LEVI C WILLIAMS HIGH SCHOOL

10 Science 6th period Physics Notes (Concepts of Matter) May, 2022

Week I Lessons: Introduction

Matter is anything, which has mass and occupies space. Particulate matter is a very large number of the
tiny particles held together by bonds that can be seen and felt around us. The idea that matter is made
up of tiny particles is called the particulate nature of matter.

The three basic particles, which make up matter, are atoms, molecules and ions. These are the basic
building blocks or units of matter.

An atom is the smallest particle of an element that always keeps the properties of that element and
takes part in a chemical reaction. A molecule is a group of two or more atoms chemically combined. An
ion is an electrically charged particle formed from an atom or group of chemically combined atoms, by
loss or gain of one or more electrons. Different types of matter are made up of different types of
particles.

PROPERTIES OF MATTER
1. Matter is a collection of atoms or molecules which occupies space and has mass.

2. Matter exists in three main states (or forms) and these are: solid state, liquid state and gaseous state.

3. Matter is conserved. What this statement means is that, matter cannot be destroyed nor be created.
However matter can change from one state to another. A solid can change to liquid, a liquid can change
to gas, a solid can change to vapor, and a liquid can change to solid.

However, matter cannot change on its own unless an external influence is applied. This is in accordance
with Newton 1st law of motion.

4. A force, when applied can change the dimensions and shape of matter. However when the force is
removed, the matter is capable of restoring the original dimensions. This behavior of matter is known as
elasticity.

5. Matter can be compressed to some extent and this is possible because of the space available between
atoms or molecules in matter.

ATOMIC THEORY OF MATTER

The smallest indivisible and electrically neutral part of matter is called atom. The following attributes of
atoms listed below form a theory referred to as Atomic Theory of Matter. It is also called Molecular
Theory of Matter.

(a) Atoms (or molecules) are in constant motion inside the matter

b) Atoms of a particular substance (element) are the same in size and mass, but are different from
atoms of other elements.

(c) When atoms come together, they form compound. Compounds are formed either by similar atoms
or atoms of different elements.

INSTRUCTOR: HASSAN F BAWOR

 LEVI C WILLIAMS HIGH SCHOOL
10 Science 6th period Physics Notes (Concepts of Matter) May, 2022
(d) Atoms are held together by a force, known as intermolecular force of attraction. If this force of
attraction holds atoms of the same elements together, it is called cohesion. If the force holds atoms of
different elements together, it is called adhesion.

THREE STATES OF MATTER

Matter commonly exists in either the solid, liquid or gaseous state

1. Solid state: In a solid substance, the molecules vibrate about their zero resultant force position,
alternately attracting and repelling one another. The atoms are very close to one another and strong
intermolecular forces exist between them. They have a constant volume hence the high intermolecular
forces oppose any change in the position of the molecules. All true solids have a crystalline structure in
which the atoms are arranged in a regular pattern called the lattice. This gives them a definite shape.

2. Liquid state: In a liquid, the molecules are also vibrating to and-fro alternately attracting and repelling
one another with forces, which can be just as strong as those in the solid. At the same time, however,
the liquid molecules can move freely among one another, exchanging partners as they go. It is this
freedom of movement, which enables a liquid to take up the shape of any vessel in which it is placed.

3. Gaseous state: In a gas, the molecules are much further apart than those in solids. They move at high
velocities colliding with one another and with the walls of their containing vessel. Except at the moment
of collision, the short-range intermolecular forces do not come into action.

Unless the gas is highly compressed, the molecules are, for the greater part of the time, so far apart that
the attractive force is effectively negligible. Consequently, a gas is perfectly free to expand and
completely fill the vessel containing it. The average distance moved by a molecule between collisions is
called its mean free path.

CHANGE OF STATE OF MATTER

Three states of matter are; solid state, liquid state and gaseous (vapor) state. During the period that a
substance is changing from one state to another, the temperature of the substance remains constant.
The diagrams below indicates changes in the states of matter and their corresponding processes.

Melting is the process by which a solid change to liquid without any change in temperature. The
temperature at which a solid changes into liquid is called melting point. For instance, pure ice melts at 0
oC. That means 0 oC is the melting point of ice.

