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Answers to
Even-Numbered
Textbook Problems
2. It refers to the symbols used for the mathematical operations performed and the answers
obtained.
8. To organize, summarize, and communicate the IQ scores, and to draw conclusions about
what the scores indicate about intelligence.
24.
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Answers to Even-Numbered Textbook Problems | 205
2. a. A pattern where one or close to one Y score is paired with a particular X score, so as the
X scores change, the Y scores consistently change.
b. More or less the same batch of Y scores are paired with each X score.
6. In an experiment the researcher manipulates or changes the independent variable and then
measures scores on the dependent variable. In a correlational study neither variable is
manipulated by the researcher; scores on both variables are simply measured.
10. a. They are used to organize, summarize, and describe the characteristics of a sample of
scores, and to predict Y scores using the relationship with X.
b. They are used to decide whether sample data are representative of data that would be
found in the population, and can therefore be used to make inferences about the
population.
12. a. A nominal scale identifies a quality or category. An ordinal scale involves scores that
indicate rank order; units of measurement between scores are unequal, and there is no
zero. An interval scale measures an actual amount; units between scores are equal, and
negative numbers are allowed. A ratio scale measures an actual amount; units are equal,
and there is a true zero.
b. Continuous variables can be measured in fractional amounts, discrete variables cannot.
c. Nominal and ordinal variables are discrete, interval and ratio variables are continuous.
14. a. Study A is an experiment because the researcher manipulates the amount of alcohol
participants consume. Study B is a correlational study because the researcher merely
measures the amount of alcohol subjects consumed.
b. Study A because only here does the researcher manipulates the variable that might cause
impairment in walking.
16. a. The independent variable is volume of background music. The conditions are whether
the music is played softly, played loudly, or not played. The dependent variable is the
final exam score.
b. The independent variable is a student’s year in college. The conditions are freshman,
sophomore, junior, or senior. The dependent variable is the amount of fun had while
attending college.
c. The independent variable is birth order. The conditions are being born first, second, or
third. The dependent variable is level of intelligence.
d. The independent variable is length of exposure to the lamp. The conditions are 15 or 60
minutes. The dependent variable is amount of depression.
e. The independent variable is wall color. The conditions are blue, green, red, or beige
walls. The dependent variable is number of aggressive acts.
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until he drove him to Cholula, and latterly to Tlapallan, where he died, and where his
followers burnt his body, thus inaugurating the custom of burning the dead. 84
“Quetcalcoatl they say was he who created the world; and they bestowed upon him the
appellation of Lord of the Wind, because they said that Tonacatecotli when it appeared
good to him breathed and begat Quecalcoatle. They erected round temples to him
without any corners. They said that it was he (who was also lord of these thirteen signs
which are here represented) who formed the first man. They celebrated a festival on
the sign of four earthquakes, to the destroyer with reference to the fate which again
waited the world; for they said that it had undergone four destructions and would again
be destroyed. He alone had a human body like that of men; the other gods were of an
incorporeal nature.
“After the deluge the custom of sacrificing commenced. Topilcin Quetcalcoatle was
born on the day of seven canes; and they celebrated on this same day of seven canes
a great festival in Cholula, to which they came from all parts of the country and the
cities and brought great presents to the lords and papas of the temple; and they did the
same on [129]the day on which he disappeared or died, which was the day of One
Cane. These festivals happened at the expiration of every period of fifty-two years.
“They here fasted the last four days to Quecalcoatl of Tula, who is he who was named
after the first Calcoatle; and now they name him One Cane, which is the star Venus, of
which they tell the fable accredited amongst them.
“Tlavizcalpantecutli is the star Venus the first created light (Civahteltona) before the
deluge. They say that it was a fire or a star: it was created before the sun. This star
(Venus) is Quecalcoatle. They say this is the star which we call Lucifer from its light;
and they accordingly paint it with the sign of one Cane, which was the day dedicated to
it. He took this name on the occasion of his departure or disappearance.
Tlavizcalpantecutli is the God of Morning when it begins to dawn: he is also the Lord of
Twilight on the approach of Night: he presided over these thirteen days during the four
last of which they fasted. It properly was the first light which appeared in the world; it
here signifies the light which diffuses itself over things, or the surface of the earth.”
“They invented dreams, the result of their own blindness, relating that a god of the
name of Citallatonac, which is the sign seen in heaven called St. James’s or the Milky
Way, sent an ambassador from heaven on an embassy to a virgin of Tulan called
Chimalman (a shield) who had two sisters, the one named Tzochitlique and the other
Couatlique; and that the three being alone in the house, two of them, observing the
ambassador of heaven, died of fright, Chimalman alone remaining alive, to whom the
ambassador announced that it was the will of this god that she should conceive a son;
and having delivered to her the message, he rose and left the house, and as soon as
he had left it she conceived a son without connection with man, who they called
Quetzalcoatle, who they say is the god of air, and his temples are round in the manner
of churches, although till that time such was not the fashion of their temples. He was
the inventor of [130]temples of this form as we shall show. He it was, as they say, who
caused hurricanes and in my opinion was the god who was called Citaladuali and it
was he who destroyed the world by winds. This painting is here wanting, together with
another which represented that as soon as the son of this virgin was born he
possessed the use of reason. The son of the virgin, Topilcin Quetzalcoatle, knowing
that the vices of men were necessarily the cause of the troubles of the world,
determined on asking the goddess Chalchiutlicue (this was the heavenly designation of
the virgin Chimalman) who is she who remained after the deluge with the man in the
tree, and is the mother of the god Tlaloque, whom they have made goddess of water,
that they might obtain rain when they stood in need of and accordingly Quetzalcoatle
commenced offering sacrifices to obtain rain, as a period of four years had elapsed
since it had rained.
