Geography: Grade 9
Geography: Grade 9
Grade 9
i
First Print 2017
Second Print 2018
Third Print 2019
ISBN 978-955-25-0166-1
ii
The National Anthem of Sri Lanka
iii
wms fjuq tl ujlf. orefjda
tl ksjfiys fjfikd
tl mdge;s tl reêrh fõ
wm lh ;=< ÿjkd
wdkkao iurfldaka
Mde;j rkuf;Nfhd;
ftpijapd; ngau;g;G.
iv
Being innovative, changing with right knowledge
Be a light to the country as well as to the world.
The past two decades have been significant in the world history due to changes that took
place in technology. The present students face a lot of new challenges along with the rapid
development of Information Technology, communication and other related fields. The manner
of career opportunities are liable to change specifically in the near future. In such an
environment, with a new technological and intellectual society, thousands of innovative career
opportunities would be created. To win those challenges, it is the responsibility of the Sri Lankan
Government and myself, as the Minister of Education, to empower you all.
This book is a product of free education. Your aim must be to use this book properly and
acquire the necessary knowledge out of it. The government in turn is able to provide free
textbooks to you, as a result of the commitment and labour of your parents and elders.
Since we have understood that the education is crucial in deciding the future of a country,
the government has taken steps to change curriculum to suit the rapid changes of the
technological world. Hence, you have to dedicate yourselves to become productive citizens. I
believe that the knowledge this book provides will suffice your aim.
It is your duty to give a proper value to the money spent by the government on your
education. Also you should understand that education determines your future. Make sure that
you reach the optimum social stratum through education.
I congratulate you to enjoy the benefits of free education and bloom as an honoured
citizen who takes the name of Sri Lanka to the world.
v
Foreword
The educational objectives of the contemporary world are becoming more complex along with
the economic, social, cultural and technological development. The learning and teaching
process too is changing in relation to human experiences, technological differences, research
and new indices. Therefore, it is required to produce the textbook by including subject related
information according to the objectives in the syllabus in order to maintain the teaching process
by organizing learning experiences that suit to the learner needs. The textbook is not merely a
learning tool for the learner. It is a blessing that contributes to obtain a higher education along
with a development of conduct and attitudes, to develop values and to obtain learning experi-
ences.
The government in its realization of the concept of free education has offered you all the
textbooks from grades 1-11. I would like to remind you that you should make the maximum use
of these textbooks and protect them well. I sincerely hope that this textbook would assist you
to obtain the expertise to become a virtuous citizen with a complete personality who would be
a valuable asset to the country.
I would like to bestow my sincere thanks on the members of the editorial and writer boards as
well as on the staff of the Educational Publications Department who have strived to offer this
textbook to you.
W. M. Jayantha Wickramanayaka,
Isurupaya,
Battaramulla.
2019.04.10
vi
Monitoring and Supervision - W. M. Jayantha Wickramanayaka
Commissioner General
Educational Publications Department
Direction - W.A. Nirmala Piyaseeli
Commissioner (Development)
Educational Publications Department
- A. M. R. K. Adikari
Assistant Commissioner
Educational Publications Department
Board of Editors
1. Prof. N.K. Dhangalla - University of Kelaniya
(Emeritus Professor)
2. Prof. S. A. Nortbert - University of Colombo
3. Kusum P. Ranasinha - Visiting Lecturer
Ocean University
4. R.P. Peiris - Additional Commissioner (Retired)
Department of Examinations
viii
Index
4. Environmental Balance 75
ix
x
1
The Asian Region
In a geographical view, the Continent of Europe and Asia are both located
as one landmass called Eurasia. Ural Mountain Range, River Ural, Caspian Sea,
Caucasus Mountains, Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Suez Canal and Red Sea are
the boundaries that separate Asia from Europe and Africa.
There are many islands that belong to the Asian continent. Japanese islands,
Indonesian islands, Philippine islands, Sri Lanka and Taiwan are examples for
those islands which are larger in extent. Andaman Islands, Nicobar Islands and
the Maldives are examples of smaller islands.
2
For free distribution
Absolute Location
The location of any place or region on the Earth can definitely be shown
using geographical coordinates. Accordingly, the absolute location of the Asian
region can be shown on the basis of longitudes and latitudes as follows;
The Asian continent covers an area of 44.6 million km2 (44,579,000 km2).
It is about 30% of the land area of the earth and 8.7 % of the entire surface of the
Earth.
Source : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia 2017.02.05
The largest mountain range in the world, the Himalayas, is located in the
continent of Asia. Mount Everest, the highest peak which is 8848 meters in height
is located here. The Dead Sea is also located in the Asian land mass, is below
the sea level. Cherrapunji in the state of Meghalaya in India receives the highest
rainfall and Gobi desert is considered as the area that receives the lowest rainfall in
the world. Both areas are located in the continent of Asia.
3
For free distribution
All types of climates that exist in the world can be found here. Therefore,
every type of forest in the world also can be found in the continent of Asia. Therefore,
biodiversity which means the diversity of plants and animals is greater in this region.
According to the size of population, more than half or about 60% of the
world population lives in the Asian region. It is notable that China and India, the
two most populous countries in the world are located in Asia. Indonesia, Pakistan,
Bangladesh and Japan that belong to the top ten countries with the highest population
of the world are also located in the Asian region. Accordingly, six out of 10 most
populous countries are located in the continent of Asia.
The average density of population of the continent of Asia is 87 per
kilometer, but there are some regions in Asia with a high population density of
more than 3000 people per kilometer. In the Asian region, there are 54 States or
independent countries. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia 2017.02.05)
The diversity in the culture, ethnicity and race is a special feature of the
population of the Asian region. Existence of various languages is another specific
characteristic as various ethnic groups are living there. According to ethnologue,
that providing information on languages in the world, 297 living languages are
available only in China. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia 2017.02.05)
Asian region has become unique as it is the home to the world’s most ancient
civilizations such as Mesapothemia, Howang-Ho, and Indus. It is the birth place
of major religions like Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam and Christianity. At present,
people who follow religions like Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam and Christianity live
in this continent.
Activities
1. State the geographical boundaries that would indicate the relative location of
the Asian region.
2. Mark those boundaries on an outline map of the world and shade the continent
of Asia.
3. Prepare a list of factors that cause for the Asia to be considered as specific
region of the world.
4. With reference to a political divisions map of Asia, show the countries that
belong to it.
4
For free distribution
Physical landscape in Asia
Relief
The most specific
topographic feature in the Asian
region is the Mountain Range
of Himalaya. This mountain
range spreads 2500 kilometers
and stretches in a land area of
6.12,000 square kilometers. Due
Fig 1.2 - Mount Everest - The highest peak in
to this large mountain range,
Himalaya mountain range
India is seen to be separated from
Asia and as a result, India is called a sub continent. There are many peaks including
Everest located on this mountain range, exceeding 7000 meters in altitude.