INSTRUCTOR: HASSAN F BAWOR

 LEVI C WILLIAMS HIGH SCHOOL
10 Science 6th period Physics Notes (Concepts of Matter) May, 2022
Sublimation is the process by which a solid changes straight into the gaseous state without any change
in temperature.

Vaporization is the process by which a liquid changes into gas. Vaporization includes evaporation and
boiling. Evaporation is a process by which a liquid changes into vapor. It occurs at any temperature at all.
In the case of boiling, the liquid changes into vapor at a specific temperature, where the saturated vapor
pressure of the liquid becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure. The temperature at which boiling
takes place is called boiling point. For instance, pure water boils off to the vapor state at 100 oC and it
remains at that temperature until every water boils off.

Solidification also known as freezing, is the process by which a liquid changes into the solid state
without any change in temperature. The temperature at which this occurs is called freezing point. In
fact, the freezing point and melting point for a particular substance, are the same. For an example, the
freezing point of pure water is 0 oC and the melting point of pure ice is also 0 °C.

Condensation sometimes called liquefication is the process by which gas changes into a liquid without
change in temperature. The temperature at which it occurs is called condensation temperature.

Intermolecular Force in Solid

Atoms in solids are situated at locations called lattice sites. Because of the strong intermolecular force,
atoms in solids are held tightly together and this makes solids have definite shapes. In some cases, the
atoms are arranged in a regular manner and the solids are said to have crystal structure. Examples of
solids with crystal structure are metals. In other cases too, the atoms are arranged in irregular manner
and the solids are said to be non-crystalline structure or amorphous structure. Examples of solids with
amorphous structure are glass, wax etc.

The closely packed atoms in a solid explains why solids generally have high densities. At equilibrium
where there is no disturbances, the atoms at their lattice sites in a solid are separated from each other
at a distance of about 2.3x10 -10m. Observations show that if a solid is to be compressed, a large external
force is needed and even that, the solid is compressed by a very small amount. This suggests that, the
solid resists the compression with a force opposite to the compressive force applied. In other words,
anytime a solid is compressed, the atoms in the solid resists this with a repulsive force to prevent the
atoms from coming closer. In fact, the more closely the atoms become as a result of compression, the
stronger the repulsive force that tends to push the atoms back to their equilibrium (original) position.

On the other hand, if one wants to stretch a solid, it will require a large force. The solid will stretched by
a very small amount. This suggests that in an attempt to stretch a solid, the atoms in the solid resists this
with an attractive force that tends to bring the atoms back to their equilibrium position. The more the
atoms are separated as a result of stretching, the stronger the attractive force to bring the atoms back.

In an undisturbed equilibrium state, atoms have both kinetic energy and potential energy. The atoms
possess kinetic energy because of the heat present. They possess potential energy because of the
intermolecular force between the atoms. Both the potential and the kinetic energies make the atoms to
move without relocating to new positions. Therefore the atoms end up vibrating about their equilibrium
position. This explains why in spite of the strong intermolecular force in solids, atoms vibrate as the only
mode of movement.

INSTRUCTOR: HASSAN F BAWOR

 LEVI C WILLIAMS HIGH SCHOOL
10 Science 6th period Physics Notes (Concepts of Matter) May, 2022
Intermolecular Force in Liquid
The smallest indivisible parts of a liquid are called molecules. Liquids are difficult to compress but easy
to stretch (or expand). The overall intermolecular force between molecules in liquids is weak and
therefore liquids have no definite shape. A liquid will only take up the shape of the container holding it.
Nevertheless, the weak intermolecular force is enough to hold the liquid together but not enough to
give it a shape. Molecules in liquid are relatively free and therefore move somehow independently and
randomly. As a result, a liquid flows but does so slowly. The random nature of their motion results in
collisions between the molecules. These collisions contribute to the pressure in liquids.

Intermolecular Force in Gases

The smallest indivisible particles of a gas are called molecules. In gases, the intermolecular forces are so
weak that, gases show the following properties.

(a) Molecules in gases move freely, independently and randomly. As a result, molecules collide
frequently.

