Ebook PDF The Audit Process Principles Practice and Cases 7th Edition PDF
Ebook PDF The Audit Process Principles Practice and Cases 7th Edition PDF
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Contents vii
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
viii Contents
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Contents ix
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
x Contents
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Contents xi
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xii Contents
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Contents xiii
Credits 855
Index 857
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
A C K N O WL E D G E ME NTS
The authors and publishers wish to thank The Institute of Chartered Accoun-
tants in Ireland who have kindly given permission for the use of their past
examination questions in this book. We are grateful to the Association of Char-
tered Certified Accountants (ACCA) for permission to reproduce past exami-
nation questions. The suggested solutions in the exam answer bank have been
prepared by us, unless otherwise stated.
The authors and publishers would also like to thank the following who have
kindly given permission for short verbatim extracts of material for which they
hold copyright, to be reproduced in this book:
The International Federation of Accountants (IFAC®)
The International Auditing and Assurance Standards Board (IAASB®)
Financial Reporting Council (FRC)
International Accounting Standards Board (IASB®)
The authors and publishers would also like to thank Rolls-Royce plc who
has given the publisher permission to reproduce the extracts from Rolls-Royce
plc’s 2017 Annual Report which appear in Chapter 18. However, Rolls-Royce
in no way endorses the content of this book.
In preparing this book the authors benefited from discussions on auditing with
the following individuals: Tony Berry, the late Mary Bowerman, Alex Dunlop,
Pik Liew, Sean McCartney, Michael Sherer, Joanna Stevenson, Mahbub Zaman,
Jamil Ampomah, Emad Awadallah, Ian Dewing, Magda Abou-Seada Obby
Phiri, Mostafa Hussien, Gareth Morgan and Ursula Lucas. Although we would
like to blame these individuals for any errors or inadequacies of expression
remaining in the book we will follow custom and practice and accept the blame
for any such deficiencies. We received many useful comments and feedback
from students we have taught at the Universities of Essex, Sheffield Hallam,
Stirling and Dundee. We also acknowledge the insights we have gained by
discussing the subject of auditing with Diogenis Baboukardos, Ilias Basioudis,
Vivien Beattie, Emer Curtis, Silvia Gaia, Stella Fearnley, Ian Fraser, Catherine
Gowthorpe, the late David Gwilliam, David Hatherly, Christopher Humphrey,
Marjana Johansson, Phil Johnson, Suzanne Kerr, Anastasia Kopita, Azimjon
Kuvandikov, Steve Leonard, Kamran Malikov, Bill McInnes, Pat Mould, Martin
Nolan, Ian Percy, Brenda Porter, Michael Power, Dan Shen, Liya Shen, the
late Jayne Smith, Kim Smith, Stuart Turley, Shahzad Uddin, Andrew Wood,
Zhifang Zhang and participants at the annual Audit and Assurance Conference.
Particular thanks go to Laurie Orgee for his helpful comments on some aspects
of computer systems, and to Martyn Jones of Deloitte for insights into modern
audit approaches. We also had useful discussions with Christine Helliar and
Susan Whittaker on problems faced by students of auditing and how these can
be resolved. We also owe a debt of gratitude for the forbearance of Loraine,
Simon, Josslin, Dorothea and Kevin, Primrose and Abigail. Finally, we are
grateful to the publishers for their encouragement and patience.
xiv
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Acknowledgements xv
The author and publishers would like to thank the following reviewers who
provided invaluable commentary for this new edition and previous editions:
Ilias Basioudis (Senior Lecturer, Aston University), Roy Chandler (Professor,
Cardiff University), John Craner (Teaching Fellow, University of Birmingham),
Ian Dennis (Senior Lecturer, Oxford Brookes University), Ian Dewing (Pro-
fessor, University of East Anglia), Julie Drake (Principal Lecturer, University
of Huddersfield), Ellie Franklin (Senior Lecturer in Finance, Middlesex Uni-
versity London), Jan (Sarah) Loughran (Associate Professor in Accounting,
Durham University), Wendy Mazzucco (Lecturer, Glasgow Caledonian Uni-
versity), Astero Michael (Lecturer, Intercollege Limassol), Ian Money (Senior
Lecturer in Accounting and Finance, The University of York) and Susan Whit-
taker (Senior Lecturer, University of West of England).