Table 1.1 - Highest Peaks in the Himalaya mountain range
Drainage
The large number of river systems scattered all over the Asian region is
the major characteristic of the drainage. These rivers flow into different oceans
and seas.
² Ob, Yenisey and Lena to the Arctic Ocean,
² Amur, Hwang Ho and Yangtze to the Pacific Ocean,
² Ganges, Indus, Brahmaputra, Mekong, Irrawaddy and Salvin to the Indian
Ocean,
² Euphrates and Tigris flow into the Persian bay.
6
For free distribution
For free distribution
Map 1.1 - Physical landscape in Asia
Source : Gunasena Phyliphs World Map book 2016
7
Table 1.2 - Major rivers in Asia
There are several large lakes located in Asia. Among them Baikal and
Balkhash are major lakes. Lake Baikal is considered as the deepest lake with fresh
water located in the world.
Activities
Assignment
Mark and name all the physical features written above in an outline map of
Asia.
8
For free distribution
Climate
The Earth is divided into three main climatic zones according to the
variations of the distribution of temperature towards the South Pole and towards
the North Pole from the equator.
² Tropical zone (Warm climate)
² Temperate zone (Mild climate)
² Frigid zone (Cold climate) (Refer to the Map 1.3)
The Asian continent spreads over to the North Pole from the equator.
Therefore, all types of climate that belong to those three climatic zones are found
there.
² Tropical zone (Warm climate)
Very high temperature prevails throughout the whole year. The average
temperature is more than 180C. Therefore, a warm climatic condition prevails here.
² Temperate zone (Mild climate)
The average temperature in this zone is lower than the tropical zone.
Seasonal variations exist here due to the increase and decrease of temperature from
time to time throughout the whole year. A clear warm season and cold season is
seen here.
² Frigid zone (Cold climate)
The main feature that can be seen here is the falling snow and land being
covered with snow for a longer period of the year due to the lower level of temperature.
N
Frigid Zone
Temperate zone
Temperate zone
These types of climates and the areas they are distributed are included in the table
below;
The types of climate that exist in the Asian continent
Climatic zone Climatic type Distribution Areas/countries
10
For free distribution
Natural vegetation and wild life
Natural vegetation changes regionally according to the differences of
rainfall and temperature. Accordingly, the natural vegetation and the wild life have
adapted to the climatic type.
11
For free distribution
Temperate zone - Temperate Deciduous Forests
Deciduous Forests are grown in the temperate zone as a result of the
existence of cold and warm seasons during the year. A special characteristic in these
forests is falling of leaves from trees annually. Oak, Mulberry, Chestnut, Pine,
Eucalyptus, Douglas fir are specific trees grown in these forests. Kinds of animals
living here are Wolf, Bear, Sambar deer, and Antelope.
Reindeer, Polar bear, Snow fox, Snow dog, Sable, and Mink are animal
species that can be seen here.
12
For free distribution
Fig. 1.7 - Frigid zone forests and animal species
Activities
1. Table three major climatic zones that are seen in the continent of Asia and the
types of climate in each of the climatic zones.
2. Write down the types of natural vegetation spread out in each of the climatic
zones.
3. Name the animal and plant species grown in each of the natural vegetation
zones you mentioned above.
The Mesopotamian civilization is the other river valley civilization that was
located in the continent of Asia. There are evidences that this civilization had been
established between the doab of two rivers, of Euphrates and Tigris that flow across
present Iraq.
Systematic town planning, buildings, creation of monuments, agriculture
and production of artistic items were specific features that developed in these
civilizations.
Mongoloid Caucasoid
² China ² India
² Japan ² Afghanistan
² Malaysia ² Pakistan
14
For free distribution
Population distribution
The present population in Asia is 4.46 billion (4460 million) (world
populationview.com/continents/asia-population 2017.02.01) Out of this, more
than half is distributed in China and India.
Central Asia, Mongolia, Northern flat lands Gobi and Thar deserts are
sparsely populated areas in Asia.(1.4 map)
Ten countries with a higher density Ten countries with low population
of po pulation by 2017 by 2017
² China 1370 millions ² Maldives 345000
² India 1299 millions ² Brunei 421000
² Indonesia 255 millions ² Macao 641000
² Pakistan 192 millions ² Bhutan 760000
² Bangladesh 159 millions ² Timor 1.24 millions
² Japan 127 millions ² Bahrain 1.78 millions
² Philippine 103 millions ² Qatar 2.11 millions
² Vietnam 92 millions ² Armenia 3 millions
² Iran 79 millions ² Mongolia 3.02 millions
² Turkey 78 millions ² Georgia 3.73 millions
15
For free distribution
Population Density
population per 1 km2
over 500
100-500
25-100
10-25
1-10
less than 1
Tokyo
Tehran Beijing
Mumbai Pacific
Ocean
Bangkok
Indian Ocean
Jakarta
Activities
2. Name five high populated countries, five less populated countries and five
high populated cities located in Asia.
3. Mark the five high populated countries and cities located in Asia you stated
above in a world map.
Economic activities
Various economic activities can be found in the countries located in the
Asian region. In this region, economy of the countries is based on agriculture,
industry and service.
16
For free distribution
Here, the attention is paid to three countries which are significant for each of the
sectors.
² Agriculture - Pakistan
² Industries - Japan
² Service activities - Dubai
Pakistan as an agricultural country in Asia
Agriculture is the main
economic activity in Pakistan.
25.9% of the Gross Domestic
Product in Pakistan is
contributed from the agricultural
sector. Out of the total labour
force, 43% is engaged in
agricultural activities. 25% of
the land area of the country
has been used for agricultural
activities.
Pakistan is important
as a major country in the
world that provides raw cotton.
Among the other agricultural
products in Pakistan, wheat,
rice, sugarcane, mangoes, chick
pea, vegetables, milk and dairy
products, beef, mutton and eggs
are important.
Pakistan is also
important as a country with the
largest irrigation systems in the
world. Water is provided for
about 16 millions hectares in
the country through the Indus
river valley irrigation system. Figure 1.8 - Agricultural activities in Pakistan
17
For free distribution
There are two main Table 1.3 - Two crop seasons, duration and the
agricultural seasons in Pakistan and crops grown in Pakistan
they are known as Khariff and Rabi. Crop Duration Crops grown
season
According to the ranking Khariff From April to cotton, paddy,
system of the World Food and October millet, maize
Agriculture Organization, Pakistan and sugarcane
has achieved following places as a
Rabi From November wheat, barley
food producer to the world market. to March and oats
Table 1.4 - Place achieved by Pakistan in providing Agricultural Products to the world
Market
Type of the Place in the Type of the Place in the
product world market product world market
Chick pea 3 Dairy products 5
Apricot 6 Date palm 5
Cotton 4 Onion 7
Sugarcane 5 wheat 7
Rice 4 Types of oranges 6
Mango 4
Source - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_Pakistan//Rankings 21/2/2017
18
For free distribution
Manufacturing automobiles is the key field of industry in Japan. Japan has
won the sixth place out of the top ten largest automobile manufacturers in the world.
