinetics in Engineering Dynamics.
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 380
CHAPTER 10. MOMENTS OF INERTIA 381
Standalone
Appendix A
Notation
Notation refers to the symbols we use to represent physical quantities and vari-
ables in mathematical expressions. Notation is a tool for communication and
the symbols themselves carry meaning. You will find it easier to understand the
contents of engineering textbooks if you are familiar with the notation used, and
can pronounce the symbols to yourself when studying the equations.
382
APPENDIX A. NOTATION 383
Symbol Notes
Vectors are written in a bold serif font. For hand-
F, or F⃗ written vectors, a superimposed arrow is used.
Magnitudes and other scalar values are rendered in
F an regular italic serif font. F is the magnitude of F.
Vertical bars indicate absolute value. The absolute
|F| value of a vector is its magnitude.
Vector component of F in the x and y directions.
Fx , Fy Subscripts are used to distinguish different related
values.
Scalar components of vector F in the x and y direc-
tions. These are signed numbers, not vectors. To-
Fx , F y gether, the sign and subscript define a vector com-
ponent.
An ordered pair of scalar components enclosed in
⟨Fx , Fy ⟩ angle brackets defines a vector.
An ordered pair of magnitude and direction sepa-
(F ; θ) rated with a semicolon defines a vector.
Unit vectors in the x, y, and z directions. Pro-
i, j, k nounced ‘i hat’, ‘j hat’, etc.
F = ⟨Fx , Fy ⟩
= Fx + Fy
= Fx i + Fy j These are all equivalent representation of vector F.
= (F cos θ) i + (F sin θ) j
= F (i cos θ + j sin θ)
= |F|⟨cos θ, sin θ⟩
Figure A.0.1 Notation used in this book
Appendix B
Useful Mathematics
Given two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) the distance between them is:
p
d = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 (B.1.1)
.
Extension of the distance formula to three dimensions is straightforward.
p
d = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2 (B.1.2)
384
APPENDIX B. USEFUL MATHEMATICS 385
The relationship between the sides and angles of a right triangle are given by
the three basic trig relations which may be recalled with the mnemonic SOH-
COH-TOA.
−1 opposite −1 adjacent −1 opposite
θ = sin θ = cos θ = tan
hypotenuse hypotenuse adjacent
Facts. The following statements regarding the trig functions and triangles are
always true, and remembering them will help you avoid errors.
• sin, cos and tan are functions of an angle and their values are unitless
ratios of lengths.
• The inverse trig functions are functions of unitless ratios and their results
are angles.
• The sine of an angle equals the cosine of its complement and vice-versa.
• The sine and cosine of any angle is always a unitless number between -1
and 1, inclusive.
• The sine, cosine, and tangent of angles between 0 and 90° are always
positive.
• The inverse trig functions of positive numbers will always yield angles
between 0 and 90°
• The legs of a right triangle are always shorter than the hypotenuse.
• Take care that your calculator is set in degrees mode for this course.
• Always work with angles between 0° and 90° and use positive arguments
for the inverse trig functions.
• Following this advice will avoid unwanted signs and incorrect directions
−a a a −a
caused because = , and = and the calculator can’t distin-
b −b b −b
guish between them.
The Law of Cosines is used when you know two sides and the included angle
(SAS), or when you know all three sides but no angles (SSS). In any other
situation, use the Law of Sines.
If one of the angles is 90◦ the Law of Cosines simplifies to the Pythagorean
Theorem since cos(90°) = 0.
