Casadidio C. Et Al 2019 Chitin Eco - Friendly Processes
Casadidio C. Et Al 2019 Chitin Eco - Friendly Processes
Review
Chitin and Chitosans: Characteristics, Eco-Friendly
Processes, and Applications in Cosmetic Science
Cristina Casadidio , Dolores Vargas Peregrina, Maria Rosa Gigliobianco , Siyuan Deng,
Roberta Censi and Piera Di Martino *
School of Pharmacy, University of Camerino, 62032 Camerino, Italy; [email protected] (C.C.);
[email protected] (D.V.P.); [email protected] (M.R.G.); [email protected] (S.D.);
[email protected] (R.C.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +39-0737-402215; Fax: +39-0737-637345
Received: 5 May 2019; Accepted: 19 June 2019; Published: 21 June 2019
Abstract: Huge amounts of chitin and chitosans can be found in the biosphere as important constituents
of the exoskeleton of many organisms and as waste by worldwide seafood companies. Presently,
politicians, environmentalists, and industrialists encourage the use of these marine polysaccharides
as a renewable source developed by alternative eco-friendly processes, especially in the production of
regular cosmetics. The aim of this review is to outline the physicochemical and biological properties
and the different bioextraction methods of chitin and chitosan sources, focusing on enzymatic
deproteinization, bacteria fermentation, and enzymatic deacetylation methods. Thanks to their
biodegradability, non-toxicity, biocompatibility, and bioactivity, the applications of these marine
polymers are widely used in the contemporary manufacturing of biomedical and pharmaceutical
products. In the end, advanced cosmetics based on chitin and chitosans are presented, analyzing
different therapeutic aspects regarding skin, hair, nail, and oral care. The innovative formulations
described can be considered excellent candidates for the prevention and treatment of several diseases
associated with different body anatomical sectors.
1. Introduction
Global warming, waste disposal, air pollution, and natural resources exhaustion have been
recognized as the dominant cause of many environmental disasters. For these problems, politicians,
environmentalists, and industrialists are encouraging the use of organic products able to respect our
habitat. Presently, organic products are increasing their marketing power and social interest thanks to the
high expectations of consumers towards ambient and human health [1,2]. These goods, to be considered
“green” or “organic”, must be produced with renewable energy, possess characteristics such as fast
degradation, minimize waste production, and be environmentally friendly [3]. “Green Chemistry”
and its principles allow the adoption of technologies that fully meet the requirements of cost, safety,
and performance. Anastas and Eghbali [4,5] listed the 12 principles of green chemistry, cornerstones
for design, development, and industrial assessment of green products, achieving sustainability at the
molecular level. Recently, Cervellon et al. [6] outlined a series of indispensable concepts for a product
that aims to be classified as "green", especially in the world of cosmetics:
Biodegradable: if the goods are disposed of in nature, their degradation process under the action
of microorganisms (fungi, bacteria, and molds) will be faster than a conventional product;
Biodynamic: more natural and sustainable production processes favor the formation of a product
(philosophy of taking/giving back to nature);
Ecological: the product has respect for the environment by limiting damage, without evaluating
the mode of production processes;
Natural: found in nature without chemicals or human transformations (it is not certified by
organizations);
Organic: products and raw materials must be grown without the use of pesticides, synthetic
fertilizers, genetically modified organisms, or ionizing radiation. They also should come from animals
that have not taken growth hormones or antibiotics.
A strategy that favors sustainable consumption, minimizing ambient impact, is to raise awareness
of purchasing products based on biopolymers from renewable resources [7,8]. Among biopolymers
that are biodegradable and made from renewable raw materials, chitin and chitosan are widely used
in many sectors such as biomedical, biotechnology, water treatment, food, agriculture, veterinary,
and cosmetics [9]. These biopolymers are polymers produced by living organisms such as plants,
microorganisms, and animals, and it is no coincidence that chitin and chitosan are considered in
recent publications as polymers of the future, thanks to their innumerable properties and numerous
advantages in their use [3,10–12]. Specifically, in the 21st century, there has been an increase in the
production and use of regular cosmetics, because they are perceived by the consumers to possess
numerous benefits such as limited environmental incidence, and being beneficial for the skin [13].
