Chapter 12

The
Nervous
System
WHAT IS THE NERVOUS SYSTEM?

1. The NS provides us the information from the

outside world (such as light, sounds, taste and
touch).

2. It keeps our body in a homeostatic condition in

order for optimal functioning ( lets our brain know
what is happening with the rest of the body).
The NS is divided into two parts:

1. Central Nervous System (CNS)

- brain
- spinal cord

2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

- Somatic Nervous System
- Autonomic Nervous System
Central Nervous System

Adult human brain contains

almost 97% of the
body’s neural tissue

Adult brain is made up of about

100 billion neurons,
1000 billion neuroglia
(supporting-tissue) cells; and
other tissues.
 Classification of Neurons

1. Sensory neurons: conduct

impulses from sensory
receptors to the CNS
2. Motor neurons: conduct
impulses from the CNS to
target organs (muscles or
glands)
3. Association/interneurons:
located completely within
the CNS and integrate
functions of the nervous
system
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

SENSORY NEURONS
Conduct impulses from sensory receptors → CNS

MOTOR NEURONS
1. Somatic motor neurons: responsible for reflexes and voluntary
control of skeletal muscles

2. Autonomic motor neurons: innervate involuntary targets

such as smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands
• Sympathetic
• Parasympathetic
 Structure
of
Neurons & Glial Cells
 Neurons
Neurons vary in size and shape, but they
all have:

1. Cell Body: cluster in groups called nuclei in

the CNS and ganglia in the PNS

2. Dendrites: receive signals

3. Axon: conducts impulses

Figure 12-2a The Anatomy of a Multipolar Neuron.

Dendrites

Perikaryon
Cell body Telodendria
Nucleus

Axon

This color-coded figure shows the

four general regions of a neuron.
Figure 12-2b The Anatomy of a Multipolar Neuron.

Nissl bodies (RER

and free Dendritic branches
ribosomes)
Mitochondrion

Axon hillock
Initial Axolemma Axon
segment of Telodendria
axon

Direction of action
Golgi potential Axon
apparatus terminals
Neurofilament
Nucleolus
Nucleus
Dendrite See Figure 12–3
Presynaptic
cell Postsynaptic
cell
Figure 12-3 The Structure of a Typical Synapse.

Telodendrion

Axon
terminal
Mitochondrion

Synaptic
vesicles

Presynaptic
membrane

Postsynaptic Synaptic
membrane cleft
 Motor neurons

Purple: nissl body

Blue: luxol, myelin
• Just like sperm, the morphology of neuron is
unique. What organelles you are expect to
find in axons and cell bodies?
• How the distributions of organelles contribute
to neurons functions?
Acetylcholine
Glutamate & GABA
 Glial Cells (Supporting Cells)
4 types are found in the CNS:
1. Oligodendrocytes: form myelin sheaths around the
axons of CNS neurons

2. Microglia: migrate around tissue and phagocytize

foreign and degenerated material

3. Ependymal cells: line the brain ventricles and secrete

cerebrospinal fluid

4. Astrocytes: regulate the external environment of the

neurons
 1. Oligodendrocytes
• In the CNS, the myelin sheath is produced by oligodendrocytes.
• In the PNS, the myelin sheath is produced by Schwann Cells.

• One oligodendrocyte sends extensions to several axons.

Myelin gives these tissues a

white color = white matter.

Gray matter is just cell

bodies and axons.
 Myelin in the PNS
• All axons in the PNS are surrounded by a sheath of Schwann cells
called the neurilemma, or sheath of Schwann.

• These cells wrap around to form the myelin sheath in the PNS.

• Node of Ranvier is left open.

2. Microglia:
Migrate around tissue and phagocytize foreign and degenerated
material

3. Ependymal cells:
Line the ventricles (cavities of the brain) and secrete cerebrospinal fluid (this
provides a protective cushion and transports dissolved gases, nutrients, wastes, and
other materials).

The choroid plexus is a combination of 'Ependymal cells AND

capillaries'
4. Astrocyte
1) Repairing Damaged Neural Tissue - astrocytes move into an injured site to
make structural repairs that stabilize the tissue and prevent further injury.
Form scar tissue after injury

2) Maintain blood–brain barrier - astrocytes wrap around capillaries wrapping

around capillaries and secrete chemicals to maintain the special permeability
of endothelial cells forming the blood brain barrier.

3) Controls blood volume through the capillaries

4) Provide structural support - Astrocytes are packed with microfilaments and

this extensive cytoskeleton helps astrocytes to provide a structural
framework for the neurons of the brain and spinal cord

5) Guide Neural Development

6) Regulate ion, nutrient, and dissolved gas concentrations in the interstitial

fluid.

7) Absorb and recycle neurotransmitters

 Astrocytes

• Most abundant glial cell

• Processes with end-feet associate with blood capillaries and
axon terminals
• Since our brains are protected by blood-
brain barrier, so
• How hypothalamus releasing hormones
transport to anterior pituitary gland?
• How posterior pituitary gland secrets
hormones to blood?
• How hypothalamus detect hormone levels
in blood?
Circumventricular organs
Why almost half of hormones are lipid in nature?
The Resting Nerve
MEMBRANE POTENTIAL

Membrane Potential (MP) - a difference between the number

of cations and anions across a membrane.

In many nerve cells, the electrical potential difference across

a membrane (Em) is approximately –60mV (or -70m V).
 Ion Gating in Axons
• Changes in membrane potential are controlled by changes in
the flow of ions through channels.