“Of Quetzalcoatle they relate that, proceeding on his journey, he arrived at the Red
Sea, which is here painted, and which they named Tlapallan; and that entering into it,
they saw no more of him, nor knew what became of him, except that they say that he
desired them at the time of his departure to restrain their grief and to expect his return,
which would take place at the appointed time; and accordingly [131]they expect him
even to the present time: and when the Spaniards came to this country they believed
that it was he, and when at a later period of 1550 when the Çapotecas revolted, they
alleged, as the cause of their insurrection, the report that their god who had to redeem
them had already come. Quetzalcoatle was born on the sign One Cane; and the year
of the Spaniards’ arrival commenced on the sign One Cane, according to their ancient
Computation: whence the occasion arose of their believing that the Spaniards were
their gods; because they say that he had foretold that a bearded nation would arrive in
those countries who would subject them. They adored him as a god, as will be seen:
for they believed it certain that he had ascended into heaven and was that star which
was visible at the north of the sun before the break of day, which is the planet Venus;
and they represented him accordingly as has already been shown.
“Quetzalcoatle was the first inventor of sacrifices of human blood, amongst the various
other things which they offered to the gods; and this was the manner in which they
pierced their tongues, that the blood might flow … and their ears and penis; till at last,
as we shall presently mention, the custom of human sacrifices was introduced, when
they tore out the hearts of the victims to present them to the face of the idol which they
considered the image of their wretched god.
“They declare that their supreme deity Tonacatecotle, whom we have just mentioned,
who by another name was called Citinatonali, when it appeared good to him, breathed
and begot Quetzalcoatle, not by connection with woman, but by his breath alone, as we
have observed above, when he sent his ambassador, as they say, to the virgin of Tula.
They believed him to be the god of the air and he was the first to whom they built
temples and churches, which they formed perfectly round without any angles. They say
that it was he who effected the reformation of the world by penance, since as,
according to his account, his father had created the world and men had given
themselves up to vice, on which account it had been frequently destroyed, Citinatonali
sent [132]his son into the world to reform it.… They assigned to him the dominion over
the other thirteen signs, which are here represented, in the same manner in which they
assigned the preceding thirteen to his father. They celebrated a great festival on this
sign, as we shall see on the sign of four earthquakes, which is the fourth in order here,
because they feared that the world would be destroyed in that sign, as he had foretold
to them when he disappeared in the Red Sea, which event occurred on the same sign.
As they considered him their advocate, they celebrated a solemn festival and fasted
during four signs.”
The Anales de Quauhtitlan or Codex Chimalpopocâ states that Quetzalcoatl was born
in no natural manner, but was a nine years’ child. He created the four classes of men:
the men of the four “suns” or periods of the world were made by him on the day
chicome ehecatl, or “seven wind.” The record proceeds to relate the circumstances of
his rule at Tollan, the manner in which he discovered the value of precious stones, gold
and silver, red and white shells, quetzal feathers, the cotinga and red sparrowbill
feathers, the various species of cocoa and cotton. When he had drunk the octli offered
him by Tezcatlipocâ, he forgot his chastity in the intoxication and indulged in
intercourse with Quetzalpetlatl, for which sin he was forced to quit Mexico. When he
was driven from Tollan in the year one reed, he arrived on the sea-shore, wept, and
divested himself of his garb and turquoise snake-mask. Then he immolated himself by
burning, his ashes became dust and changed into birds and his heart was converted
into the morning star. Lastly, it is said of him that when he died he was not visible for
four days, during which period he tarried in the Underworld. For a subsequent four
days “he was bones.” “After eight days appeared the great star which they called
Quetzalcoatl. They said that he thus mounted the throne as a god.”
In its second or historical portion the codex states that Quetzalcoatl discovered maize
which was concealed in the mountain Tonacatepetl. Many of the gods searched for it,
but Quetzalcoatl, taking the form of a black ant, was guided [133]to the spot by a red
ant. As he was unable to lift the mountain, it was split open by the magical prowess of
Xolotl in his manifestation of Nanahuatl, and the maize became the spoil of
Quetzalcoatl. But it was stolen from him by Tlaloc, the rain-god proper, perhaps an
allegorical manner of alluding to the more direct influence of that deity upon growth.
Other myths relating to Quetzalcoatl, chiefly as a creative agency, will be found in the
précis of the opening chapters of the Historia de los Mexicanos por sus Pinturas, in the
chapter on Cosmogony.
In Codex Borgia we find a passage (sheets 35–46) which appears to refer to the
progress of Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipocâ through the infernal regions, and which
might be described as the Mexican “Harrying of Hell.” On this passage Seler has briefly
commented (see his Commentary on Codex Vaticanus B, p. 119).
Quetzalcoatl is, perhaps, singular among the deities of Mexico in that a number of well-
authenticated Central American myths cluster around his name in its forms of
Kukulcan, Gucumatz, and Votan. Certain of these must be considered here, for
purposes of comparison and analogy.
Nuñez de la Vega: A book in the Quiche tongue, said to have been written by Votan, a
local name for Quetzalcoatl, was at one time in the possession of Nuñez de la Vega,
Bishop of Chiapas, who included portions of it in his Constituciones Diocesianos de
Chiapas, but nevertheless destroyed it in his holocaust of MSS. at Heuheutlan in 1691.