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
L ist of C ase S tudies
Chapter 1
CASE STUDY 1.1 Erin and Lee, Part 1 5
CASE STUDY 1.1 Erin and Lee, Part 2 6
CASE STUDY 1.1 Erin and Lee, Part 3 8
CASE STUDY 1.1 Erin and Lee, Part 4 10
Chapter 4
CASE STUDY 4.1 Rosedale Cosmetics plc, Part 1 140
CASE STUDY 4.1 Rosedale Cosmetics plc, Part 2 141
CASE STUDY 4.1 Rosedale Cosmetics plc, Part 3 143
CASE STUDY 4.1 Rosedale Cosmetics plc, Part 4 146
CASE STUDY 4.1 Rosedale Cosmetics plc, Part 5 146
CASE STUDY 4.1 Rosedale Cosmetics plc, Part 6 150
Chapter 6
CASE STUDY 6.1 Edengrove Limited 211
CASE STUDY 6.2 Kemback Limited, Part 1 217
CASE STUDY 6.2 Kemback Limited, Part 2 220
CASE STUDY 6.3 Hughes Electronics Limited 236
CASE STUDY 6.4 County Hotel Limited, Part 1 240
CASE STUDY 6.4 County Hotel Limited, Part 2 242
CASE STUDY 6.5 Cosmetics company: Fine Faces plc 253
Chapter 7
CASE STUDY 7.1 Ridgewalk plc 269
Chapter 8
CASE STUDY 8.1 High Quality Limited: small independent
supermarket299
CASE STUDY 8.2 Caiplie Financial Services:
entity in the financial services sector 301
CASE STUDY 8.3 Horton Limited: cash received system 308
Chapter 10
CASE STUDY 10.1 Broomfield plc: sales and trade
receivables system 369
CASE STUDY 10.2 Broomfield plc: part of purchases and
trade payables system 372
CASE STUDY 10.3 Troston plc: production payroll 374
CASE STUDY 10.4 Burbage Limited: sales order processing
and application controls 377
Chapter 11
CASE STUDY 11.1 Powerbase plc: the substantive audit
programme for purchases 398
xvi
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
List of Case Studies xvii
Chapter 12
CASE STUDY 12.1 Broomfield plc: an example of
judgemental sampling 430
Chapter 13
CASE STUDY 13.1 Kothari Limited: analytical review 468
CASE STUDY 13.2 Art Aid Limited: analytical review 473
Chapter 14
CASE STUDY 14.1 Pykestone plc: non-current assets 490
CASE STUDY 14.2 Sterndale plc: ageing statement 509
CASE STUDY 14.3 Sterndale plc: analytical review of sales
and trade receivables 510
Chapter 15
CASE STUDY 15.1 Billbrook Limited: analysis of inventory, Part 1 530
CASE STUDY 15.1 Billbrook Limited: analysis of inventory, Part 2 531
CASE STUDY 15.2 Greenburn Limited: inventory taking instructions 536
Chapter 17
CASE STUDY 17.1 Protecting the environment in an area of scenic beauty 615
CASE STUDY 17.2 Gilling Limited 618
CASE STUDY 17.3 Greenburn Limited: fleet of vans 624
CASE STUDY 17.4 Photocopying costs in an educational institution 626
CASE STUDY 17.5 Barnton plc 627
CASE STUDY 17.6 Internal audit at Troston plc 637
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
INDEX OF LEGAL CASES
ADT Ltd vs BDO Binder Hamlyn [1996] B.C.C. 808 771, 785 and 799
Andrew and others vs Kounnis Freeman [1999] 2 B.C.L.C. 641 786 and 799
Anns vs Merton London Borough Council [1978] A.C. 728 777
AWA Ltd vs Daniels t/a Deloitte Haskins & Sells [1992] 7 A.C.S.R. 759,
[1992] 9 A.C.S.R. 383 793
Bank of Credit and Commerce International (Overseas) Ltd (In Liquidation)
vs Price Waterhouse [No. 2], [1998] B.C.C. 617, [1998] E.C.C. 410 800
Barings plc (In Liquidation) and Another vs Coopers & Lybrand and
Others (No. 8) [2000] All ER [D] 616 793 and 800
Candler vs Crane Christmas & Co. [1951] C.A. [1951] 2K.B. 164 [1951]
1 All E.R. 426 [1951] 1 T.L.R. 371 773 and 797
Caparo Industries plc vs Dickman and Others [1989] Q.B. 653,
[1989] 2 W.L.R. 316, [1989] 1 All E.R. 798, [1989] 5 B.C.C. 105,
B.C.L.C. 154, [1990] 2 A.C. 605, [1990] 2 W.L.R. 358, 1
All E.R. 568, [1990] B.C.C. 164, [1990] B.C.L.C. 273. 776
Coulthard & Orrs vs Neville Russell [1998] 1 B.C.L.C. 143, [1998] B.C.C. 359 800
Donaghue vs Stevenson [1932] S.C. [H.L.] 31 773
Electra Private Equity Partners vs KPMG Peat Marwick [2001] B.C.L.C. 589 800
Galoo Ltd and Others vs Bright Grahame Murray (A Firm) [1994]
B.C.L.C. 492, [1994] 1 W.L.R. 1360, [1995] 1 All E.R. 16, [1994]
B.C.C. 319 783 and 787
Hedley Byrne & Co. vs Heller and Partners Ltd [1963] A.C. 465,
[1963] 2 All E.R. 575, [1963] 3 W.L.R. 101 773 and 797
