GCET PHYSICS-102801208

DIPLOMA COURSE

UNIT –I MEASUREMENTS
SI Units:
There are a large number of physical quantities which are measured and every quantity
needs a definition of unit.
There are basically two types of quantities:
(a) The fundamental (મૂળભૂત)quantities – independent quantities of each other, (b) All
other quantities may be expressed in terms of the fundamental quantities – derived
quantities.

In 1971 CGPM held its meeting and decided a system of units which is known as the
International system of units (SI).

The table gives the fundamental quantities and their units in SI.
Symbol Name Quantity
સમય
s second time

m metre length લંબાઈ

kg kilogram mass દળ

A ampere electric current ઇલેક્ટ્રિક કરંર

thermodynamic થમોડાયનેક્ટમક તાપમાન

K kelvin
temperature

mol mole amount of substance પદાથથ જથ્થો

cd candela luminous intensity પ્રકાશ તીવ્રતા

SI Derived Units List

There are several derived units in physics. Some of the most widely used SI derived units
in physics are given below.

Sr. No Unit(s) Name SI Unit SI Unit Symbol Expressed in SI Base Unit

1. Force, Weight Newton N kg m s-2

વજન, બળ

2. Frequency આવૃક્ટિ Hertz Hz s-1

3 Energy ઊર્જથ Joule J kg.m2.s−2

4 Power, પાવર Watt W kg.m2.s−3

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These were a few widely used units along with their SI units.
SI prefixes:

Dimension:

The dimension of a physical quantity are the powers to which the fundamental (or base)
quantities like mass, length and time etc. have to be raised to represent the quantity.
Consider the physical quantity “Force”. The unit of force is Newton.

1 Newton = 1 kg m/sec2 kg → M1 (Mass); 3 → L1

(Length); s-2 → T-2 (Time)

Dimensions of force are [M1L1T-2]

Dimensional formula for some Physical quantities

Physical quantity Relation with other quantity Dimensional formula
Area Length × breadth L × L = [L2]
Force F = ma [MLT−2]
Linear momentum P = mv [MLT−1]
Pressure (દબાણ) P = F/A [ML−1T−2]
Universal gravitational constant G [M−11L3T −2]
Work W=F×d [ML2T −2]
Energy (kinetic, potential and heat) 1/2 mv2 [ML2T −2]

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Conversion of units: Dimensional methods are useful in finding the conversion factor
for changing the units to a different set of base quantities. Let us consider one example,
the SI unit of force is Newton. The CGS unit of force is dyne. How many dynes is equal to
one newton. Now,

1 newton = [F] = [M1L1T-2] = (1kg)1(1 meter)1 (1s)-2

1 dyne = (1g)(1 cm) (1s)-2
1 newton = 105 dyne
Thus knowing the conversion factors for the base quantities, one can work out the
conversion factor of any derived quantity if the dimensional formula of the derived
quantity is known.
Measurement:
Measurement is the foundation for all experimental science. All the great technological
development could not have been possible without ever-increasing levels of accuracy of
measurements.
Types of Errors
There are three types of errors that are classified based on the source they arise from;
They are:
• Gross Errors
• Random Errors
• Systematic Errors

Gross Errors
This category basically takes into account human oversight and other mistakes while
reading, recording, and readings.

Random Errors
The random errors are those errors, which occur irregularly and hence are random.
These can arise due to random and unpredictable fluctuations in experimental
conditions (Example: unpredictable fluctuations in temperature, voltage supply,
mechanical vibrations of experimental set-ups, etc, errors by the observer taking
readings, etc. For example, when the same person repeats the same observation, he may
likely get different readings every time.

Systematic Errors:
Systematic errors can be better understood if we divide them into subgroups; they are:

• Environmental Errors
• Observational Errors
• Instrumental Errors
Environmental Errors: This type of error arises in the measurement due to the effect of
the external conditions on the measurement. The external condition includes
temperature, pressure, and humidity.

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Observational Errors: These are the errors that arise due to an individual’s bias, lack of
proper setting of the apparatus, or an individual’s carelessness in taking observations.
The measurement errors also include wrong readings due to Parallax errors.

Instrumental Errors: These errors arise due to faulty construction and calibration of
the measuring instruments. Such errors arise due to the hysteresis of the equipment or
due to friction.