(b) By the independent and random motion of gas molecules, a gas will always move to occupy any
space available to it. This explains why a gas in a small container can leak to fill a whole room.

(c) Molecules in gases are far apart and move quickly and randomly. Robert Brown investigated the
random motion of gas molecules. As a result, the random motion of gas molecules is sometimes known
as Brownian motion. This random motion can be observed in practice in the night on a dusty road. Light
of a car head-lamp shows the dust particles in total random motion. This motion of the dust particles is
influenced by the random motion of the air molecules.

Week II Lesson

ELASTICITY
When an external force is applied to a material, there is the tendency for the shape and dimension of
the material to change. This change in the shape and dimension is called deformation. The material
possesses a certain property which helps it to resist any deformation and also helps the material to
regain its original shape and dimension after the applied force is removed. This property of the material
is called elasticity. Materials that behave elastic do so when the external force applied is not so high.
Examples of elastic materials are rubber bands, springs, copper, ductile materials, connecting wire, etc.
They obey Hooke's Law.

However, there are other materials such that after deformation, it cannot regain completely its original
shape and dimension when the force applied on it is removed, these materials are called plastic
material. That is to say, plastic materials suffer permanent deformation. Plastic material is also known as
inelastic material. In most times, materials that behave as plastic, do so when they are subjected to a
very high external force. Examples of plastic materials are wood, paper, glass, etc. Plastic materials do
not obey Hooke's Law.

Strength: The strength of a material is the maximum external force that the material can stand without
breaking or fracture. A strong material is one which can only break or fracture under a very large force
applied. An example of strong materials is wood.

INSTRUCTOR: HASSAN F BAWOR

 LEVI C WILLIAMS HIGH SCHOOL
10 Science 6th period Physics Notes (Concepts of Matter) May, 2022
Stiff Material: A material is said to be stiff if it needs very large force to produce a small extension in its
dimensions. An example of stiff materials is chalk. The measure of resistance a material can offer when
it is subjected to an external force by way of changing its shape and dimension is called stiffness.

Tough Material: A material is said to be tough, if under applied force the material shows plastic
deformation before breaks or fractures. An example is steel.

Ductile Material: A material is said to be ductile if under applied force, the material undergoes elastic
deformation followed by plastic deformation before it finally breaks down or fractures. The ability of a
material to stretch to considerable length without breaking is called ductility. Ductile flows and is easier
to draw it out into a wire without fracture. Examples of ductile materials are; gold, steel, copper, etc.

Brittle Material: A material is said to be brittle if under applied force it breaks down after undergoing
elastic deformation. Brittle material does not show plastic deformation. Examples are glass, cast iron
etc.

STRAIN
When an external force is applied on a material, the dimensions of the material may change. The change
in dimension divided by the original dimension is called strain. Strain can also be defined as "the relative
change in dimensions or fractional change in dimensions. Mathematically:
𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐝𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧
Strain = 𝐎𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧

Strain is a scalar quantity, dimensionless quantity and has no unit. To be specific, strain can be defined
as follows:
𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚
Strain = or Strain =
𝐎𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐎𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚

STRESS
When a force is applied to a material, the material is said to be under stress. Stress is defined as the
force applied on a material divided by the original surface area of the material. Mathematically:
𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞(𝐅)
Stress =
𝐀𝐫𝐜𝐚(𝐀)

Stress is a scalar quantity, dimensional quantity, a derived quantity and has unit of N/m2.

YOUNG'S MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (E)

Consider a material in the form of uniform bar having a length 'L'. A force 'F' is applied at one end along
the length. Such a force is called longitudinal force as shown on the diagram. The material stretches in
length by an amount: ‘x’. The material is deformed and such is called tensile deformation.

INSTRUCTOR: HASSAN F BAWOR

 LEVI C WILLIAMS HIGH SCHOOL
10 Science 6th period Physics Notes (Concepts of Matter) May, 2022

The strain suffered by the material is called tensile strain or longitudinal strain.

The stress exerted on the material is called tensile stress or longitudinal stress.