In this review, the general properties of chitin and chitosan as natural marine polysaccharides
will be described, highlighting their innovative eco-friendly extraction processes and industrial and
biomedical applications. In the second part, the development of chitin, chitosans, and their derivates as
cosmetic products will be investigated considering the definition of cosmetic product by the European
Union Cosmetic Regulation. Cosmetics are any products, substances, or preparations other than drugs
intended to be applied on the external surfaces of the human body (epidermis, hair system, nails,
lips, external genital organs) or on teeth and mucous membranes of the mouth for the exclusive or
prevalent purpose of cleaning them, perfuming them, modifying their appearance, correcting body
odors, protecting, or keeping them in good condition [14]. Starting from this regulation, we also
provide examples of cosmetics with drug-like substances, up to now without specific legislation,
considering them as promising starting points for new cosmetic developments.
Figure
Figure 1.
1. Chemical
Chemical structure
structure of
of chitin
chitin (a)
(a) and
and chitosan
chitosan (b)
(b) repeat
repeat units.
units.
In 1859, Rouget observed the mechanism of chitin partial N-deacetylation, which leads to the
formation of its derived compound: chitosan (Figure 1b) [27]. The reaction consists of the protonation
of the chitin amino group at C-2 position of glucosamine. Specifically, when the chitin degree of
deacetylation reaches approximately 50%, chitin conformation becomes soluble in acid water solution
and changes to chitosan cationic structure [24]. Chitosan is a linear heteropolysaccharide consisting of
poly (1,4)-linked 2-amino-β-D-glucose (GlcN), which can be in solid semicrystalline form or in solution,
and represents the progenitor of the numerous chitin families deacetylated to different degrees [28].
The properties of soluble chitosan refer to the degree of deacetylation, molecular weight, distribution of
remainder acetyl groups, ionic concentration, pH, isolation, and drying conditions. Chitosan represents
a collective name for the N-deacetylated chitin derivates family with different degrees of deacetylation,
and is prepared via three different procedures. One is the (partial) thermochemical deacetylation of
chitin in the solid state under basic conditions (NaOH), the second is enzymatic hydrolysis in the
presence of a chitin deacetylase (chitin + H2 O chitosan + acetate), and chitosan can be found also in
nature in the structural component of some fungi [29,30].
Mar. Drugs 2019, 17, 369 4 of 30
The weight-average MW of chitin is reported to range from 0.4 to 2.5 × 106 [36,37].
Chitosan MW compared to the chitin one is lower, due to the N-deacetylation. Chitosan MW
depends on the degree of polymerization (DP), where oligomers with DP of 8 or less are water-soluble
irrespective of deacetylation conditions such as time, temperature, concentration of sodium hydroxide,
and pH value [28,31]. The weight-average MW of chitosan is from 1 × 105 to 5 × 105 Da and
can be determined by several methods, including: light-scattering spectrophotometry, GPC, and
viscometer [31]. In recent years, size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) has been another approach
adopted to better determinate the MW. Kang et al. coupled SEC with multi-angle static laser light
scattering (MALLS) to better improve the characterization of chitosan MW [38]. In another work,
Weinhold and Thöming connected SEC instruments with a triple detector array including in-series
right and low-angle light-scattering (RALS-LALS) and viscometer [39].
2.1.3. Solubility
Chitin shows variations in its solubility according to different sources. The biopolymer is
insoluble in all the usual solvents such as neutral water, salt solutions, and most organic solvents, but
presents solubility with other solvents such as hexafluoroacetone sesquihydrate, hexafluoroisopropanol,
chloroalcohols (with sulfuric acid), water mineral solutions, and in a mixture of dimethylacetamide with
5% of lithium chloride. Its poor solubility is due to the presence of highly hydrophobic properties and
Mar. Drugs 2019, 17, 369 5 of 30
its extensive semicrystalline structure [36]. Chitin is a polysaccharide with intra- and intermolecular
hydrogen bonds, which makes it difficult to dissolve in the previous indicated solvents.
Chitosan is insoluble in neutral water and its solubility is settled with acid solutions such as
lactic, acetic, glutamic, and hydrochloric acid solutions (pH up to 6.5), due to the lower number of
N-acetylated groups and due to its primary amino groups (with a pKa of 6.3) which become protonated,
leading to a positively charged polymer and giving the characteristics of a strong base. However, when
the pH reaches the value of 6.0 (and above), the polysaccharide becomes insoluble and precipitates
due to the deprotonation of the amines. Presently, purified chitosans with high DD are commercially
available in a broad range of MW, both in the form of base and as a salt readily soluble in water without
the use of acid solutions [40]. Commonly, the solubility of chitosan decreases when pH raises from
physiological to basic values, and with increase the ionic strength (salting-out effect) or the MW [24].