Appendix C
Properties of Shapes
388
APPENDIX C. PROPERTIES OF SHAPES 389
h x′
C
A = bh b/2 h/2
O x
b
y y′
h
x′
bh
b/3 h/3
C 2
x
O
b
y y′
a
h (a + b)h a2 + ab + b2 h(2a + b)
C x′
2 3(a + b) 3(a + b)
x
O
b
y y′
r
x′
C
πr2 r r
x
O
y y′
r
x′ πr2 4r
C r 1
x 2 3π
O
y y′
r
C x′ πr2 4r 4r
x 4 3π 3π
APPENDIX C. PROPERTIES OF SHAPES 390
1 1
h x′
I¯x′ = bh3 Ix = bh3
C
(b/2, h/2) 12 3
1 1 3
I¯y′ = b3 h Iy = b h
O x 12 3
b
y y′
1 1 3
h I¯x′ = bh3 Ix = bh
x′ 36 12
(b/3, h/3)
C
¯ 1 1
x I y ′ = b3 h I y = b3 h
O
36 12
b
y y′
r
x′ π 5π 4
C
(r, r) I¯x′ = I¯y′ = r4 Ix = Iy = r
4 4
x
O
y y′
I¯x′ =
π 4
r π
8
− 9π 8
r4 Ix = r
x′ 4r 8
r,
C
x 3π I¯x′ ≈ 0.1098 r4 5π 4
O π Iy = r
I¯y′ = r4 8
8
y y′
I¯x′ =
r
C x′ 4r 4r
1
2
π
8
− 9π
8
r4 π 4
, Ix = Iy = r
x 3π 3π I¯x′ = I¯y′ ≈ 16
0.0549 r4
4r
1
See Example 7.7.14 for proof. ≈ 0.424 r
3π
391
APPENDIX D. PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS 392
Appendix D
D.1 Angles
D.1.1 Angle Section-US
Description W A b d t x̄ ȳ I¯xx I¯yy
d× b× t lb/ft in2 in in in in in in4 in4
L6×6×1 37.4 11 6 6 1 1.86 1.86 35.4 35.4
L6×6×7/8 33.1 9.75 6 6 0.875 1.81 1.81 31.9 31.9
L6×6×3/4 28.7 8.46 6 6 0.75 1.77 1.77 28.1 28.1
L6×6×5/8 24.2 7.13 6 6 0.625 1.72 1.72 24.1 24.1
L6×6×9/16 21.9 6.45 6 6 0.563 1.7 1.7 22 22
L6×6×1/2 19.6 5.77 6 6 0.5 1.67 1.67 19.9 19.9
L6×6×7/16 17.2 5.08 6 6 0.438 1.65 1.65 17.6 17.6
L6×6×3/8 14.9 4.38 6 6 0.375 1.62 1.62 15.4 15.4
L6×6×5/16 12.4 3.67 6 6 0.313 1.6 1.6 13 13
L6×4×7/8 27.2 8 6 4 0.875 1.12 2.12 27.7 9.7
L6×4×3/4 23.6 6.94 6 4 0.75 1.07 2.07 24.5 8.63
L6×4×5/8 20 5.86 6 4 0.625 1.03 2.03 21 7.48
L6×4×9/16 18.1 5.31 6 4 0.563 1 2 19.2 6.86
L6×4×1/2 16.2 4.75 6 4 0.5 0.981 1.98 17.3 6.22
L6×4×7/16 14.3 4.18 6 4 0.438 0.957 1.95 15.4 5.56
L6×4×3/8 12.3 3.61 6 4 0.375 0.933 1.93 13.4 4.86
L6×4×5/16 10.3 3.03 6 4 0.313 0.908 1.9 11.4 4.13
L6×3-1/2×1/2 15.3 4.5 6 3.5 0.5 0.829 2.07 16.6 4.24
L6×3-1/2×3/8 11.7 3.44 6 3.5 0.375 0.781 2.02 12.9 3.33
L6×3-1/2×5/16 9.8 2.89 6 3.5 0.313 0.756 2 10.9 2.84
L5×5×7/8 27.2 8 5 5 0.875 1.56 1.56 17.8 17.8
L5×5×3/4 23.6 6.98 5 5 0.75 1.52 1.52 15.7 15.7
L5×5×5/8 20 5.9 5 5 0.625 1.47 1.47 13.6 13.6
L5×5×1/2 16.2 4.79 5 5 0.5 1.42 1.42 11.3 11.3
L5×5×7/16 14.3 4.22 5 5 0.438 1.4 1.4 10 10
L5×5×3/8 12.3 3.65 5 5 0.375 1.37 1.37 8.76 8.76
L5×5×5/16 10.3 3.07 5 5 0.313 1.35 1.35 7.44 7.44