Young's modulus of elasticity is therefore defined as the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain. That is,
Young's Modulus of Elasticity 'E' is expressed
𝐓𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐥𝐞 𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 𝐅/𝐀 𝑭𝑳
E= ; by substitution E = =
𝐓𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐥𝐞 𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐱/𝐋 𝒙𝑨

Where A, is the cross-sectional area. The S.I unit of modulus of elasticity is N/m2. How much a material
can stretch or bend depends on its Young's modulus of elasticity. The bigger the young's modulus of
elasticity of a material, the small the extension that can occur in it and vice versa. This is an important
factor in the choice of materials in the construction of building, bridges and roads.

VARIATION OF STRESS WITH STRAIN

If a ductile material such as a metal, when subjected to varying forces, it stretches until it eventually
breaks down or fractures. A graph of stress against strain shown below, shows different stages the
material goes through before it fractures finally.

The various stages of the material are as follows:

• Along OA, the stress is directly proportional to the strain and the material is said to be elastic. It
recovers completely its original shape and dimension when the stress (or force) on it is
removed. Along OA, there is no permanent deformation or strain in the material when the
applied stress is removed. During this period OA, the material is purely elastic and obeys the
1ooke^ prime s law. The point A is called the elastic limit.

INSTRUCTOR: HASSAN F BAWOR

 LEVI C WILLIAMS HIGH SCHOOL
10 Science 6th period Physics Notes (Concepts of Matter) May, 2022
• Along AD, the material shows plastic nature and so there is a permanent strain or deformation
when the stress is removed. For an instance. Consider the stress increased from A to say B.
When the stress is removed, the material does not come back to its original state O. but rather
traces the dotted line BS as shown on the diagram. The material then suffers a permanent
deformation or strain of magnitude OS. Elastic limit is defined as the maximum stress (or force)
which a material can stand and still be able to regain its original shape and dimension when the
force is removed.

• Beyond the point B, a small force applied on the material produces a very large extension. That
is, a small stress produces a very large strain. The point B is therefore called yield point.

• The point C marks the maximum stress the material can withstand and this is known as the
breaking stress. The material is likely to break down at this breaking stress. The material finally
breaks down at D and this point is called breaking point.

A ductile material is one which can be permanently stretched beyond the elastic limit and will not break
down. A brittle material is one which breaks down soon after the elastic limit.

HOOKE'S LAW
When a force is applied to an elastic material, there is an extension in the dimension. As the force
increases, the extension also increases. During the period that the material behaves as elastic, the force
applied is directly proportional to the extension. Beyond the elastic limit, the material behaves plastic.
Even though for a plastic material, a force applied also produces an extension, however the force is not
directly proportional to the extension.

Hooke's law states that, "provided the elastic limit is not exceeded, the force applied on an elastic
material is directly proportional to the extension produced in its dimension" or

“Provided the elastic limit is not exceeded, the stress applied on an elastic material is directly
proportional to the strain produced in its dimension"

For video assistance and problems solving, click: https://youtu.be/HALbtyDUjp0

Exercise
1. A wire of diameter 0.006m is under the action of 200N force. If the length of the wire is 10m and the
Young's Modulus is 5 x 105 Nm - 2. Calculate the extension in the length.

2. Calculate the stress on a wire of diameter 4mm if a force of 300N is applied on it.

3. A spring 20cm long is stretched to 25cm by a load of 50N. What will be its new length when stretched
by 100N, assuming that the elastic limit is not reached.

4. A force of 100N is applied on a spring and extends it by 0.1cm. Calculate the (a) elastic constant (b)
work done in stretching the spring 0.3cm if the elastic limit is not exceeded.

INSTRUCTOR: HASSAN F BAWOR

 LEVI C WILLIAMS HIGH SCHOOL
10 Science 6th period Physics Notes (Concepts of Matter) May, 2022
5. A steel wire 10m long and with a cross sectional area of 0.01cm2 is hung from a support and a mass of
5kg is hung from its end. Calculate the new length of the wire. Take Young modulus for steel as 2.1
x1011Nm- 2.

COHESION and ADHESION

Particles of the same kind can attract each other. Such a force of attraction is called cohesion or
cohesive force. Hence cohesion is defined as the force of attraction that exists between particles of the
same substance. Examples of cohesion are:

(a) force of attraction between molecules of water.