Japanese automobiles are in the forefront in the world due to factors of high quality,
durability, fuel economy, comfort and inclusion of very modern components and
equipment. There are several major automobile manufacturing companies in Japan
and some foremost ones are mentioned below.
Honda, Yamaha, Suzuki and Kawasaki are major motor cycle producting
companies in Japan in the world.
Japan has achieved a rapid development in producing various types of
electronic and electrical equipment. For these productions, the companies of Sony,
Mitsubishi, Electric, Panasonic, Cannon, Fujitsu, Nikon, Yamaha, Sharp, Nec,
Hitachi and Casio are important.
Production of plastic, polystyrene and polypropylene are significant as main
petro chemical industries in Japan. The other frontline production industry of Japan
is producing computers and computer accessories. Among these companies Nec,
Fjitzu, Epson and I.B.M are significant.
19
For free distribution
Japan has achieved its development with regard to Gene Technology which
is considered a very important field at present in the world. Gene Technology is
used in various sections such as agriculture, livestock farming, pharmaceuticals,
chemicals and food processing.
Japan is in the forefront among the countries where that utilizes nuclear
power in abundance, in the world.
The base of the economy of Dubai is the production of mineral oil. The large
amount of wealth earned from this resource has been invested in other fields in that
country. Dubai has been developed as a service center as its physical environment is
not suitable for agricultural purposes.
There are many service industries carried out by Dubai as a service center;
² Importance of Port Jabil Ali as the major Middle Eastern export center as well
as free trade harbour.
² Center for Tourist attractions and tourist services providing center.
² As a center of providing international communication services Eg – CNN, Al
Jazeera
20
For free distribution
² As a center that provides an indoor stadium and day and night cricket stadium for
cricket and tennis at international level.
² Establishment of the largest trade center called Dubai Mall.
Activities
References
² History, Grade 6 (1996), Educational Publications Department
² Geography, Grade 10 (2011), Educational Publications Department
² Physical Geography, G.C.E. (A/L) (2015), Educational Publications
Department
² Geography Information Magazine (1996 - January 6 Volume) Sri Lanka
² Geographists Association
² Gunasena - Phyliphs World map book (2006), M.D. Gunasena and company,
Colombo
² https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia//
² http://www.worldatlas.com
² http://www.worldpopulationreview.com
21
For free distribution
Glossary
• Relative location -- idfmalI
a msyà
s u - \õº¦ Aø©Âh®
• Absolute location - ksrfmalI
a msyà
s u - uÛ Aø©Âh®
• Geographical coordinates - N+f.da,h
S LKavdxl -- ¦Â°¯À BmTÖ
• Bio diversity - ffcj úúO;ajh - E°º¨£ÀÁøPø©
• Population density - ck >k;ajh - -\ÚöuõøP Ahºzv
• Tropical zone - ksj¾;k l,dmh - -A¯ÚÁ»¯®
• Temperate zone - fi!uH l,dmh -- CøhöÁ¨£ Á»¯®
• Polar zone - O%ej l,dmh - -•øÚÄ Á»¯®
• Tropical rainy climate - ksj¾;k - A¯Ú ©øÇU Põ»{ø»
j¾Id foaY.=Kh
• Tropical monsoon climate - ksj¾;k -- A¯Ú £¸ÁUPõØÖ
fudaiï foaY.=Kh Põ»{ø»
• Tropical savanna climate - ksj¾;k -- A¯Ú \ÁßÚõ
iejkd foaY.=Kh Põ»{ø»
• Hot desert climate - WIaK ldka;dr foaY.=Kh - -öÁ¨£¨ £õø»ÁÚ
Põ»{ø»
• Warm temperate climate - WKqiqï fi!uH foaY.=Kh - -CÍg`hõÚ Cøh
öÁ¨£ Põ»{ø»
• Wet temperate climate - f;;a fi!uH foaY.=Kh - -CøhöÁ¨£ DµU
Põ»{ø»
• Polar and tundra climate - O%ej yd ;=køa d foaY.=Kh - -•øÚÄ ©ØÖ® x¢vµõ
Põ»{ø»
• Highland climate - Wiaìï foaY.=Kh - E¯º{»U Põ»{ø»
• Tropical rain forests - ksj¾;k j¾Id jkdka;r - A¯Ú ©øÇU PõkPÒ
• Deciduous forestes - m;kYS, jkdka;r - -Cø»²vº PõkPÒ
• Coniferous forests - fla;O
= r jkdka;r - F]°ø»U PõkPÒ
ö£Ø÷ÓõÀ Cµ\õ¯Ú
• Petro chemical industry - fmfg%d ridhk l¾udka; - øPzöuõÈÀ ö©õzu
EÒ|õmk
• Gross Domestic Product - o< foaYh
S ksIm
a dÈ;h - EØ£zv
• Tourist attractions - ixpdrl wdl¾IK - _ØÖ»õ PÁºa]PÒ
22
For free distribution
2
Landscape of
Sri Lanka
Relief
The land of Sri Lanka consists of complex physical features as a result of
geo-activities that occurred during a long period in the geo history. Among them, a
salient feature is the central mountains located in the center of the country and the
plain that extends towards the coastal belt from there. The island can be divided
into three zones on the basis of relief. Identify it by studying Map 2.1
Point Pedro N
Jaffna
1
Coastal plain
Co
Up to 30 m from the
asta
Mannar
l
sea level
pla
i n
Anuradhapura
2 Mihintale
1
Ritigala
2
Intermediate plain
Dimbulagala
Yapahuwa Batticaloa
From 30 m to 300 m
Galagedara
Kandy Knuckles
Plateau
Central hills 3
Pidurutalagala
Namunukula
3 Colombo Ginigathena Welimada Plateau
Kirigalpotta
Samanala KandaHorton Plains
(Adams Peak)
Central mountains
Kataragama
Over 300 m
Dondra Head
24
For free distribution
Coastal Plain
The region from sea level up to the 30m contour line along the coast belongs
to the coastal plain. In the South in certain places, the coastal plain is about 3 km
narrow and in the North it is about 32 km wide. The coastal plain consists of various
relief features. The lower areas of river valleys and the river mouth regions belong to
this. The coastal plain has several special features such as flat land, points, lagoons,
sand dunes as well as the features like braided rivers, marshy lands and deltas.