Ordoñez de Aguilar had, however, made a copy of it before its destruction, and
incorporated it in his Historia de Cielo MS. In this work Votan declared himself “a
snake,” a descendant of Imos, of the line of Chan 85 of the race of Chivim. Taking
Aguilar’s account along with that of Nuñez de la Vega, as both rely upon the same
authority, we find that Votan proceeded to America by divine command, his mission
being to lay the [134]foundation of civilization. With this object in view he departed from
Valum Chivim, 86 passing the dwelling of the thirteen snakes, and arrived in Valum
Votan, whence, with some members of his family, he set out to form a settlement,
ascending the Usumacinta River and ultimately founding Palenque. By reason of their
peculiar dress the Tzendal Indians called them Tzequitles, or “men with shirts,” but
consented to amalgamate with them. Ordoñez states that when Votan had established
himself at Palenque he made several visits to his original home. On one of these he
came to a tower which had been intended to reach the heavens, a project which had
been brought to naught by the linguistic confusion of those who conceived it. Finally he
was permitted to reach “the rock of heaven” by a subterranean passage. Returning to
Palenque, he found that others of his race had arrived there, and with them he made a
friendly pact. He built a temple by the Heuheutan River, known, from its subterranean
chambers, as “the House of Darkness,” and here he deposited the national records
under the charge of certain old men called tlapianes, or guardians, and an order of
priestesses. Here also were kept a number of tapirs. A quotation of the passage
dealing with this temple may be made from Nuñez de la Vega:
“Votan is the third heathen in the calendar (that is the deity who is ascribed to the third
division of the calendar), and in the little history written in the Indian language all the
provinces and cities in which he tarried were mentioned; and to this day there is always
a clan in the city of Teopisa that they call the Votans. It is also said that he is the lord of
the hollow wooden instrument which they call tepanaguaste (that is, the Mexican
teponaztli); that he saw the great wall, namely, the tower of Babel, which was built from
earth to heaven at the bidding of his grandfather, Noah; and that he was the first man
whom God sent to divide and apportion this country of India, and that there, where he
saw the great wall, he gave to every nation its special language. It is related that he
tarried in Huehueta (which is a city in Soconusco), [135]and that there he placed a tapir
and a great treasure in a slippery (damp, dark, subterranean) house, which he built by
the breath of his nostrils, and he appointed a woman as chieftain, with tapianes (that is,
Mexican tlapiani, “keepers”) to guard her. This treasure consisted of jars, which were
closed with covers of the same clay, and of a room in which the picture of the ancient
heathens who are in the calendar were engraved in stone, together with chalchiuites
(which are small, heavy, green stones) and other superstitious images; and the
chieftainess herself and the tapianes, her guardians, surrendered all these things,
which were publicly burned in the market place of Huehueta when we inspected the
aforesaid province in 1691. All the Indians greatly revere this Votan, and in a certain
province they call him ‘heart of the cities’ (Corazon de los pueblos).”
“In most of the Calendars, the seventh sign is the figure of a man and a snake, which
they call Cuchulchan. The masters have explained it as a snake with feathers which
moves in the water. This sign corresponds with Mexzichaut (Mixcoatl), which means
Cloudy Serpent, or, of the clouds. The people also consult them in order to work injury
on their enemies, taking the lives of many through such devilish artifices, and
committing unspeakable atrocities.”
The Popol Vuh.—The myths relating to Quetzalcoatl under his name of Gucumatz in
the Popol Vuh, the sacred book of the Quiche of Guatemala, are difficult to summarize.
In the first chapter he is alluded to as “the serpent covered with feathers, the heart of
the lakes, the heart of the sea, master of the sky, master of the blue expanse,” and is
connected with the creative gods. Along with Hurakan (Tezcatlipocâ) he creates the
world by uttering the word “earth.” The creation of man having been considered, the
wherewithal for his sustenance is debated. Gucumatz, who is sometimes alluded to in
the plural, like the Hebrew Elohim, succeeds in discovering maize in Paxil by the aid of
the fox, jackal, parrot, and crow, and obtains the seeds of other alimentary plants (pt. iii,
c. i.) Gucumatz then created man by a [136]“miracle” (c. ii). In c. v, pt. iii, Quetzalcoatl is
alluded to as Tohil, a parallel for which we have justification in ver. 19 of c. x, where in
the song called Kamucu (“We see”) the first men sing: “Truly Tohil is the name of the
god of the Zaqui nation, which was called Yolcuat-quetzalcuat when we separated in
the place Tolan in Zuiva.” But the myths relating to this deity are obviously tribal and
local, and I am of opinion that they refer to some tribal deity who possessed some of
the characteristics of Quetzalcoatl and who was identified with him by the Quiches in
rather an arbitrary fashion. 87
FESTIVALS
Ce Acatl.—Says Sahagun: “On the first day of the sign ce acatl the great folk made a
feast to Quetzalcoatl, the god of winds. This was celebrated in the calmecac, and here
they offered rich gifts to his idol, perfumes and things to eat. They said it was the sign
of Quetzalcoatl.”
PRIESTHOOD
The high-priest of Quetzalcoatl was stationed at Cholula and was, perhaps, the most
venerated ecclesiastic in Mexico.
TEMPLES
The principal temple of the cult of Quetzalcoatl in Mexico was the well-known teocalli at
Cholula. He had also a shrine in the great temple court at Mexico, built in circular form,
and thus typical of the Wind-god.