(b) force of attraction between molecules o mercury.

Particles of different kinds can attract each other. Such a force of attraction is called adhesion or
adhesive force. Hence Adhesion is defined as the force of attraction that exists between particles of
different substances. Examples of adhesion are:

(a) force of attraction between water and wood. That is why water sticks to wood.

(b) force of attraction between kerosene and concrete floor.

EFFECTS OR PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF COHESION and ADHESION

Cohesion and Adhesion can be used to explain the effect of wetting, meniscus, capillarity, angle of
contact etc.

➢ WETTING

If a substance has a strong adhesion than cohesion, it tends to stick more to other bodies. Such a
substance will rather find it easier to stick to other bodies than to keep to itself. On the other hand, a
substance that shows a stronger cohesion than adhesion will keep to itself rather than sticking to other
substances, Examples of effect of wetting are as follows:

(i) When water is poured on a floor, it sticks and wets the floor. This is because water has a
stronger adhesive force than cohesion. This same premises is used to explain why water will
flow when poured on a wooden surface or on a concrete floor. That part of the floor, which
is not wet, tries to attract and pull the water. This causes the water to move or to flow.
(ii) When a small quantity of mercury is poured on a table, the mercury forms a spherical
shape. The mercury clings to itself more than to the table. The mercury ball then rolls on the
table without wetting or sticking to it. In fact, it does not leave the slightest trace of it on the
table. The mercury behaves this way because, mercury has a strong cohesive force than
adhesive force.

Important Note

It is important to take note of the fact that, a liquid that sticks to a certain surface will not stick to a
different surface. A clear example is shown by water. Water sticks or wets clean glass but will not stick
to paraffin wax. It must therefore be noted that, the strength of adhesion and cohesion of a liquid

INSTRUCTOR: HASSAN F BAWOR

 LEVI C WILLIAMS HIGH SCHOOL
10 Science 6th period Physics Notes (Concepts of Matter) May, 2022
depends on the body in contact with the liquid. Between water and glass, the force of adhesion is
stronger than cohesion. But between the same water and wax, the force of adhesion is weaker than
cohesion.

➢ MENISCUS

Meniscus is the shape or the curved surface of a liquid surface. There are two types of meniscus and
they are concave meniscus and convex meniscus. These shapes are clearly seen when the liquid is put in
a transparent container. The type of meniscus at a liquid surface will depend to a large extent on the
magnitude of the cohesive and adhesive forces of the liquid to the container.

If a liquid has a stronger adhesive force than cohesive force, the liquid will cling strongly to the container
more than to itself. By this act, the liquid is attracted and pulled up along the walls of the container. The
surface of the liquid therefore shows concave meniscus as indicated in fig (i) below. Examples of liquids
that show concave meniscus in a glass container are water, alcohol, kerosene etc.

On the other hand, if the cohesive force is stronger than the adhesive force, then such a liquid will cling
strongly to itself more than to the container. Such a liquid will try to move away from the container and
by so doing, forms a convex meniscus at its surface as indicated in fig(ii)

An examples of a liquid that show convex surface in glass is mercury. It is important to note that, a liquid
has no permanent meniscus. In fact, the nature of the container and the temperature of the liquid affect
the meniscus. For instance, water has concave meniscus in a glass container but has convex meniscus in
a wax container.

INSTRUCTOR: HASSAN F BAWOR

 LEVI C WILLIAMS HIGH SCHOOL
10 Science 6th period Physics Notes (Concepts of Matter) May, 2022
Week III Lesson

CAPILLARITY
Capillarity is defined as the ability of a liquid to rise or fall through a narrow tube or pore. Capillary tube
is a tube with both ends opened, having a narrow cross-section. Examples of capillary tube are pores in
the skin, tiny holes in a towel, the hole in a straw, etc. When a capillary tube is inserted into a liquid, the
liquid either rises up or falls in the tube. How far the liquid can rise or fall in the tube is determined by
the comparative strength between adhesive force and cohesive force.

Consider a capillary tube inserted into a liquid in a container. If the liquid has a stronger cohesive force
than adhesive force, the liquid is weakly attracted to the capillary tube. The liquid then falls in the tube
below the liquid level in the container. A liquid that behaves this way also has a convex meniscus as
indicated in fig(i) Such a liquid does not stick or wet.