Marshes - Marshes are formed when the sediments brought by rivers are
deposited as sand banks and blocking the estuaries or water remaining in lowlands
due to overflowing of rivers. Examples of marshes are Muthurajawela, Bundala,
Kalametiya, Somawathiya, Anawilundawa and Kirala kele.
Bays - A bay has a wider opening of the sea protruding towards the land filled with
saline water. Many such bays are located along side the coastal line in Sri Lanka.
Some of them are Koddiyar Bay, Arugam Bay and Weligama Bay.
25
For free distribution
Lagoons - A lagoon is a lengthy
stretch of an area filled with brackish
water, separated from the sea by sand
bars which have narrow outlets to the
sea only during a certain period of
the year. Negombo, Jaffna, Puttlam,
Chillaw and Batticaloa are examples.
Delta - Delta is a land area formed with the deposit of sediments carried by a river
close to river mouths with a shape of a triangle. Deltas can be seen close to the river
mouths of Mahaweli Ganga, Mee oya and Kala oya.
There are attractive places located close to the coastal line. Blow hole is
such a feature. This name has been given as a result of splashing water up through
a cave making a sound.
Intermediate plain
The intermediate plain is 30-300 m in altitude. According to the Map 2.1, the
plain is wider in the North and becomes narrower towards the South. The features
that can be mostly seen are contour hedges, residual hills, rivers, flood plains and
plains.
26
For free distribution
Parallel Rakwana Mountains and Bulutota hills that extend
mountains North - West to South - East directions
There are many rivers flowing across the intermediate plain. Specific features
located in between them are plains, flood plains and undulated lands.
Central Hills
The areas over 300 m belong to this zone. This is indicated in No. 3 of Map
2.2. This region is more complex than the other two relief zones.
1 2
27
For free distribution
There are four principal mountain ranges in the Central Hills with higher peaks;
Plateaus - A plateau is an area of flat land at a high elevation. There are five Plateaus
in the Central Hills. (Map 2.2)
² Kandy Plateau
² Hatton Plateau
² Welimada Plateau
² Mahawelatenna Plateau
² Koslanda Plateau
Gaps or Passes - A pass is a low area located between two mountains. Haputale,
Balana, Galagedara and Ginigathhena are examples.
Waterfalls - The plateaus which are located in the central hills are of different
heights and rivers flow across steep slopes or escarpments forming waterfalls.
Bambarakanda, Dunhinda, Luxapana, Diyaluma and Ramboda are examples.
Drainage
Sri Lanka which is rich in water resources contains main 103 river valleys.
Out of them, 34 rivers starting from hill country, flow in different directions in
an aerial pattern. These rivers are known as permanent rivers since they are
abundant with water through out the year. Some rivers that are starting from
undulated lands in dry zone, flow during rainy season and become dry during dry
season. These are known as seasonal rivers.
Details of a few major rivers in Sri Lanka are stated in Map 2.3 and Table 2.1
28
For free distribution
N
29
For free distribution
Table 2.1 – Details of a few major rivers in Sri Lanka
80% of the rivers located in Sri Lanka flow across the dry zone. Mahaweli
is the longest river as well and has the largest river basin. Out of the total land area
in Sri Lanka 1/6 belongs to this.
When we consider the total drainage pattern, Sri Lanka has a radial pattern.
However, various drainage patterns are formed when tributaries are added to main
rivers. Among them, Dendritic and Trellis drainage patterns are important. When
we compare River Mahaweli with kalu Ganga, Kelani Ganga and Gin Ganga, they
flow through a shorter area and the catchment area is also smaller. During the rainy
seasons floods occur in abundance close to these rivers.
Activities
I' Complete the following table in association with the characteristics and
examples of main relief zones in Sri Lanka.
30
For free distribution
II' Mark the following in a model of Sri Lanka map
Climate
31
For free distribution
Temperature
Average annual temperature in Sri Lanka is 270C. Yet there are small
regional variations. Map 2.4 clearly shows this.
32
For free distribution
Several factors influence the variation of temperature in Sri Lanka.
² Proximity to the Indian subcontinent
² Altitude (height of land)
² Distance from the sea
² Changing wind pattern
According to the Map 2.4, the Northern part of Sri Lanka has a high
temperature while Eastern, Southern and South-Western low lands experience low
temperature. The reason for high temperature in the Northern part of Sri Lanka
is its proximity to the Indian sub continent. Areas like Jaffna, Anuradhapura and
Mannar are subjected to high temperature when temperature increases in India.
When you go to Kandy, Nuwaraeliya or Sri pada you would feel that the
temperature is very low in these areas. The reason for this is the decrease of
temperature according to altitude. (Table 2.2)
Table 2.2 - Decrease of temperature according to the altitude
Although Sri Lanka has a high temperature due to its location close to
the equator, the temperature decreases as it is surrounded by the ocean. But high
temperature prevails in the regions of the interior plains in the country due to the
low influence of the ocean.
Seasonal winds also influence the decrease of temperature in Sri Lanka. The
temperature becomes balanced according to the seasonal monsoons and cyclones.
33
For free distribution
Rainfall
3. Cyclonic rain
Convectional rain
34
For free distribution
monsoons and cyclones. When monsoons and cyclones are over, convectional
process re-appears. According to that, the convectional rain is experience in Sri
Lanka prominently during two periods.
1. The first inter monsoon period is between the months of March and April.
2. The second inter monsoon period is between the months of October and
November
Monsoon rain
Monsoon is a specific type of winds that blow during a definite time period
of a year across the land. Monsoon means blowing during a particular time period
only. Sri Lanka receives monsoon rain during two time periods namely.
The wind that blows across the Indian Ocean towards Sri Lanka from the
South West includes much water vapour. When these winds with water vapour
reach the Central Hills and rise up, they bring heavy rains to the Western and
South Western parts of the country. The Eastern and the Northern areas located in
the leeward areas of the central hills do not receive rain from these winds because
they blow as dry winds. These dry winds are called ‘kachchan’ in the areas of
Batticaloa.
35
For free distribution
Map 2.6 - South-West Monsoon rainfall
36
For free distribution
Map 2.7 – North East Monsoon rainfall
Cyclones
Cyclones that affect Sri Lanka mostly occur in the area of the Bay of Bengal.