Na+ and K+ has 3 types of channels:

1. Passive Channels - Not gated (always open); sometimes
called “leaky” channels

2. Voltage-gated K+ channels; only open when a particular

membrane potential is reached

3.Chemically activated ion channels - found on dendrites and

soma. These channels will only open the gates when they
are activated by a chemical messenger. These are also
known as ‘receptors’.
 Ion Gating in Axons
• Changes in membrane potential are controlled by changes
in the flow of ions through channels.

• Passive ion channels – found in membranes all over the

nerve cell. They basically allow ions to move in or out of
the cell.

• The membrane is more permeable to K+ at rest as there

are 50-70 times more K+ passive channels

The negatively charged proteins inside the cell are too

large to leave the cell so this results in the membrane’s
inner surface having a more negative charge when
compared to the outer surface.
Concentration Gradient

Na+ are more highly concentrated outside the cell so

they tend to passively diffuse into the cytosol,
whereas the K+ ions are more concentrated inside the
cell tend to diffuse into the extra cellular fluid.
3 Na+ ions out of the cell
and 2 K+ ions in the cell,
resulting in a net transfer
of positive ions outside
the cell.
Developing resting membrane potential
The electrical potential difference across the cell membrane
that exactly balances the concentration gradient for an ion is
known as the equilibrium potential
 Resting membrane potential
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hk09A
kV5_Kc
Table 12-1 The Resting Membrane Potential.
Based on the understanding of resting
membrane potential, what kinds of
chemicals should we protect our brains
from?
Electrical Activity
in
Nerves
 ACTION POTENTIAL

When a nerve is stimulated, the membrane

potential becomes more positive (depolarization)
and reaches a threshold value at –45mV.

It then reaches a peak of +25mV and then drops

(repolarization), it will reach a point where the AP
continues to drop (hyperpolarization) where it
becomes more negative than its original state.
All-or-None Law
• Once threshold has been reached, action
potential will happen.
– The size of the stimulus will not affect the size
of the action potential; it will always reach
+30mV.
– The size of the stimulus will not affect action
potential duration.
 Action potential
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BbUc
WbtVjT4
• Why use Na+, K+, Ca2+ & Cl- to generate
action potential, but not using Fe, Cu, Mg,
P & S?
 Refractory Periods
Action potentials can only
increase in frequency to a certain
point. There is a refractory
period after an action potential
when the neuron cannot become
excited again.
1. The absolute refractory
period occurs during the
action potential. Na+
channels are inactive.
2. The relative refractory
period is when K+ channels
are still open. Only a very
strong stimulus can
overcome this.
‘Relative refractory period’ there is still a lingering
inactivation of the sodium channels so current travels to
the right.
Conduction of Nerve Impulses

When an action
potential occurs at a
given point on a
neuron membrane,
voltage- gated Na+
channels open as a
wave down the
length of the axon.
Saltatory Conduction

• Myelin provides insulation, improving the speed

of cable properties. Nodes of Ranvier allow Na+ and
K+ to cross the membrane every 1−2 mm.

Action potentials “leap” from node to node.

This is called saltatory conduction.

2 types of Synapses

1. Electrical Synapse

2. Chemical Synapse
 1. Electrical Synapses

Electrical synapses occur in smooth muscle and cardiac muscle, between

some neurons of the brain, and between glial cells.

Cells are joined by gap junctions

 2. Chemical Synapse
Most synapses involve the release of a chemical called a neurotransmitter
from the axon’s terminal boutons.
Acetylcholine (ACh)
ACh is a neurotransmitter that directly opens ion
channels when it binds to its receptor.

ACh can be excitatory or inhibitory, depending on

which ion channels are open.

1. Excitatory in some areas of the CNS, in some

autonomic motor neurons, and in all somatic
motor neurons

2. Inhibitory in some autonomic motor neurons

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gUieEQQNs9A
Acetylcholinesterase
(AChE)
Which transmit signal faster?
 Graded Potentials
Graded potentials are
changes in the
transmembrane
potential that cannot
spread far from the
area surrounding the
site of stimulation.

Any stimulus that opens

a gated channel will
produce a graded
potential.
Graded Potentials
• When chemically-gated ion channels open, the
membrane potential changes depending on which ion
channel is open.

1. Opening Na+ or Ca2+ channels results in a graded depolarization

called an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP).
2. Opening K+ or Cl− channels results in a graded
hyperpolarization called inhibitory postsynaptic potential
(IPSP).
EPSPs and IPSPs
• EPSPs move the membrane potential closer to
threshold.
– May require EPSPs from several neurons to actually
produce an action potential

• IPSPs move the membrane potential farther from

threshold.
– Can counter EPSPs from other neurons

• Summation of EPSPs and IPSPs determines

whether an action potential occurs.
Table 12-2 Graded Potentials.
https://www.yout
ube.com/watch?v
=jA1NyCE4M2g
Sympathetic Neuron Pathways
Ach → Nicotinic Receptors
Ach → Muscarinic Receptors (parasympathetic)
(different effects in different tissues) Ach binds to M2 receptor

• In the heart, K+ channels are opened,

creating IPSPs (hyperpolarization) that
slow the heart rate.

Ach binds to M1 receptor

In the smooth muscles
of the stomach, K+
channels are closed,
producing EPSPs
(depolarization) and the
contraction of these
muscles.
NE → Adrenergic Receptors (sympathetic)
(different effects in different tissues)

NE can bind on any of these Adrenergic receptors

(α1, α2, β1, β2)
• Since Human can generate nerve impulses, so can
human really serve as a battery, just like in sci fi fictions?
• OR can human really generate electric shock, like electric
eels or even lightning?
• Besides sci fi fictions, is there any practical application
that makes use of nerve impulses in our CNS?
Magnetoencephalography