The latest of the myths concerning Quetzalcoatl are obviously those which regard him
as a culture-hero who enters the country as an alien, and, his beneficent work
performed, [138]withdraws to the place whence he came, under pressure of malignant
opposition. Had the basic outline of his myth been more carefully examined, fewer
unsatisfactory hypotheses concerning Quetzalcoatl’s nature might have been ventured
upon. The Mexicans themselves recognized Quetzalcoatl as a wind-god, but Dr. Seler
has not seen fit to accept their assurance upon this point in toto, and at various times
has advanced the hypotheses that Quetzalcoatl represents the wind, the planet Venus,
or the moon, latterly confining his personality almost entirely to the lamp of night. 89
In my view the physical phenomena which occur in connection with the courses of the
winds typical of the Mexican plateau provide by far the most simple and natural
explanation of the nature of the god Quetzalcoatl. From April or May to the beginning of
October the trade-wind blows from the east coast over the Plateau of Anahuac,
bringing with it abundance of rain, and accelerating vegetable growth, thus actually
“sweeping the ways for the rain-gods.” Its advance is comparatively slow, the rains
beginning three or four weeks earlier in Vera Cruz than in Puebla and Mexico. At the
beginning of October, however, it is invariably modified by the local monsoon, which
interrupts it over wide areas, or in certain districts invades it in violent cyclonic storms,
dissipating its energies and altering its course. Quetzalcoatl represents the gentle
trade-wind, which ushers in the growth-making rains. His reign of peace, plenty, and
fertility over, he comes into opposition with Tezcatlipocâ, who represents the monsoon
and who chases his rival “from city to city,” ravening at him like a tiger, says Mendieta,
and at last hustling him out of the country. That Tezcatlipocâ is also a god of wind is
certain, as is proved by one of his names, Yoalli Ehecatl, “Wind of Night,” and that he is
the monsoon or hurricane is proved beyond all doubt by the circumstance that he is
said to have rushed along the highways at night at extraordinary speed, and that
Hurakan, his Quiche name, is still employed for the very wind he represented, and has
[139]become a generic name for a tempestuous wind in practically all European
languages, which have without question adopted it from the American word. 90
If this simple elucidation of the original myth be accepted, it will be seen how naturally
its later modifications arise out of it or adapt themselves to it. But before we examine
the manner in which they crystallized around it, it becomes necessary to disentangle
from the whole mass that portion of it which alludes to the advent of a civilizing agency
upon the Mexican plateau.
This speaks of the advance of a body of men from the neighbourhood of Vera Cruz to
the Mexican plateau, and precisely in the direction whence the trade-wind comes—that
is, from the east, the direction of the land of the Huaxtecs, a people of proto-Maya
stock.
Quetzalcoatl is dressed in Huaxtec garb, and wears the truncated sugar-loaf hat and
shell-ornaments of this people. This may signify nothing more than that he was so
attired because he represented a wind which blew from the direction of the land of the
Huaxtecs. Yet, it is certain that several of the deities adopted by the Mexicans had
undoubtedly a Huaxtec origin, and this is markedly the case with Tlazoltcotl. There
seems to be some ground, then, for the hypothesis that Quetzalcoatl was a god of
Huaxtec origin. But the acceptance of such a theory will entail the acknowledgment of
certain hypotheses which are among the most controverted questions in Mexican
archæology. In the first place, it makes Quetzalcoatl the deity of a people of Maya
stock, and secondly it would seem to imply a Huaxtec or Maya origin for the much-
debated Toltec culture.
A discussion of these points must begin with the question, “Has the myth of
Quetzalcoatl’s civilizing mission to the Mexican plateau any historical justification?”
Regarding the reality of the civilization known as Toltec there is now no question,
although I fully admit that it took me a long time to realize this, thanks principally to my
acceptance of Brinton’s well-known theory on the subject, to which I [140]attached far
too much weight. But admitting Toltec reality, what proof do we possess that such a
civilizing agency as that of Quetzalcoatl gave an impetus to the “prehistoric” culture of
Tollan? But little—that is if we are to regard Quetzalcoatl as a man. But in his guise as
the gentle trade-wind that ushers in the rains, we have every reason to see in him the
founder of the Toltec civilization. Such a culture as the Toltec must undoubtedly have
had its origin in agricultural efficiency. Only through agricultural efficiency can the
corvée system arise and extensive building become possible. The god whose bountiful
patronage of growth assisted the arts in this manner seems in time to have been
‘humanized.’ 91 Legends of his civilizing prowess clustered around his supposititious
memory, he was thought to have been a culture-hero who actually moved and had his
being among the people. Kings or rulers were called by his name—a lucky name of
happy associations—and the illusion that he actually existed was thereby heightened.
These rulers seem to have flourished in Mexico ere yet the offices of king and priest
had become separate, so that it is not surprising that Quetzalcoatl was regarded as
having been the priest of his own cult, or that the Mexican pontiffs of historical times
bore his name. From this point of view, then, Quetzalcoatl was certainly the “founder” of
the Toltec civilization. If this theory be accepted, I do not see how the myth of
Quetzalcoatl can be regarded as having any basis in actual fact, unless one can find in
the rather vague statements of certain early writers on Mexico a further basis for
discussion as to his reality. To me the meaning of the myth seems very plain. It may be
that Huaxtec influence was brought to bear upon Toltec civilization, but my hypothesis
does not seem to me to require assistance from such an admission.
Motolinia’s story of the fixing of the strap on Quetzalcoatl’s arm is merely a grotesque
explanation of the name Acolhua, which in reality signifies “the folk of the great
shoulder,” “the pushers,” “the hustling invaders.”