There are other determining factors that have important effects on chitosan solubility: temperature,
average of DD, and DP. The most common solvents for the solubilization of chitosan are: acetic acid (1%
with pH close to 4); formic acid (0.2–100%); 1% hydrochloric acid; lactic acid; and diluted nitric acid.
Recent research found a neutral chitosan solution with the use of glycerol 2-phospate as solvent [24].
On the other hand, chitosan is insoluble in sulfuric and phosphoric acid [29].
2.1.4. Derivatives
Several chitin derivatives are described in the literature, among which chitosan appears to be the
main product. Chitosan can be obtained by chitin following two different processes: the enzymatic
hydrolysis or via chemical deacetylation, as shown in Figure 2. In addition to this, numerous other
chitin products have been identified [24]. Thanks to the availability of the amino group, chitin can be
associated with macromolecules such as proteins, carotenoids, and glucans [28].
Regarding chitosan, its structure has three active groups which can be chemically modified to
change specific properties and activities. These groups are: the primary (C-6) and secondary (C-3)
hydroxyl groups at the level of which non-specific reactions occur, and the amino group (C-2), where
specific reactions can be distinguished. Solubility, and physical and mechanical properties of chitosan
can be altered with the chemical modification of these reactive groups, attributing to its new derivatives
further properties. The main reactions involving the C-3 and C-6 positions are esterification and
etherification, while for the amino-C-2 position the quaternization of the amino group is carried out. In
C-2, where the aldehyde function reacts with -NH2 by reductive amination, a reaction can be settled in
aqueous solution under mild conditions favoring the introduction of different functional groups on
chitosan using acrylic reagents in an aqueous medium [31].
Mar. Drugs 2019, 17, 369 6 of 30
Mar. Drugs 2019, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 28
Figure2.2.Scheme
Figure Scheme of
of chitin
chitin and
and chitosan
chitosanproduction
productionfollowing
followingchemical
chemicalmethods.
methods.
2.2.
2.2.Chitin
Chitinand
andChitosans
ChitosansBiological
Biological Properties
Properties
Both
Bothchitin
chitinand
andchitosan
chitosan exhibit
exhibit various
various biological properties such
biological properties suchas:as:anticholesterolemic,
anticholesterolemic,
wound-healing agents,
wound-healing agents, anticancer,
anticancer, fungistatic,
fungistatic, hemostatic,
hemostatic, analgesic,
analgesic, antiacid,
antiacid, antiulcer,
antiulcer,
immunoadjuvant, etc.
immunoadjuvant, etc. [19,21,29,31,40–44].
[19,21,29,31,40–44]. InIn cosmetic
cosmeticscience,
science,chitin
chitinand
andchitosan
chitosanhave havebeen
been
investigatedasaspotential
investigated potentialexcipients
excipients and
and as biological
biological active
activeagents,
agents,thanks
thankstototheir
theirpeculiar
peculiar properties
properties
suchasasno
such notoxicity,
toxicity,biocompatibility,
biocompatibility,andand biodegradability.
biodegradability. This
Thisreview
reviewwill
willdiscuss
discussfourfour ofof
the main
the main
characteristicsand
characteristics andqualities
qualitiesthat
thatmake
makethese
thesepolysaccharides
polysaccharidesexcellent
excellentcandidates
candidates in in the
the formulation
formulation of
of care
care products:
products: antimicrobial
antimicrobial andand antioxidant
antioxidant activities,
activities, mucoadhesive
mucoadhesive andand penetration
penetration properties.
properties. The
The indispensable physicochemical parameters of the polysaccharides that promote
indispensable physicochemical parameters of the polysaccharides that promote the biological the biological
effect
effect
are are summarized
summarized in Tablein1.Table 1.
Mar. Drugs 2019, 17, 369 7 of 30
revealed that chitosan-liposome system has low cytotoxicity with an excellent antioxidant activity
(clearing reactive oxygen species (ROS) from H2 O2 ) [55].
Table 2. Cont.