Cyclones mostly occur in the months of November and December. But, cyclones
may occur at any time of the year. More areas in the North and East receive
rainfall from cyclones. These cyclones enter the island from the Eastern coast of
Sri Lanka and pass over the South Eastern coast. Whenever there are cyclones
a large area throughout Sri Lanka receives rain. Cyclones may occur during the
period of monsoonal winds. On such occasions, heavy rainfall is experienced and
floods occur. Strength of these winds is introduced as whirlwinds, depressions or
storms.
37
For free distribution
Activities
Assignment
5. Semi-arid zone
38
For free distribution
N
39
For free distribution
² The months of February and March are dry to some extent, but there is
almost no definite dry season.
² The areas of the North and Eastern flat lands of Sri Lanka belong to this
zone.
² During the period of December to February, this area receives rain from the
North-East Monsoon. During this period cyclones too may bring rain.
² More rain is received from the North East monsoon, but this area does not
receive rain from the South West Monsoon as a result of the location being
on the leeward side.
7. Mangroves
41
For free distribution
N
Tropical wet forests
Point Pedro Hill country wet zone forests
Low country dry mixed
evergreen
Jaffna Elephant Pass Mountainous dry zone
forests (patanas)
Kilinochchi
Intermediate evergreen
Mullativu forests
Thorny and scrub lands
Mannar
Mangroves
Vavuniya
Medawachchiya Trincomalee
Anuradhapura
Puttalam
Polonnaruwa
Dambulla
Batticaloa
Chilaw
Kurunegala Matale
Kandy Ampara
Gamapaha
Watawala Nuwara Eliya
Colombo Badulla
Hanwella Hatton
Monaragala
Ratnapura
Kalutara
Hambantota
Galle
Matara
42
For free distribution
Tropical wet forests (Wet evergreen forests/ Tropical rain forests)
Areas distributed / expanded Main trees
Western and South Western parts of ² Hora
Sri Lanka
² Keena
² Sinharaja
² Na
² Kanneliya
² Godapara
² Dediyagala
² Milla
² Nakiyadeniya
² Morapitiya ² Midella
² Bambarabotuwa ² Kithul
² Nedun
Features of vegetation
² Height of the trees is between 30-40 meters.
² There are several layers.
² Trees grow throughout the year.
² Colour of the trees is dark green.
² There is a canopy formed at the top and there is no light inside the forest.
² Plants growth is dense.
² Under growth is abundant. There are plenty of creepers, ferns, lichens and
orchids here.
² Higher bio diversity.
43
For free distribution
Dry mixed evergreen forests
Main Areas of Distribution Trees
These forests are distributed throughout ² Satinwood
the low country dry zone. ² Ebony
² Somawathiya ² Margosa
² Wilpattu ² Weera
² Maduru oya ² Teak
² Udawalawa ² Suriyamara
² Wasgomuwa ² Milla
² Floodp lains ofr iver Mahaweli ² Palu
² Yala
Features of vegetation
² Height of the trees is between 20 m -30 m.
² Trees grow during the rainy season and growth rate is less during the dry
season.
² Bushes of 2 m - 3 m in height could be seen.
² They do not grow densely and there are tall trees at intervals.
² The forests are light green in colour and there are hardwood trees.
44
For free distribution
Intermediate Evergreen Forests
Areas of distribution Main trees
These forests can be seen in the ² Jak
transitional zone that separates the wet ² Pihimbiya
zone and dry zone. ² Lunumidella
² Kurunegala ² Mahogany
² Sapu
² Badulla
² Matale
² Tangalle
Features of vegetation
² These forests have trees that grow in the wet and dry zones as it changes
to the dry zone from the wet zone.
² The trees that grow in wet and dry zones are mixed.
² Height of the trees is 10 m - 25 m.
45
For free distribution
Hill country wet zone forests
Areas of Distribution Main trees
46
For free distribution
Hill country dry zone forests
Areas of distribution Main trees
Features of vegetation
² Grasslands are distributed with different types of patanas. (Patana, Talawa,
Damana, Villu)
² Isolated trees can be seen here and there.
² Trees have grown so as to resist the winds. The trees are short and they
resist the cold and winds. Trees are twisted by nature.
² These forests are called cloud forests. It is because the canopy is seen as
clouds when is seen from above.
² Leaves are small and looks folded.
² Trees do not grow well as there is a thin layer of soil.
47
For free distribution
Thorny bushes and shrub lands
Features of vegetation
² Leaves of the trees are thick, scanty and thorny.
² Leaves are small.
It is because they have adapted to the dry climate.
² There are trees that get adapted to resist a long dry period.
48
For free distribution
Mangroves
Features of vegetation
² Plants have many roots ; Prop roots and stilt roots
² Roots spread above water. They are known as respiratory roots.
² Those plants have adapted to brackish water
49
For free distribution
According to the facts mentioned above, it is clear that there is a physical
diversity in Sri Lanka. Even in a small land, this diversity could be seen in relief,
climate, vegetation and drainage. It is because Sri Lanka is a small island.
In Sri Lanka, there is a climatic condition that one can experience from dry
climate to cold climate. This scenic beauty can be experienced when one travels
from Hambantota to Nuwaraeliya. We are able to see the diversity in climate,
drainage and vegetation in a few hours. This physical diversity has contributed to
the sustainability of the environment as well as to the constant sustainability of man.
Physical diversity of Sri Lanka is a tourist attraction to locals and foreigners.
Assignment
Distribution of population
Population of Sri Lanka has
spread unevenly. The Majority of
population lives in the wet zone.
In comparison, less population is
distributed in the dry zone. (Map
2.10) From the total population, Map 2.10 - Distribution of population in Sri
Lanka
50
For free distribution
¼ is accumulated in the Western Province and the least distribution is shown in
the Northern Province. The reasons for the increase of population in the vicinity
of Colombo are the location of the administrative and the commercial city and
the abundance of service facilities such as health, education, transportation and
industries in the province. A low population distribution is shown in the districts
of Moneragala, Vauniya, Mannar and Mullatiu. The reasons are less physical,
infrastructure facilities and unavailability of economic opportunities in these areas.
These changes in the population distribution can be shown through the density
quantitatively. It is depicted by Map 2.11.
Jaffna
This uneven distribution
N
can be explained according District Margin
Colombo
Moneragala
Regional changes of
Kalutara Ratnapura
population distribution in
several selected districts can Galle Hambantota
Matara
be identified according to the
population density as shown in
table 2.3. Map 2.11 - Population density according to the districts of
Sri Lanka
51
For free distribution
Table 2.3 - Population Density in a few
districts of Sri Lanka
District Population
Composition of Population
density
Colombo 3305 km2 Composition of the population in
Gampaha 1541 km2 Sri Lanka can be expressed in various
ways such as distribution by gender, age,
Kandy 664 km2
ethnicity and religion.