(1) That all of them have their origin in or refer back to an original nature-myth, in which
Quetzalcoatl, the trade-wind, is, at the end of the rainy season, regarded as driven from
the Mexican Plateau by Tezcatlipocâ (Hurakan) in his guise of the monsoon, or
hurricane.
(2) That this myth in the first place became confounded with traditions of the Toltec
civilization, naturally enough, as that civilization was the direct outcome of the
agricultural wealth stimulated by the god representing the trade-wind.
(3) That it seems to have been associated with a myth relating to the fountain of youth,
that is, the fountain in which the refreshing and revivifying rains were stored, to which
Quetzalcoatl must return for rejuvenation and a fresh rain-supply.
(4) That the conception of the god Quetzalcoatl became humanized in the light of the
agricultural and other manifestations of Toltec culture, thus bringing about the [143]idea
of his existence as a priest-king, and culminating in the establishment of a line of
priestly rulers bearing his name, which endured as long as Mexican civilization.
(5) Out of these conceptions there naturally arose other related ideas, as those of:
(a) Quetzalcoatl as inventor of the tonalamatl, the instrument by which the festal days
of the rain-cult were originally noted, but which on the adoption of the solar calendar as
time-count degenerated into what may be regarded as an astrological table.
(b) The lunar basis upon which the tonalamatl was founded connected Quetzalcoatl
with the moon. 93
(d) Quetzalcoatl as the god of wind was also regarded as the breath of life, a
phenomenon encountered in many mythologies, and therefore came to be conceived
as the agency by which souls were originally placed in human bodies. From this, too,
we may argue his appearance as a creator, or cosmic deity, although it may have been
in his character as fertilizer that he came to be regarded in this light.
(e) Quetzalcoatl is the great penitent, the supreme protagonist of the penitential
system, because without the blood spent in penitential exercise no rain might fall. The
secondary character of this conception is probable.
(f) Quetzalcoatl seems at a later date to have been regarded as the god of the four
quarters of the compass, a conception of him indubitably evolved from his status as a
wind-god. I think I also perceive signs that from this latter [144]idea was further evolved
a conception of him as god of the four elements—fire, air, earth, and water. He is the
fire and the flint, because of the lightning which in Mexico accompanies the fall of the
trade-wind rain. He is the air in his rôle of Wind-god, and as such is symbolized by the
bird, the natural inhabitant of the air, the beak of which he uses as a funnel from which
to expel the wind. He is earth, and, his myth says, a builder of subterranean houses,
and sometimes bears the earth-staff of agriculture. 94 He is water, or rain, in which guise
he is typified by the feathered snake.
ETYMOLOGY
1 As it has been found impossible to include every illustration from the codices which is mentioned in
the text, those pictures not supplied may be consulted in the reproductions of the codices themselves.
A full bibliography of the codices will be found at the end. When the letter K appears with reference to a
codex, its reproduction in Kingsborough’s “Mexican” antiquities is implied. ↑
2 This stellar mask is so called from being worn by the stellar deities. It is usually connected with the
red-and-white striped painting of the body. The Sahagun Aztec MS. calls it “face-cage marking” and
“face-star marking which is called darkness,” the former referring to stripes over the face, the latter to the
mask design, which seems to me to symbolize night surrounded by the “eyes” of the stars. ↑
3 Hist. Nat. Ind., pp. 352 ff., English translation in Purchas his Pilgrimes, bk. v, c. 9. Maclehoses’
edition. ↑
4 Hist. Conq. Mex., tom. i, pp. 396–398. ↑
5 Gage’s trans. of Herrera, in New Survey, pp. 116–117; for Spanish text, see Hist. Gen., tom. i, dec. ii,
bk. vii, c. xvii. ↑
6 Monarq. Ind., tom. i, p. 293. ↑
7 Quarter, district. ↑
8 House of the youths, where the acolytes or junior priests resided. ↑
9 Governors. ↑
10 Vassals, burghers. ↑
11 Dance. ↑
12 This custom was in vogue among certain prehistoric races, and is still practised on the death of a
relative by African bushmen, who first remove a finger-joint. ↑
13 More correctly quauhxicalli, a stone vase for the reception of the hearts of victims, from quauh (tli)
“eagle,” and xicalli, “cup.” ↑
14 Monarq. Ind., tom. ii, p. 73. ↑
15 Hist. Mex., English translation by C. Cullen (London, 1787), vol. i, bk. vi. ↑
16 Idea de una Hist., pp. 60–61. ↑
17 Bk. i, c. i. ↑
18 So Uitzilopochtli addresses his half-brother. “Uncle” among the ancient Mexicans was an honorific
title. ↑
19 Bk. iii, c, i, par. i. ↑
20 Monarq. Ind., tom. i, p. 294. ↑
21 See chapter on Cosmogony. ↑
22 Sahagun, Appendix to bk. iii, c. ix. ↑
23 Hist. Nat. Ind. in Purchas his Pilgrimes, bk. v, c. xiii. See also Manuel Gamio, Proc. 19th Cong. Amer.,
Washington, 1915, for account of discoveries when the foundations of this temple were partly laid
bare in 1913. ↑
24 C. i. ↑
25 Sahagun, bk. ii, c. xxxiv; Uitzilopochtli himself, as we shall see, was oracular. In this case I take it that th
octli distilled from the plant conferred the boon of oracular speech. ↑
26 The first pulque or octli, which was called uitztli, was offered at this festival as first-fruits to
Uitzilopochtli. The spirit distilled from the pulque is still known as mexcal or mescal, and is probably
identical with the fiery fluid given to the braves in the service of the god before going into battle. ↑
27 Bull. of U.S. Bureau of Ethnology, No. 28, p. 210. ↑
28 Monarq. Ind., tom. ii, p. 41. ↑
29The Historia de los Mexicanos por sus Pinturas calls Uitzilopochtli omitecilt. I think this should be read
ome tecitl, “twice-wizard,” but it may read ome tecutli, “twice-lord.” But the latter is certainly a title of
Tonacatecutli, the creative deity. ↑
30 Bk. i, c. i. ↑
31 Sahagun, bk. ii, c. xxiv. ↑
32 As does an Egyptian sun-god. ↑
33 The Centzonuitznaua appear to be the same as the Tzitzimimê, whom Tezozomoc calls the “gods of
the air who bring the rains, floods, thunderclaps, and thunders and lightnings and had to be placed
round Uitzilopochtli” in order to complete the construction of the great teocalli of Mexico. These “gods of
the signs and planets,” in other words the stars, were regarded as demons of darkness, thinks Seler,
“only because during a solar eclipse the [87]stars became visible in the day sky.” I think it much more
probable that they were looked upon as demons of darkness because they peopled the darkness every
night. “These,” says the interpreter of the Codex Telleriano-Remensis, “are the sons of Citlalicue.” Now,
Citlalicue means “Starry-skirt,” and I think that here we are not very far from Coatlicue, “Serpent-skirt.”