On the other hand if the liquid has a stronger adhesive force than cohesive force, the liquid is strongly
attracted to the tube. The liquid rises up in the tube above the liquid level in the container. Again such
liquid has a concave meniscus as indicated in fig(ii)

A liquid that behaves this way does stick or wet. A rise of a liquid in a capillary tube is known a capillary
rise. In the same way, a fall of a liquid in tube is known as capillary fall.

Factors Affecting Capillarity

(a) Temperature: An increase in temperature of a liquid, weakens its cohesive force. A temperature
increase will determine how high a liquid will rise or how low a liquid will fall in a capillary tube. One can
verify this with a straw inserted into a cold Malta Guinness drink and another straw into a warm Malta
Guinness drink.

(b) Surface Tension: The bigger the surface tension of a liquid, the higher its capillary rise or fall in a in a
capillarity tube and vice versa.

(c) Nature of The Liquid: Different liquids rise or fall to different levels even though they may be under
the same conditions of temperature, pressure and other physical conditions. This shows that, different
liquids have different capillarities.

(d) Cross-Sectional Area: The smaller the cross section of a capillarity tube, the high its capillary rise or
fall and vice versa. In other words, a liquid will rise to a higher level or fall to a lower level if the tube has
a smaller cross sectional area and vice versa as shown below.

INSTRUCTOR: HASSAN F BAWOR

 LEVI C WILLIAMS HIGH SCHOOL
10 Science 6th period Physics Notes (Concepts of Matter) May, 2022

(e) Impurity: The presence of an impurity in a liquid affects its capillarity. An unclean capillarity tube
affects its capillarity.

SURFACE TENSION
The following are some observations made about the happenings at the surface of liquids.

(a) Insects such as pond skater can walk on water. The water surface depresses and stretches likes an
elastic skin at areas where the insect touches.

(b) A sewing needle or razor blade carefully placed on water will float at the surface. The surface will
only depress slightly at the area where the needle is placed.

(c) Drops of water such as raindrops are always in spherical shapes. A raindrop take up this spherical
shape so that it assumes a minimum surface area.

(d) Waterproof tent does not allow rains to pass through it.

All these observations show that, the surface of a liquid behaves like an elastic membrane or elastic skin
which can stretch. The liquid surface can be said to be in a state of tension. This property at a liquid
surface is known as surface tension or sometimes called coefficient of surface tension.

Factors Affecting Surface Tension

Surface tension is a constant quantity but is affected by the following factors.

(i) Temperature: As temperature of liquid increases, its surface tension decreases and vice versa. As the
temperature is continuously increased, so is its surface tension. A point is reached where, the surface
tension becomes zero. The temperature at which the surface tension becomes zero is called the critical
temperature. The critical temperature varies from liquid to liquid.

(ii) Nature of The Liquid: Surface tension is different for different liquids. The surface tension for water
for instance, is not the same as that for kerosene.

(iii) Impurities: Impurities such as detergents, salt, camphor etc, present in a liquid reduce the surface
tension of the liquid. When camphor for instance is put at the surface of water, it dissolves slowly. That
part of the liquid surface in contact with the camphor is contaminated and so the surface tension there
is decreased. The surrounding clean water having stronger surface tension therefore pulls the
contaminated water.

INSTRUCTOR: HASSAN F BAWOR

 LEVI C WILLIAMS HIGH SCHOOL
10 Science 6th period Physics Notes (Concepts of Matter) May, 2022
VISCOSITY
It is a common experience that, when you walk through a stagnant water, you experience a resistance. It
is also a difficult task to run through a pool of water. An object falling through a liquid, does so with
difficulty. The object experiences resistance as it moves through the liquid. Lastly, some liquids are sticky
and do not flow easily.

All these observations go to portray one thing in liquids which is also true for fluids in general. There is a
resistance force to a motion through fluids and this is called viscosity. It is the property of a fluid that
determines its easiness to flow. A liquid of high viscosity flows slowly and is very sticky. For such a liquid,
objects experience high resistance as they move through it. An example of such liquids is grease. A fluid
whose viscosity is high is also said to be very viscous. Viscosity is measured by an instrument called
viscometer.