Hambantota 210 km2
Distribution by sex
Moneragala 72 km2
According to the population census
2012, out of the total population, 51.5% are females while 48.5% are males. It is
clear from the data that the percentage of the males is gradually decreasing. This
can be clearly expressed by sex ratio. The number of males for 100 females in the
population is called the sex ratio. The following table indicates how sex ratio has
changed according to the census reports of 1981 and 2012.
52
For free distribution
Population structure according to the race
Buddhist Islam
9.7
70.2
Roman catholic
Hindu 12.6 Christianity
Islam 9.7 12.6 Others
70.2
Christianity 1.3
Others 0.1
Growth of population
The difference between the crude birth rate and the crude death rate is called
the natural growth of population in a particular country. When it is added to the
net migration (the difference between in and out migration of the country) it is
called the growth of the total population. Graph 2.3 indicates how the population
increased in Sri Lanka from 1871 to 2012.
53
For free distribution
Graph 2.3 - Growth of population 1871 - 2012
Settlements
Settlements are established by groups of people to live together with co-operation
to be protected from enemies and wild animals and to avoid a harsh environment.
ts
ttlemen ents
al se em
Rur an settl ents
² Urb settl
em
² an
Rurb
²
Rural settlements
The settlements which are based on agriculture and fisheries industry,
paying more attention on primary economic activities when using resources, are
called rural settlements. The villages located close to tanks in the dry zone and
fishing villages are examples.
54
For free distribution
Fig 2.10 - A few rural settlements
Urban settlements
Rurban settlements
55
For free distribution
Economic Activities
Economic activities of Sri Lanka
can be divided mainly into three sections.
² Agricultural sector
² Industrial sector
² Service sector
Agricultural sector
There are various agricultural
activities seen in Sri Lanka. Examples
Agricultural sector
are paddy cultivation, gardening and
chena cultivation in the dry zone and
also tea, coconut, paddy, rubber and
vegetables are cultivated in the wet zone
while tea is cultivated in mountainous
areas. Fisheries industry and livestock
farming too belong to the agricultural
sector. For example, fishing industry is
carried out in the coastal areas and in
inland reservoirs. Livestock farming is
done in the areas of Ambewela, Pattipola, Industrial sector
Polonnaruwa and Hambantota.
Industrial sector
Most of the industries in Sri
Lanka are located in the Western
Province. There are various types
of industries. Among such, main
industries are assembling industries,
plastic, tyre, textiles, confectionery
and handicrafts. The government has
also established Industrial Zones in Fig 2.13 - Service sector
Sitawaka, Polonnaruwa, Ratmalana and
Minuwangoda and Free Trade Zones in Biyagama, Katunayaka and Koggala.
56
For free distribution
Service sector
Infrastructure facilities
During the recent times, special attention has been focused to develop the
infrastructure facilities to promote the living standards facilities of people. Among
them, building roads, providing electricity and water are major.
57
For free distribution
Electricity
Almost all the regions in Sri Lanka have been provided with electricity
facilities. Electricity is generated from the electricity projects constructed, in
association with the major rivers of Mahaweli, Kalu, Kelani and Walawe. Hydro
electricity and thermal power are major ways of providing electricity in Sri Lanka.
In addition, the use of regenerative energy sources like solar power is increasing.
Water
Sri Lanka is a country rich with the water resource. Water sources like
rivers, streams, wells, ponds, tap water and ground water are used to fulfil the needs
of water of the people. Water taken from these sources is used for different simple
purposes like cooking, drinking, sanitary needs and also for complex necessities
such as agriculture, industry, and generation of electricity. Economic affairs and
living needs of people depend on water.
Water sources which are used to fulfil these needs are getting polluted at
present. In urban areas, tap water is important for drinking purposes. Wells, ponds
and tanks are important in rural areas in this regard. Importance of water sources
has been decided depending on particular areas.
Water and electricity are limited resources not only for us but for many
countries in the world. It is our duty and responsibility to get the maximum use of
this resource, without wasting to protect it for the future generations.
Activities
2. Water and electricity should be used sparingly. State three reasons for this.
58
For free distribution
Influence of physical landscape of Sri Lanka on
human activities
Physical landscape of Sri Lanka influences human activities decisively.
There are regional changes in the physical landscape and accordingly, regional
changes too can be seen in the human landscape.
Coastal plain
Several human activities in the coastal plain are indicated in figure 2.15.
The fisheries industry, coir industry, excavating limestone and the tourist industry
have emerged using the physical environment.
59
For free distribution
Activities
1. What are the human activities which are common to the coastal plain
indicated by the above diagram?
2. What are the other human activities in the coastal plain which are not shown
in the diagram?
3. State the physical facilities available in the coastal plain for human activities
mentioned by you.
In the wet zone, there is a suitable physical environment for various human
activities. Various types of cultivation, distribution of high population and a
developed road system can be seen here. Several human activities which are carried
out in the wet zone are indicated in figure 2.16.
60
For free distribution
Activities
1. What are the human activities shown by the Fig. 2.16? Form a table to
include them.
2. Name several crops grown in this area.
3. State the physical factors necessary that are affected for growing these
crops.
4. Name the services and employment that can be seen in abundance in this
area.
5. Mention two factors that caused this area to become high populated.
Tank system is an outstanding feature in the dry zone landscape. The tank
system has been constructed according to the relief and is connected the irrigation
system. It is a specific feature in this area.
61
For free distribution
Paddy cultivation, chena cultivation, villages established in association
with tanks, ancient cities and various types of cultivation too can be seen in the
dry zone landscape.
Activities
1. According to Fig. 2.17, what are the human activities that can be seen in the
dry zone?
2. What are the major physical factors that influence the development of paddy
cultivation in this zone?
A specific relief and climatic condition exist in the hill country landscape
and the human activities have been adjusted accordingly.
62
For free distribution
Activities
1. What are the specific human activities in the hill country landscape?
2. State the specific crops grown in this zone.
3. What are the physical factors that influence growing each of the crops?
4. Hill country roads have bends. Why is it?
5. What are the reasons in making roofs with less height and in colour green?
6. What are the factors that influence tourist attractions in the hill country?
7. Why do the people living here use warm clothes?
Jaffna Peninsula
1. According to the Figure 2.18, what are the human activities found in Jaffna
Peninsula?
2. What are the methods used by the people in this area to get ground water?
3. What are the specific crops cultivated and industries that can be seen in this
area?
4. There are many islands located in the Jaffna region. What are the human
activities that have been established in association with them.
5. Write few products related to Palmyrah tree?
Fig. 2.20 - The influence of human activities on physical landscape of Sri Lanka
64
For free distribution
Study the above pictures well and identify several environmental problems related
to various landscapes in Sri Lanka.