L5×3-1/2×3/4 19.8 5.85 5 3.5 0.75 0.993 1.74 13.9 5.52
L5×3-1/2×5/8 16.8 4.93 5 3.5 0.625 0.947 1.69 12 4.8
L5×3-1/2×1/2 13.6 4 5 3.5 0.5 0.901 1.65 10 4.02
L5×3-1/2×3/8 10.4 3.05 5 3.5 0.375 0.854 1.6 7.75 3.15
L5×3-1/2×5/16 8.7 2.56 5 3.5 0.313 0.829 1.57 6.58 2.69
L5×3-1/2×1/4 7 2.07 5 3.5 0.25 0.804 1.55 5.36 2.2
L5×3×1/2 12.8 3.75 5 3 0.5 0.746 1.74 9.43 2.55
L5×3×7/16 11.3 3.31 5 3 0.438 0.722 1.72 8.41 2.29
L5×3×3/8 9.8 2.86 5 3 0.375 0.698 1.69 7.35 2.01
APPENDIX D. PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS 393
D.2 Channels
D.2.1 Channel Section-US
Description W A d bf tw tf x̄ I¯xx I¯yy
d× W lb/ft in2 in in in in in in4 in4
C15×50 50 14.7 15 3.72 0.716 0.65 0.799 404 11
C15×40 40 11.8 15 3.52 0.52 0.65 0.778 348 9.17
C15×33.9 33.9 10 15 3.4 0.4 0.65 0.788 315 8.07
C12×30 30 8.81 12 3.17 0.51 0.501 0.674 162 5.12
C12×25 25 7.34 12 3.05 0.387 0.501 0.674 144 4.45
C12×20.7 20.7 6.08 12 2.94 0.282 0.501 0.698 129 3.86
C10×30 30 8.81 10 3.03 0.673 0.436 0.649 103 3.93
C10×25 25 7.35 10 2.89 0.526 0.436 0.617 91.1 3.34
C10×20 20 5.87 10 2.74 0.379 0.436 0.606 78.9 2.8
C10×15.3 15.3 4.48 10 2.6 0.24 0.436 0.634 67.3 2.27
C9×20 20 5.87 9 2.65 0.448 0.413 0.583 60.9 2.41
C9×15 15 4.4 9 2.49 0.285 0.413 0.586 51 1.91
C9×13.4 13.4 3.94 9 2.43 0.233 0.413 0.601 47.8 1.75
C8×18.75 18.75 5.51 8 2.53 0.487 0.39 0.565 43.9 1.97
C8×13.75 13.75 4.03 8 2.34 0.303 0.39 0.554 36.1 1.52
C8×11.5 11.5 3.37 8 2.26 0.22 0.39 0.572 32.5 1.31
C7×14.75 14.75 4.33 7 2.3 0.419 0.366 0.532 27.2 1.37
C7×12.25 12.25 3.59 7 2.19 0.314 0.366 0.525 24.2 1.16
C7×9.8 9.8 2.87 7 2.09 0.21 0.366 0.541 21.2 0.957
C6×13 13 3.82 6 2.16 0.437 0.343 0.514 17.3 1.05
C6×10.5 10.5 3.07 6 2.03 0.314 0.343 0.5 15.1 0.86
C6×8.2 8.2 2.39 6 1.92 0.2 0.343 0.512 13.1 0.687
C5×9 9 2.64 5 1.89 0.325 0.32 0.478 8.89 0.624
C5×6.7 6.7 1.97 5 1.75 0.19 0.32 0.484 7.48 0.47
C4×7.25 7.25 2.13 4 1.72 0.321 0.296 0.459 4.58 0.425
C4×6.25 6.25 1.84 4 1.65 0.247 0.296 0.453 4.19 0.374
C4×5.4 5.4 1.58 4 1.58 0.184 0.296 0.457 3.85 0.312
C4×4.5 4.5 1.34 4 1.52 0.125 0.296 0.473 3.53 0.265
C3×6 6 1.76 3 1.6 0.356 0.273 0.455 2.07 0.3
C3×5 5 1.47 3 1.5 0.258 0.273 0.439 1.85 0.241
C3×4.1 4.1 1.2 3 1.41 0.17 0.273 0.437 1.65 0.191
C3×3.5 3.5 1.09 3 1.37 0.132 0.273 0.443 1.57 0.169
APPENDIX D. PROPERTIES OF STEEL SECTIONS 395