Error: An error may be defined as the difference between the measured and actual
values.
Errors Calculation
Different measures of errors include:
Absolute Error
The difference between the measured value of a quantity and its actual value gives the
absolute error. It is the variation between the actual values and measured values. It is
given by
Absolute error = |AV-MV|
Percent Error
It is another way of expressing the error in measurement. This calculation allows us to
gauge how accurate a measured value is with respect to the true value. Per cent error is
given by the formula
Percentage error (%) = (AV-MV) / MV) x 100
Relative Error
The ratio of the absolute error to the accepted measurement gives the relative error.
The relative error is given by the formula:
Relative Error = Absolute error / Actual value

SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITY:

What Is a Scalar Quantity?
A scalar quantity is defined as the physical quantity with only magnitude and no
direction. Such physical quantities can be described just by their numerical value
without directions. The addition of these physical quantities follows the simple rules of
algebra, and here, only their magnitudes are added.
Examples of Scalar Quantities Some
examples of scalar include:
• Mass
• Speed (ઝડપ)
• Distance (અંતર)
• Time (સમય)
• Volume()
• Density(ઘનતા)
• Temperature(તાપમાન)
What Is a Vector Quantity?

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A vector quantity is defined as the physical quantity that has both directions as well as
magnitude.A vector with a value of magnitude equal to one is called a unit vector and is
represented by a lowercase alphabet with a “hat” circumflex, i.e. “û“.
Examples of Vector Quantities

 Linear momentum રખે ીયવેગ

 Acceleration • પ્રવેગ
 Displacement • સ્થળાંતર
 Momentum • મોમેન્રમ
 Angular velocity • કોણીયવેગ
 Force • બળ
 Electric field ઇલે્રિીક ક્ષેત્ર
Polarization • પોલરલાઇઝેશન


Difference between Scalars and Vectors

The difference between Scalars and Vectors is crucial to understand in physics learning.
We have listed the various differences between a scalar and vector in the table below:

Vector Scalar

A physical quantity with both the A physical quantity with only

Definition
magnitude and direction. magnitude.

A number (magnitude), direction using A number (magnitude) and

Representation
unit cap or arrow at the top and unit. unit

Quantity symbol in bold and an arrow Quantity symbol without an

Symbol
sign above arrow sign

Direction They have directions They don’t have directions

Example Velocity and Acceleration Mass and Temperature

A quantity that is characterized not only by magnitude but also by its direction, is called
a vector. Velocity, force, acceleration, momentum, etc. are vectors.
Vectors can be multiplied in two ways:
• Scalar product or Dot product
• Vector Product or Cross product

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Scalar Product/Dot Product of Vectors

The Scalar product = |a||b| cos α

Here, |a| = magnitude of vector a |b| = magnitude of
vector b α = angle between the vectors

Vectors a and b with angle α between them

The scalar product is calculated as the product of

magnitudes of a, b, and cosine of the angle between
these vectors.

Properties of Scalar product:

• Scalar product of two vectors is always a real number (scalar).
• Scalar product is commutative i.e. a.b =b.a= |a||b| cos α
• Scalar product is distributive over addition
a.(b + c) = a.b + a.c
• For any scalar k and m then,
• The scalar product is zero in the following cases:
• The magnitude of vector a is zero
• The magnitude of vector b is zero
• Vectors a and b are perpendicular to each other

Cross Product/Vector Product of Vectors

The vector product of two vectors a and b with an angle α between them is
mathematically calculated as a × b = |a| |b| sin α
It is to be noted that the cross product is a vector with a specified direction. The
resultant is always perpendicular to both a and b.
In case a and b are parallel vectors, the resultant shall be zero as sin(0) = 0
Properties of Cross Product:
• Cross Product generates a vector quantity. The resultant is always perpendicular to
both a and b.
• Cross Product of parallel vectors/collinear vectors is zero as sin(0) = 0. i×i
=j×j=k×k=0
• Cross product of two mutually perpendicular vectors with unit magnitude each is
unity. (Since sin(0)=1)
• Cross product is not commutative. a × b is not equal to b × a
• Cross product is distributive over addition a × (b + c) = a × b+ a × c

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What Is Vernier Calliper?

A vernier calliper is defined as a measuring device that is used for the measurement of
linear dimensions. It is also used for the measurement of diameters of round objects
with the help of the measuring jaws.

Vernier Calliper Diagram

What Is Zero Error?

Zero error is defined as the condition in which the measuring device registers a reading
when there should not be any reading.
The zero error of the vernier calliper is calculated as: Actual
reading = Main scale + Vernier scale – (Zero error) There
are two types of zero error:

• Positive zero error: When the jaws of the vernier calliper are closed, the reading
is positive and away from the actual reading of 0.00 mm. For instance, if the
reading is 0.08 mm, then the zero error is +0.08 mm.
• Negative zero error: When the jaws of the vernier calliper are closed, the reading
is negative and away from the actual reading of 0.00 mm. For instance, if the
reading is 0.10 mm, then the zero error is -0.10 mm.