Activities
1. Name a few instances where man uses the physical environment in the
areas of the dry zone.
2. What are the impacts that affect man due to loss of habitats of wild animals?
3. Prepare a list of human activities that destroy physical environment in these
areas.
Assignment
2. Name one environmental problem that prevails in your area and explain
how human activities have contributed for causing it.
References
² Jala Asiriya Rekaganeema, 2015, Sarath Amarasiri
² Human Geography I - II, Educational Publications Department
² Sri Lanka Central Bank Annual Reports - 2015
² Sri Lanka National Map Collection, School Edition, Sri Lanka, Servay
Department
² Sarasavi School Map book, Sarasavi Publishing, A. Weerathunga
Glossary
• Landscape - N+ o¾Ykh - {»z÷uõØÓ®
• Relief - N+ úIu;dj - uøµz÷uõØÓ®
• Braided river - yevm¨ .x.dj - ¤ßÛ¯ BÖ
• Marsh - j.=re ìu - \x¨¦
65
For free distribution
• Point - ;=vj
q - •øÚ
• Bay - fndlal - Shõ
• Lagoon - l,mqj - PhÜ÷µ›
• Gap - lfmd,a, - PnÁõ´
• Radial drainage pattern - wÍh c,jyk rgdj - BøµÁiPõÀ £õ[S
• Dendritic drainage - YdÇh c,jyk rgdj - ©µ{Pº ÁiPõÀ £õ[S
pattern
• Trellised drainage - cd,dldr c,jyk - AÔ¯øh¨¦ ÁiPõÀ £õ[S
pattern rgdj
• Elevation - Wkak;dxYh - uøµ E¯ºa]
• Lapse rate - m;k YS>;
% dj - |ÊÄ Ãu®
• Convectional rain - ixjyk j¾Idj - ÷©ØPõÄøP ©øÇ
• Monsoon rain - fudaiï j¾Idj - £¸ÁUPõØÖ ©øÇ
• Cyclone rain - jdiq,s j¾Idj - `ÓõÁÎ ©øÇ
• Condensation - >kSNjkh - Jk[PÀ
• Evergreen forests - iodyß; jkdka;r - GßÖ® £_ø©¯õÚ Põk
66
For free distribution
3
Spatial Changes
of Development in
Sri Lanka
claration
C O De
-U NES
1978 In a country social development should take place along with
economic development. Social development should take place
within sectors encompassing food and nutrients, health, education,
housing, social security, clothing, leisure and human freedom.
Living conditions of people and how it differs from region to region can
be made clear using these indicators. Such regional changes can be identified as
spatial changes.
Per capita income
The amount of money that is being earned per person in a country in a given
period is called per caprita income.
68
For free distribution
It is calculated as given below;
Infant mortality rate is the number of deaths of infants under the age one
year per 1000 live births. Infant mortality rate of a country reflects the health and
medical facilities and level of nutrition level in a country.
Life expectancy is the average time a new born is expected to live. The
condition of health facilities and their distribution in a country, food and level of
nutrition, good health practices, distribution of facilities for sports and leisure of the
country can be identified by these indicators.
Literacy
69
For free distribution
Literacy indicators reflect the distribution of facilities of schools, education
and poverty.
70
For free distribution
According to World Bank Reports, infant mortality rate was 8.4 in the
year 2015. Still there are regional differences in infant mortality rate. The table
3.2 shows the distribution of infant mortality rate according to the districts of Sri
Lanka in 2010.
Table 3.2 - Infant Mortality Rate in the Districts of Sri Lanka - 2010
There are regional differences even in life expectancy. The life expectancy
of the whole population of Sri Lanka is about 74.2. This differs according to the
gender. Life expectancy of women is 78.6 while it is 72 of males. When considering
the life expectance rate of different districts, these changes can be clearly understood.
71
For free distribution
Table 3.3 - Life Expectancy at birth according to the districts of Sri Lanka - 2002
District Male Female District Male Female
Colombo 61.9 71.9 Badulla 68.9 75.4
Gampaha 71.5 80.4 Kegalle 72.5 80
Kalutara 72.7 80.2 Kilinochchi No details received No details received
Kandy 67.3 75 Batticaloa 66.8 73.8
Matale 70.7 77.5 Ampara 70.3 75.9
Nuwara Eliya 70.8 74.7 Tricomalee 68.5 74.2
Galle 70.5 78.4 Kurunegala 68.9 78
Matara 73.5 80.4 Puttalam 69.1 78.9
Hambantota 76.9 82.3 Anuradhapura 66.5 76.1
Jaffna No details No details Polonnaruwa 68.9 77.6
received received
Mannar No details No details Badulla 75.2 80.5
received received
Vavuniya No details No details Monaragala 72 78.4
received received
Mulatiu No details No details Ratnapura 73.7 78.7
received received
Source ( Sri Lanka Human Development Report 2012
72
For free distribution
Literacy rate differs according to the urban, rural and estate sectors in Sri
Lanka.
Urban – 94.7 %
Rural – 91.8%
Estate – 74.3%
By this, It is clear that the proportional literacy rate is high in urban areas
where there are more facilities.
Activities
2. Name four indicators that are used to measure the level of development.
3. Explain briefly how per capita income, infant mortality rate and literacy
affect the position of development of a country.
References
² Human Geography I - II Educational Publications Department
² Annual Report of the Central Bank of Sri Lanka - 2015
² Protection of water Recourse - 2015 Sarath Amarasiri
² Household Income and Expenditure Survey 2012/2013 - Final Report,
Department of Census and Statistics
² Sri Lanka Human Development Report - 2012
73
For free distribution
Glossary
74
For free distribution
4
Environmental Balance
Man utilizes the physical environment in different ways for the following needs;
² To Fulfil the basic needs like food, clothes, costumes and housing
² For transport and communication
² For trade
When population increases, the needs as well as their complexity too
increase. Hence due to the use of modern technology and increase of production,
man has to go a speedier journey, surpassing the environment.
76
For free distribution
During the period when the traditional agriculture was the main economic
activity of man, the impact on the environment was minimum. However, after
the industrial revolution, the impact of man on environment became acute. The
damage caused to the environmental balance due to the expansion of agriculture
and industries at a rapid speed along with modern technology was immense. The
environmental balance began to collapse due to the excessive addition of waste
material to the environment and adverse effect on the components of it. Collapsing
of the environmental balance in this manner is termed as environmental imbalance.
Factors that cause environmental imbalance
² Excessive utilization of resources ² Deforestation
² Irregular development processes ² Reclamation of low lands
² Excessive burning of fossil fuel ² Irregular utilization of land
² Use of agro-chemicals ² Employment of improper technology
77
For free distribution
It is clear that such processes which are carried out targeting the development
of a country have damaged the environmental balance. Though development is
essential, it must be achieved while protecting the environmental balance with
minimum damage to the environment.