We know, too, that Citlalicue, like Coatlicue, was connected with the cipactli, the earth-beast, and with
Chicomecoatl (“Seven Serpents”). The later fusion of Citlalicue with her husband Citlaltonac or
Tonacatecutli, lord of the heavenly vault, as has been shown in the remarks on these gods, would give
her stellar attributes; hence the seeming discrepancy between her and Coatlicue. ↑
34 Appendix to bk. ii. ↑
35 Hist. de los Indios de la Nueva España, tom. ii, p. 240. ↑
36 See Rendel Harris, The Ascent of Olympus, passim. In his Ascent of Olympus Dr. Rendel Harris has
shown that the sacred oak of Zeus was regarded as “the animistic repository of the thunder, and in
that sense the dwelling-place of Zeus … that the woodpecker who nested in it … was none other than
Zeus himself, and it may turn out that Athena, who sprang from the head of the thunder-oak, was the owl
that lived in one of its hollows” (p. 57).
In the same way, it may be that the maguey plant may have been regarded by the Mexicans as a
repository of thunder and the heavenly fire. Octli, its sap, was connected with fire (see octli gods, “Nature
and Status”), and Uitzilopochtli was the humming-bird who dwelt among its leaves. He springs from his
mother’s body fully armed, as does Athena from the head of Zeus. A similar train of thought appears to
be present in both ideas. ↑
37 Manuel de Ministros, p. 35. ↑
38 Commentary on Codex Vaticanus B, p. 91. ↑
39 Maguey is an Antillean word imported into Mexico by the Spaniards, but the use of a post-Columbian
word does not exclude the possibility of a synonymous pre-Columbian form. ↑
40 Manuel de Ministros, p. 37. ↑
41 Myths of the New World, pp. 129 ff. ↑
42 Hist. Nat. Ind., c. ix, bk. v (English translation from Purchas his Pilgrimes). ↑
43 Obviously an error for tlachialoni. ↑
44 More probably like a jaguar, one of the forms of the god. ↑
45 See précis in chapter on Cosmogony. ↑
46 The Morelosia huañita of the family Styraciñes. ↑
47 Inga circinalis. ↑
48 Paper hand. ↑
49 Face of the temple. ↑
50 Young brother. ↑
51 Hist. Gen., bk. i. c. iii. ↑
52 Hist. Nat. y Moral, c. ix. ↑
53 Hist. Mex., English translation, vol. i, bk. vi, p. 243. ↑
54 Hist. Gen., bk. iii, c. vi–ix. ↑
55 These both mean the same thing, “shield of precious stones.” ↑
56 Diccionario Universal, Appendix, s.v. ↑
57 See ante, Aspect and Insignia. ↑
58 Commentary C. Fejérváry-Mayer, p. 34. ↑
59 See the Stone of Tizoc for examples of this practice. ↑
60 This figure conventionally represents the turkey and strikingly exhibits the large red wattles and lobe
of that bird. In most of the MSS. it wears Tezcatlipocâ’s smoking mirror at the temple, the warrior’s
headdress of heron-feathers, and in Codex Borbonicus it appears as a naualli or disguise of the god,
having his crown painted with stars and his anauatl or ring of mussel-shell. On sheet 6 of Codex
Fejérváry-Mayer the bird appears as an image of Tezcatlipocâ and is represented along with the signs of
mortification and blood-letting, as it is on sheet 17 of the Aubin tonalamatl, where it wears the bone-
piercer in its ears and a red robe edged with blue and brown. Indeed, it represents the blood-offering
connected with the worship of Tezcatlipocâ. The turkey-cock’s foot, too, is sometimes symbolic of the
god, and the interpretative codices tell us that “of the demons we often see nothing more than a cock’s or
eagle’s foot.” The turkey-cock is to be conceived as representative of rain, which was believed by the
Nahua to be nothing else than the magically altered blood he shed in penitence or sacrifice. It may be
that the red wattles and lobe of the turkey suggested the idea of blood, and that the shades in his
plumage were equally suggestive of water. Thus it would come to be regarded as the blood shed by the
stone knife of sacrifice. It is also obvious that Tezcatlipocâ’s patronage of slaves, who were strictly
regarded as his property, arose out of the idea that those unfortunates, whenever used for the purposes
of sacrificial ritual, constituted the “food” of the obsidian knife. ↑
61 Bk. xi, c. 8, § 5. ↑
62 Bernal Diaz also states that the eyes of Tezcatlipocâ’s idol were “mirrors.” See ante, “Aspect and
Insignia.” ↑
63 In the myth which recounts his discomfiture of the Toltecs it will be recalled that he rained stones upon
them. See also Introduction for identification of obsidian with wind and breath. ↑
64 Gomme, Ethnology in Folklore. ↑
65 Myth, Ritual, and Religion, vol. i, p. 266. ↑
66 See Itzlacoliuhqui, pp. 341 ff. ↑
67 See my article on “Cherokee Religion” in vol. iii, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics. ↑
68 Brinton, Myths of the New World. ↑
69 Sahagun, bk. xii, c. iv. ↑
70 Bk. iii, c. ii. ↑
71 Bk. xi, c. xlvii. ↑
72 Bk. v, c. ix. ↑