Main Scale
It is a large scale that runs along the body of the vernier calliper. Depending on the
usage, the reading on the main scale could be either in centimetres or millimetres. 1 mm
is the lowest main scale division according to the SI units. The main scale is stationary.
Vernier Scale
This is the smaller scale attached to the main scale, moving along the main scale. The
vernier scale’s movement depends on the jaws’ opening. The main function of the
vernier scale is to provide accuracy to the main scale reading by dividing the reading
into smaller increments.
Lower Jaws

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These jaws are considered one of the most prominent features of vernier calliper. One of
the jaws is fixed and attached to the main scale. While the other jaw is movable and is
attached to the vernier scale. These jaws are designed mainly to grip the objects firmly.
Upper Jaws
These jaws are similar to the lower jaws but are smaller than, the lower jaws. These jaws
are attached to the upper part of the vernier scale. One of the jaws is fixed, while the
other jaw is movable. The main function of the upper jaw is to measure the inner
dimensions of the objects.
Depth Rod
The depths of the jars can be measured using the depth rod. It is a thin rod located at the
end of the main scale. Using a depth rod for measuring is simple.
Thumb Screw
This screw is located at the bottom of the vernier scale. The main function of the
thumbscrew is to provide grip to the users so that the sliding of the jaws becomes easy.
Lock Screw
The main use of the lock screw is to fix the position of the jaws once the object is firmly
fixed between the jaws. This also makes it easy to take proper readings.
Applications of Vernier Callipers
• Medical usages
• Science labs
• Industries such as steel and aerospace
• Educational sectors

Screw gauge:
For precise measurement of a spherical or a cylindrical object, a screw gauge is the best
instrument.

Calculating zero error in screw gauge:

The attached diagram shows cases of zero error in a screw gauge.
Case (a): No zero-error
Case (b): Positive zero-error of 2 circular scale division. Positive zero-error correction is
done by subtracting the positive zero-error from the actual reading.
Case (c): Negative zero-error of 4 circular scale division. Negative zero-error correction
is done by adding the negative zero-error from the actual reading.

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Short questions:
Q1 What is meant by measurement error?
The difference between a measured quantity and its true value gives measurement error.
Q2 What are the types of errors?
The following are the types of errors:
• Gross Errors
• Random Errors
• Systematic Errors
Q3 The error seen due to the effect of the external conditions on the measurement
is known as?
It is known as the environmental error.
Q4 Define absolute error?
Absolute error is the variation between the actual values and measured values. It is
given by
Absolute error = |AV-MV|
Q5 What is the principle of a vernier?
The vernier scale uses the alignment of line segments displaced by a small amount to
make fine measurements.
Q6 How is the least count of vernier callipers calculated?
The least count is also known as the vernier constant. It is the difference between one
main scale division (1 mm) and one vernier scale division (0.9 mm). It can also be
calculated by dividing the smallest unit on the main scale by the total numbers on the
vernier scale.
Q7 Define vernier constant.
Vernier constant is the ratio of the smallest division of the main scale to the number of
divisions of the vernier scale.
Q8 What is parallax error and how can it be avoided?
Parallax is an effect where the direction and position of the object appear to differ when
viewed from different lines of sight.
Q9 What are the precautions to be taken while using Verniers?
Following are the precautions to be taken while using verniers
If the vernier scale doesn’t slide smoothly over the main scale, apply grease or machine
oil.
Keep the eye directly over the division mark to avoid parallax error.
Screw the vernier tightly without undue pressure to avoid damage to the threads of the
screw.
Q10 What are the uses of vernier callipers?
The uses of vernier callipers are as follows:
It is used in science labs.
Used in steel industries.

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Used in aerospace industries

Q11 A length was calculated to be 10.1 feet, but the absolute length was 10.5 feet.
Calculate the absolute error.
We know that, Absolute error = |AV-MV|
Absolute error = 10.5-10.1 = 0.4 feet
Q12 Can a screw gauge measure cylindrical objects?
Yes, it can measure cylindrical objects.
Q13 What is the formula to calculate the pitch of the screw gauge?
Pitch of the screw gauge = (distance moved by a screw)/(no.of rotations given).
Q14 Define least count of the screw gauge.
Least count of the screw gauge is the distance moved by the tip of the screw when
turned through one division of the head scale.
Q15 What is a micrometer screw gauge?
It is an instrument that is used for measuring the diameter of thin wires, the thickness of
small sheets such as glass or plastics.
Q16 What is the least count of micrometer?
The least count of micrometer is 0.01mm.

Long Questions:
Q1 Draw and explain Vernier Caliper.
Q2 Draw and explain Micrometer Screw with positive and negative errors.

Numerical:

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In a series of successive measurements in an experiment, the readings of the period of

oscillation of a simple pendulum were found to be 2.63s, 2.56 s, 2.42s, 2.71s and 2.80s.
Calculate (i) the mean value of the period of oscillation (ii) the absolute error in each

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measurement (iii) the mean absolute error (iv) the relative error (v) the percentage
error. Express the result in proper form.

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