Origin of Viscosity

A liquid (or fluid) exists in layers and these layers move against each other with different velocities. As a
result, adjacent layers slide over each other and produce a kind of internal friction between them. This
internal friction resists the motion of one layer of fluid over the other. This internal friction between the
layers in the fluid is called viscosity. Generally, viscosity is due to the relative motion and frictional force
between layers in fluids.

Factors That Affect Viscosity of a Fluid

Viscosity of a fluid is not a constant quantity but depends on the following factors.

o Temperature: The viscosity of a fluid decreases with an increase in its temperature and vice
versa. For an illustration, observe how a cold cooking oil flows in a frying pan. Leave the pan on
fire for a while and the oil flows faster.

o Speed Of Motion: The higher the speed of motion of an object through a fluid, the higher the
viscosity of the fluid and vice versa. For an illustration, as you run through still air, your shirt is
blown backwards. It shows the resistance to the motion. This is absent as you walk through still
air
o Area of Contact: An object moving through a fluid makes contact with the fluid. The surface
area of the moving object affects the viscosity of the fluid. The larger the surface areas, the
higher the viscosity of the fluid and vice versa. In other words, the larger the surface area of
contact, the higher the resistance to the motion of the object through the fluid and vice versa.
The reasons why viscosity is affected by area of contact are as follows:

(i) An object with a large surface area when place in a fluid will come into contact with a large quantity
of the fluid This large quantity of fluid will present a bigger resistance to the movement of the object.

(ii) An object with a large surface area when dropped in a fluid will displace a large amount of the fluid.
According to Archimedes principle, the large amount of fluid displaced will produce a large upthrust,
which tends to oppose the fall.

INSTRUCTOR: HASSAN F BAWOR

 LEVI C WILLIAMS HIGH SCHOOL
10 Science 6th period Physics Notes (Concepts of Matter) May, 2022
This explains why small cars generally run faster than big trucks even though they may have the same
speed limit on their speedometers. The small cars have relative smaller surface area of contact with air
and therefore experiences less viscosity as compared to big trucks. It is for this same reason why, racing
cars are designed to be small so that, they experience less viscosity in air.

o Nature of Liquid: Different fluids have different viscosities.

APPLICATIONS OF VISCOSITY

(a) Lubrication: The choice of an oil (or liquid) as a lubricant for a particular job depends on its viscosity.
For heavy duty machines, the oil as a lubricant must be one of high viscosity and the opposite goes for
light duty machines.

(b) Racing Cars: Racing cars are designed such that the air through which they move present small
viscosity so that they can run faster. Against this backdrop, the cars have small size so that they have
small surface area of contact.

(c) State Of Blood: The viscosity of blood depends on the concentration of the white blood cells. The
measure of the viscosity of blood can therefore be used to detect the percentage of white blood cell in
it.

TERMINAL VELOCITY
Consider an object left to fall through a fluid. The forces that act on the object are its weight W, upthrust
U and viscosity F. The weight W pulls the object vertically down. The liquid resists the fall with upthrust
U and viscous force F. The upthrust is as result of the object displacing some liquid.

If the object is able to fall through the fluid, it is because, the weight W is greater than the combined
effect of both upthrust U and viscosity F. That is: W > (U + F)

The object therefore accelerates through the fluid. As the velocity increases gradually, the viscous force
also increases since viscosity depends on the velocity of motion. At a point, the weight becomes equal to
the upthrust and viscosity combined. That is: W = (U + F).

From this point on, the resultant force on the object is zero. The object moves in equilibrium with no
acceleration. The object then fall with a constant velocity through the fluid and this constant velocity is
called terminal velocity.

INSTRUCTOR: HASSAN F BAWOR

 LEVI C WILLIAMS HIGH SCHOOL
10 Science 6th period Physics Notes (Concepts of Matter) May, 2022
Definition: Terminal Velocity is defined as the constant velocity with which an object falls through a fluid
because the resultant force on it is zero.

INSTRUCTOR: HASSAN F BAWOR