Chitosan/titanium dioxide nanocomposite as antibacterial protective coating for paper packaging [92]
Paper Industry Paper wet strength improved with chitosan-based additive using a dipping process [93]
Chitosan as antitermite in paper making [94]
Caseinate/chitosan films favor reduction in paper water vapor permeability [95]
Series of chitosan-based waterborne polyurethane improve tear strength and antimicrobial activity of polyester
[96]
cotton dyed and printed fabrics
Chitosan and herbal extract of Aristolochia bracteolate as medical textile product (band aid) [97]
Textile Industry
Eco-friendly antimicrobial chitosan-based water dispersible polyurethanes finishes [98]
Chitin nanofibers for antibacterial finishing application [99]
Chitosan networks crosslinked with citric acid or polymeric carboxylic acids as binders for silicon/graphite
[100]
composite electrodes in lithium ion batteries
Molybdenum disulfide-coated nitrogen-doped mesoporous carbon sphere/sulfur composite cathode and carbon
[101]
nanotube/chitosan modified separator promoting lithium sulfur batteries
Batteries
Chitosan/epoxidized natural rubber networks by crosslinking as a binder material [102]
Highly crystalline lithium titanate nanoparticles with N-doped carbon-coating and chitosan (as carbon and
[103]
nitrogen source)
Chitosan composite carbon material with high specific electrochemical performance of lead-carbon battery [104]
Mar. Drugs 2019, 17, 369 11 of 30
Table 2. Cont.
linking
Magnesium oxide-poly(ε-caprolactone)-chitosan-based composite nanofiber by the electrospinning technique [110]
Scaffolds made with modified hydroxyapatite blended into chitosan-grafted-poly (methyl methacrylate) matrix [111]
Collagen/chitosan gel composite supplemented with a cell-penetrating peptide (oligo-arginine R8) with an
[112]
antibacterial activity
Silver nanoparticles encapsulation into chitosan-based membranes without altering the wound-healing ability [113]
Rosuvastatin calcium loaded into chitosan hydrochloride scaffolds based with/without mesenchymal stem cells [114]
Wound Healing
Phenytoin nanocapsules and nanoemulsions formulated as chitosan hydrogels for cutaneous use in rats [115]
Electrospun antibacterial PVA/Chitosan/Starch nanofibrous mats [116]
Biocompatible and nontoxic PVA/chitosan/nano zinc oxide hydrogels [117]
Chitosan-covered calcium phosphate nanoparticles loaded with timolol and lisinopril [118]
Topical chitosan-N-acetylcysteine for corneal damage in a rabbit model [119]
Chitosan-N-acetylcysteine (Lacrimera® ) in in patients with moderate to severe dry eye disease [120]
Ophthalmology Contact lenses made of poly(2-hydroxyethylmethacrylate) containing chitosan nanoparticles as dexamethasone
[121]
sodium phosphate delivery system
Timolol maleate imprinted copolymer of carboxymethyl chitosan-g-hydroxy ethyl
methacrylate-g-polyacrylamide incorporated on a poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) p(HEMA) matrix for [122]
glaucoma
Mar. Drugs 2019, 17, 369 12 of 30
Table 2. Cont.
Figure
Figure 3. Scheme
3. Scheme of chitin
of chitin andand chitosan
chitosan production
production following
following biological
biological methods.
methods.
Mar. Drugs 2019, 17, 369 15 of 30
4. Applications in Cosmetics
Among polysaccharides, chitin, chitosan, and their derivatives offer intangible qualities related
to antiaging, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) inhibitor, antioxidant, and antifungal properties. The
use of chitin and chitosans has been suggested in different fields of skin, oral, nail, and hair care
applications, obtaining formulations able to treat diseases related to teeth, hair, nails, and skin.
Dryness, relaxation, roughness, and skin tissue laxity are the main characteristics of skin aging and its
association with UV ray exposure represents one of the most documented causes of hyperpigmentation
origin and wrinkles, leading to the phenomenon known as a photoaging [159]. Recently, researchers
have shown how chitosan, especially of high MW, possesses film-forming properties that can promote
a reduction in cutaneous water loss and an increase in skin elasticity and smoothness, making it
interesting in moisturizing cosmetic applications [160]. Transparency of film is one of the desirable
features due to its great impact on the cosmetic fields, especially the ability to obtain a product with no
further visible changes. Han and Floros calculated the transparency in the following equation [161]:
Transparency = A600 /x
where x is the film thickness (mm) and A600 is the absorbance at 600 nm. The greater transparency value
is represented by lower transparency. In 2019, Montenegro and Freier patented a transparent tissue
dressing material based on deacetylated native chitosan suitable for different cosmetic applications such
as peelings and face masks [162]. In another work, the skin treated with chitosan film neutralized in
citrate buffer (with or without hyaluronic acid) prepared by Libio et al., demonstrated a desquamation
of the stratum corneum and a significant increase in the degree of hydration within 10 minutes on a
model of pig skin compared to skin without treatment. These results suggest that the biocompatible
film, in the absence of glycerol, promotes a cosmetic effect regarding skin exfoliation, thanks to the
bioadhesive properties of chitosan [163].