73 Seler, The Wall-paintings of Mitla, Bull. 28, Bureau of American Ethnology. ↑
74 “The swift ones who serrate the teeth.” ↑
75 “Mount of the crier.” ↑
76 Sahagun’s statement that the draught would make Quetzalcoatl remember those evils is obviously a
slip which even his copyist Torquemada is capable of avoiding. ↑
77 Bk. iii, c. 3 and 4. ↑
78 The names throughout the myth merely describe the incident which took place at the locality alluded
to. ↑
79 Sahagun, bk. iii, c. xii, xiii, xiv. ↑
80 Monarq. Ind., tom. ii, pp. 48–52. ↑
81 Monarq. Ind., tom. i, pp. 254–256. ↑
82 Hist. de los Indios. ↑
83 Hist. Ecles., pp. 82, 86, 92–93, 97–98. ↑
84 Hist. Ecles., p. 82. ↑
85 A Lacandone Indian tribe near Palenque. ↑
86 Land of Chivim. ↑
87 The myths relating to him under the name of Tohil appear to me to identify Tohil more with
Tezcatlipocâ. See Brassuer, Le Vuh Popol, passim. ↑
88The circumstance that the two high-priests of Mexico, the pontiffs of the cults of Uitzilopochtli and
Tlaloc, had the name Quetzalcoatl prefixed to their official descriptions merely indicates that it had
passed into a sacerdotal title. They were in no special sense attached to the worship of the god. ↑
89 He was, of course, all of these, but as regards the two latter, in a subsidiary sense only. ↑
90 Spanish, hurican; French, ouragan; English, hurricane. ↑
91 Sahagun reverses the process by calling Quetzalcoatl “a man who became a god,” bk. i, c. v. ↑
92 See my article on these books in vol. iii of Hastings’ Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics. ↑
93This, too, accounts for his identification with the planet Venus, which also had a calendric connection,
and therefore as the herald of the dawn, and the child of the virgin goddess Chimalman or
Chalchihuitlicue in her guise as Moon-goddess. ↑
94Votan was likewise a builder of subterranean houses and was worshipped in caves. The god of the
rain-cult is, indeed, regarded as master of the streams which flow under the earth. See Brinton,
Nagualism, p. 41. ↑
[Contents]
CHAPTER IV
THE CREATIVE DEITIES
[Contents]
TONACATECUTLI—TONACACIUATL
(TONACATECUTLI = “LORD OF OUR
SUBSISTENCE”)
Codex Borgia.—In the Codex Borgia (sheet 61, lower half) the lower
portion of his face is painted red, but its upper [147]part, as well as the
rest of his body which is visible, is coloured yellow. On the cheek is
seen a rectangular surface divided into compartments, each of which
is tinted a different colour, the distinctive painting of the maize-gods,
which, it is believed, symbolizes the maize-field with its many hues.
A “gobber” tooth hangs from his mouth as a sign of great age, for as
creator he was regarded as one of the most venerable among the
gods. Around his forehead is a head-band enriched with precious
stones, which recalls that frequently worn by the Sun-god. His
necklet consists of a casket of jewels, with lid and feet, on which is
represented the symbol of the chalchihuitl jewel. 1 On sheet 60
Tonacaciuatl, the female form of this deity, is depicted in the act of
handing Tonacatecutli a flower, symbolic of life or blood. Above this
figure is the picture of a red snake, also symbolizing blood. The god
wears a jaguar-skin and the goddess an eagle’s, thus illustrating
their patronage of the military orders who wore those dresses. (For
similar readings, see Codex Laud, 34–5 K). In sheet 57 (lower right-
hand corner) he is represented as wearing a beard of black eagle-
feathers.
Minor Names:
Omeciuatl = “Twofold Lady.”
Citlalinicue = “Starry Skirt.”
Calendar Place: Same as that of Tonacatecutli.
Compass Direction: Same as that of Tonacatecutli.
Symbol: Same as that of Tonacatecutli.
MYTHS
These deities were identified by the Mexicans with the Creator, the
Tloque Nahuaque, of whom almost every one of the post-Conquest
Spanish writers speaks. Indeed the Codex Telleriano-Remensis
expressly identifies them with the creative force. The passage runs:
“All those epithets (God, Lord, Creator) they bestowed on their god
Tonacatecutli, who, according to their account, was the god who
created the world; and they painted him alone with a crown as lord of
all. They never offered sacrifices to this god, for they said that he did
not regard them.” Of the female deity the Codex Vaticanus says:
“Tonacacigua was the wife of Tonacatecutle; for, as we have
observed, although their gods were not, as they affirm, united
together for matrimonial purposes, still they assigned to each a
goddess as a companion. They called her by another name,
Suchiquetzal and Chicomecoual, which means Seven Serpents, for
they say that she was the cause of sterility, famine, and all the
miseries of life.” 2
The Historia de los Mexicanos por sus Pinturas regards these deities
as appearing at the commencement of creation, but says nothing of
their relations to the precise creative act.