Activities
1. State three human activities that cause environmental imbalance.
2. State three problems that have emerged due to such human activities in an
area in your District/ Province.
Human activities are the root cause for most of these environmental
problems. All the countries in the world must corporate to find solutions for these
problems.
78
For free distribution
Human activities that affect the environment
1. Destruction of forests.
2. Use of Agro-chemicals.
² Contamination of water
² Air pollution
4. Improper urbanization.
² Atmospheric pollution
Assignment
1. Prepare a report on an incident relating to collapsing the balance of the world
environment based on the following titles.
² Incident ² Country
² Date ² Impact
79
For free distribution
Necessity of environmental ethics
Favorable habits which are necessary to maintain the environment in a
desirable manner are called environmental ethics.
Ethics are bound with personal behaviour. They are accorded to the standard
rules and regulations, customs and traditions followed by the people in the societies
where they live. Man has acted inquisitively since he began to deal with the
environment. Then, he used to treat natural environment and natural objects which
have created in the conducive surrounding for living with devotion and respect. Man
who lived then, received knowledge about the environment as he worked basing on
beliefs, faiths and religions. Faiths and beliefs like respecting trees and creepers,
protecting them, making offerings and beseeching for the protection of the guardian
deities of the forest when entering to the forest are linked to the religious and social
life.
Since ancient times, as man considered the environment as essential for
survival, he began to worship and protect it.
Likewise, man lived with nature in harmony and protected it. It is important
to identify the necessity of environmental ethics as strategies of environmental
conservation, in the journey towards sustainable development. If it is necessary to
maintain the environmental balance, we must adjust to the strategies mentioned in
environmental ethics. Every religion has highlighted the importance of protecting
the environment.
Sustainable Development
The development that is conducted fulfilling the present needs while building
an environment that ensures the rights of fulfilling the needs of future generations
could be termed as sustainable development.
The necessity of having a sustainable development approach in preparing
development plans, is of paramount importance. In following such an approach,
more attention must be focused on environmental ethics as well. The present day
development problems prove that in sustainable development both environment
and development must be maintained in collaboration. There, the attention must be
focused on the ability of the future generations to fulfil their needs.
80
For free distribution
Due to the lack of sufficient attention paid to the environment in present
day, when large scale when development projects are done, there is a danger of
collapsing the environmental balance.
Under the national conservation plan the following procedures have been followed;
² Planning of land use
² Conservation of wild life and forests
² Promotion of agriculture without damaging the forests, water and soil
² Coastal conservation
² Launching environmental educational programme
² Establishment of the Central Environmental Authority
² Establishment of the Ministry of Environment
Two Acts have been passed to protect the environmental balance in Sri Lanka
² Coastal Conservational Act
² National Heritage Forest Act
Activities
81
For free distribution
Assignment
Explain how you, as a student of a school can act to minimize the unfavourable
effects occur due to the breaking down of environmental balance.
References
² Physical Environment on earth, H.K.N. Karunarathna
² Physical Geography : Part I, Educational Publications Department
Glossary
• Components - ixrpl - TÖ
• Bio system - ffcj moaO;sh - E°ºz öuõSv
82
For free distribution
5
Reading of 1:50 000
Topographic Maps of
Sri Lanka
15
1
14
2
13
12
3 11
4
10
5
6 7 8 9
Map 5.1 - A segment of a 1:50 000 topographic map
84
For free distribution
For free distribution
Figure 5.1 - Conventional signs and symbols of 1:50 000 topographic maps
85
Activities
2. After studying map 5.1 thoroughly, name the physical and cultural features
used from 1 - 20, according to the numbers separately.
3. Draw these features using conventional colours and symbols.
Physical Features
Several selected physical features found in a 1:50 000 topographic maps are
shown below.
² Plain ² River valley
² Highland ² Island
² Main river ² Point/ Head
² Tributary ² Bay
Plain - A plain is a flat area on land. A plain in a map can be identified by the
widening of the gap among the contour lines. Even in a plain, small higher places
are found scattered. Such places can be identified by a spot height. (Figure 5.2)
Highland - Regions located at higher elevation are called highlands. A highland
can be identified in a topographic map as contour lines that are distributed close to
each other.
Plain Highland
86
For free distribution
River Valley - Elongated low lands located among highlands are called valleys.
Main rivers and tributaries flow through valleys.
Main river - Massive water which flows to a lake or to the ocean across an area
from a highland is know as a main river.
Tributary - Small water streams from which water is provided to the main river
are known as tributary.
Various topographic features are found in coastal areas too. Islands, point,
bay are some of them.
Pigeon Island
Express way
Cultural features
Main Road (A) Grade
Several cultural features selected
Main Road (B) Grade
from a 1: 50 000 topographic map are used
Secondary
for studying. Minor Roads (Jeep & Cart)
² District Boundary Broad Gauge Single (Tracks)
² Express ways Broad Gauge Double Line (Tracks)
New map are being printed by the Sri Lanka Survey Department using standard
symbols and colours.
Map 5.5 indicates Point Pedro, an extraction of Map no 02, which is completed
up to now.
Symbols and colours of these new maps have been altered.
89
For free distribution
² Tea cultivation in hilly areas, rubber cultivation on slopes at medium elevation
and coconut cultivation in coastal regions and suburbs are seen.
² It is clear that relief has influenced the construction of tanks and irrigation
systems. Tanks have been built damming the rivers by constructing bunds at the
place where they flow through the gaps in ridges. Water is supplied through the
canals constructed following the gradient of the land.
² The physical features have influenced the construction of main roads too.
Though the road network runs straightly on flat regions, in a hilly region it runs
according to the relief. River valleys and river gaps have been mostly used in
road construction.
² When administrative boundaries are decided, it is clear that, they have been
based on physical features like rivers and mountain ranges.
Observe the relationship between physical and cultural features using the
segments of topographical maps provided.
Activity
Answer the questions based on Map 5.8
1. Name three physical features shown in the map 5.8
2. Name the types of roads which have been mapped out.
3. Name three cultivation of crops that can be seen in the region.
4. What is the administrative boundary separated by the river?
5. Write five sentences indicating the relationship between relief and crop
cultivation
90
For free distribution
Map 5.8 - Segment of 1:50, 000 topographic map
91
For free distribution
Activity
Across
Down
92
For free distribution
References
² Physical environment of the earth - H.K.N. Karunarathna
² Sri Lanka map collection - School Print - 2nd Edition, Sri Lanka Servay
Department
² Physical Geography - Part I - Educational Publications Department
Glossary
93
For free distribution