Morganti et al. in a study conducted in 2013 showed the antiaging activity of a particular cosmetic
formulation based on the use of chitin nanofibril-hyaluronan (CN-HA) block copolymeric nanoparticles.
These CN-HA block-copolymers should be used with invasive and non-invasive therapies in aesthetic
medicine, exploiting drug-delivery properties. In vitro studies have highlighted the ability to easily
encapsulate different active compounds (such as lutein) and in vivo studies have demonstrated the
innovative antiaging properties of these formulations, with encouraging long-lasting results [164–166].
As an alternative to the common chemical polymers, Rajashree and Rose investigated the antiaging
power of a gel based on collagen, chitosan, and Aloe vera. Chitosan improved the stability and the
capability to induce local cell proliferation, and in combination with collagen enhanced the skin
fibroblast biocompatibility, attachment, and proliferation. The final system was able to increase the
rejuvenation and regeneration of the skin [167].
the final system showed a good storage (regarding pH and viscosity) at room temperature for up to
90 days [171].
hair. Due to these properties, chitin and chitosan are used in cosmetic formulations such as hair tonics,
hair colorants, hair sprays, permanent wave agent, rinses, hair gels, etc. As an example of a drug
product developed for scalp treatment, we report a study of Matos et al., who developed a delivery
system based on chitosan nanoparticles (about 236 nm) loaded with minoxidil sulfate (MXS-NP) in
a 1:1 weight ratio, for targeted release to hair follicles. Chitosan nanoparticles were obtained using
low-MW chitosan and tripolyphosphate as crosslinked agent. MXS-NP were able to accumulate in the
hair follicles and support the release of drugs more than twice compared to the previous microparticles
loaded with MXS alone, maintaining relevant therapeutic concentrations for over 12 hours. The
loading of MXS into chitosan nanoparticles proves to be a promising strategy for the release of drugs
to hair follicles, improving the topical treatment of alopecia [178]. Nonetheless, the same strategy
could be investigated for the delivery of active natural compounds in cosmetic formulations. In 2017,
researchers studied the properties of hair covered with thin films consisting of collagen, chitosan, and
hyaluronic acid mixture, evaluating their respective surface and mechanical properties. Chitosan and
collagen were mixed in different volumetric ratios: 25:75, 50:50, and 75:25, while percentages of 1, 2,
and 3% of hyaluronic acid were added to the final solution. The film was obtained through solvent
evaporation method at room temperature. Thin film formulation brings numerous benefits to hair
such as thickness increase, favorable mechanical properties, better appearance, and conditioning [179].
5. Conclusions
The group of green products is wild and huge and among these, green cosmetics are increasing
their marketing power [189]. This review was mainly focused on the physicochemical and biological
properties of chitin and chitosan as marine-based natural polymers, and their potential use as starting
material for cosmetics. These polysaccharides and their respective derivatives have gained much
attention in many cosmetic formulations due to their high percentage of nitrogen (6.8%), their
Mar. Drugs 2019, 17, 369 21 of 30
structural characteristics (MW, DD, viscosity, and solubility) and their peculiar biological properties as
antibacterial and antioxidant potential agents. One of the major applications of chitin and chitosan
is to act as a promising delivery vehicle for active ingredients such as natural compounds, but also
as a drug-like active ingredient. In addition, these polysaccharides possess positive charges under
physiological conditions that favor the arrangement of a stable system by exploiting the negatively
charged nature of the skin, conferring an electrostatic durable interaction. With this review, we aimed
to offer an overview of recent developments regarding the use of chitin and chitosan in cosmetic
science and its applicability in hair, skin, nails, and oral care, also proposing the use of products
containing drugs (cosmeceutical) as an alternative to the classic cosmetics, hoping for upcoming
specific regulations.
Funding: The authors acknowledge receipt of funding from the European Commission through an
H2020-MSCA-ITN-2015 award, as part of the ISPIC project (grant number 675743), an H2020-MSCA-RISE-2016
award through the CHARMED project (grant number 734684) and an H2020-MSCA-RISE-2017 award through the
CANCER project (grant number 777682).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors confirm that this article content has no conflicts of interest.
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