(1) That they were among the oldest of the Mexican divinities.
Tonacatecutli is called, among other names, “Lord of the Steppe,” 4
which does not necessarily indicate that he was a deity of the
Chichimec or hunting tribes, who from generation to generation
raided the Mexican valley, but may apply to his stellar or heavenly
significance. Reference is also made in the Anales de Quauhtitlan to
the circumstance that he and his female counterpart were gods of
the ancient Toltecs, and that their cult was founded by Quetzalcoatl,
the typical Toltec priest-king.
(3) They presided over the food supply. Although other deities
occupied the positions of maize and vegetable gods, the creative
deities were in the ultimate the great givers of all food. Thus they
were designated “Lords of Food Supplies” and “Lords of
Superabundance.” [151]
(4) They must be regarded as the direct creators of the spirit of man.
To the Mexican man flesh was merely maize in another form. But
apart from this conception the pair typified the first human couple,
and as such they are represented in all the MSS. lying side by side
and cross-legged under a blanket, in the attitude of procreation.
They are, indeed, the great initiators of life, and must be
comprehended as sending the human soul to occupy the body made
by human procreation, giving warmth and breath to the infant before
birth. 5
(5) They commence the series of twenty day-signs, and this alone
symbolizes their creative and original nature.
(6) They represent the sign cipactli, the animal from which the earth
was made.
CONCLUSIONS
(1) That in the most early times Tonacatecutli and his consort typified
the father-sky and mother-earth respectively, but that this aspect of
them had been forgotten and they came to have a purely abstract
creative significance for both priests and people. That Tonacaciuatl
originally represented the earth there is no doubt, and her
identification with Xochiquetzal and Chicomecoatl alone would show
this to be so. Again, the association with the sign cipactli proves the
connection of one of the divine pair with the earth, and from what
has been said regarding this sign in the introduction, and by the
constant association of goddesses in the Mexican mind with the
terrestrial sphere, it is plain that Tonacatecutli, her male counterpart,
is not likely to have represented it in early times. The suggestion that
he symbolizes the sky is perhaps assisted by the nature of his
abode, the uppermost heaven, and from his close identification with
Citlallatonac, [152]the god of the night heaven, who was supposed to
represent the Milky Way.
(2) That in later times the early concepts of these divinities became
fused almost into one, and that in some measure they had come to
be regarded as androgynous. This view may be traversed by the
circumstance that they are frequently represented separately, but on
the other hand their names appear as one in the form Tonacatecutli-
Tonacaciuatl in many passages. The same may be posited of their
counterparts in the Quiche Popol Vuh, Xpiyacoc and Xmucane. 6
[Contents]
INTRODUCTORY
So numerous were the manifestations and variants of the Earth-goddess conceived by the Nahua or
adopted into their pantheon, that this has been the cause of considerable misconception on the part of
students of Mexican religion, who have confounded them in a manner which in the circumstances is
scarcely surprising. An attempt will be made here to provide the reader with a list of the most important
of these deities, briefly and barely outlining their various origins and attributes, in order that he may be
the better able to comprehend what follows when we come to discuss them more fully.
Chicomecoatl (Seven Serpents)—the Mexican name of the Earth-goddess and that of the seventh day
of the seventh week of the tonalamatl. She was probably of Toltec origin. The third interpreter of the
Codex Vaticanus A identifies her with Xochiquetzal, and, perhaps more correctly, with Xumoco and
Tonacacigua or Tonacaciuatl. She had two temples dedicated to her, the chicome iteopan and the
cinteopan, and seems to have become a variant of Tonacaciuatl on the adoption of an agricultural basis
of existence.
Tlazolteotl, Tlaelquani, Teteo innan or Toci—an earth-goddess whose worship had its origin among the
tribes of the Atlantic seaboard, where maize grew abundantly. She possessed warlike propensities, as
became a goddess to whom human sacrifice was much in vogue, and the myth of her impregnation by
Uitzilopochtli was enacted at the ochpaniztli festival in August, typifying, perhaps, the impregnation of
[154]the “earth-mother” by the “sky-father.” As Ixcuine she represented a plurality of goddesses. Seler 1
believes that Chicomecoatl represents the young maize ear, and Tlazolteotl, the ripe ear of the plant.
Xilonen—originally a maize-goddess of the Huichol tribes. She represented the young maize-plant.
Cinteotl (Maize-god)—son of Tlazolteotl, originally a god of the peoples of the Atlantic seaboard. He is
occasionally alluded to as a female deity, but is always male in the MSS. of the Borgia group, executed
by a people of Nahua speech dwelling in the south. He is the equivalent of Xochipilli and had a separate
temple, the cinteopan.
Xipe—an earth-god of the Teotitlan district, a god of spring vegetation. His temples were called yopico.
His great festival was the Tlacaxipeuliztli, or “flaying of men.”
Only three of these deities, Tlazolteotl, Xipe, and Xochiquetzal, appear as rulers of one or other of the
twenty day-signs of the tonalamatl. But Cinteotl figures in the ochpaniztli feast and appears as one of
the “Lords of the Night.”