Irish Woollen Co. Ltd vs Tyson and Others [1900] 26 Acct. L. R. 13 719 and 737
James McNaughton Paper Group Ltd. vs Hicks Anderson & Co. [1991]
2 W.L.R. 641, [1991] 2 Q.B. 113, [1991] 1 All E.R. 134, [1991]
B.C.L.C. 163, [1990] B.C.C. 891 781
Jarvis plc vs PriceWaterhouseCoopers [2000] 2 B.C.L.C. 368 149
JEB Fasteners Ltd vs Marks Bloom & Co. [1981] 3 All E.R. 289 775 and 797
Man Nutzfahrzeuge AG vs Freightliner Ltd and Ernst & Young [2007]
EWCA Civ 910 800
Morgan Crucible Co. vs Hill Samuel Bank Ltd and Others [1991]
Ch 295, [1991] 1 All E.R. 148, [1991] 2 W.L.R. 655, [1991]
B.C.L.C. 178, [1991] B.C.C. 82 782
Re Kingston Cotton Mill Co. (No. 2) [1896] 2 Ch 279 718 & 737
Re Thomas Gerrard & Son Ltd [1967] 2 All E.R. 525, [1967]
3 W.L.R. 84, [1968] Ch 455 719 & 737
Royal Bank of Scotland vs Bannerman Johnstone Maclay and
Others [2002] S.L.T. 181 685 and 786
Sasea Finance Limited [in liquidation] vs KPMG [2000] 1 B.C.L.C. 236,
[2000] 1 All E.R. 676 714
Stone & Rolls Ltd (in Liquidation) vs Moore Stephens (a Firm) [2009]
UKHL39719
Twomax Ltd and Goode vs Dickson, McFarlane and Robinson
[1983] S.L.T. 98 775, 776, 797 and 798
xviii
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
PR EFACE
the detailed requirements of accounting standards in this book (in other words this
book is not about accounting (or indeed auditing standards)). We are concerned
primarily with principles and where these principles have been reflected in official
standards, we quote from those standards.
In Chapter 4 we introduce students to the requirements of the Companies Act
2006, which is in force in Great Britain. Students outside of Great Britain should
refer to company legislation in their own jurisdiction. We also introduce you to new
EU directives and regulations where appropriate. This seventh edition has been
restructured to some extent and contains a new chapter on corporate governance
which we have placed towards the front of the book (see Chapter 5) because of its
importance. We have also reworked the chapter on current issues (Chapter 22).
As in previous editions we have adopted the framework of the audit year
of a firm of auditors auditing the financial statements of a variety of organiza-
tions. Care has been taken to ensure that the practical work of the auditor is
presented as clearly and logically as possible so that the student will have a good
appreciation of what the audit process is about. Students are recommended to
take note of any important developments relating to international accounting
and auditing standards.
One of the strengths of this book, in our view, is the carefully paced tutorial
approach that has been adopted throughout, which means that it can be used
as a tool in the classroom as well as for private study. We have attempted to
make the book as readable and interesting as possible.
Regrettably, auditing is often seen as being deadly boring. This is not our
view, and we would go so far as to say that those who believe it to be boring will
tend to be unimaginative and bad auditors in consequence. Auditing affects most
people in society, either directly or indirectly, and its current role is changing,
and in some important areas is being extended. Our hope is that this book will
prove to be a useful vehicle for providing an understanding of what auditing is
about and that it will be a valuable contribution to the auditing debate.
T H E FRA M EW O R K O F TH E B O O K
The chapters contain detailed study material illustrated by many examples,
case studies and questions. Some of the questions – called tasks or activities –
are within the body of the text and they involve the student in a self-learning
process; they expect students to advance the argument themselves either using
principles discussed in the text or by using their common sense and imagina-
tion. In each case, you should make sure that you try to answer these questions
before proceeding to the next part of the text. In the case of tasks, the suggested
solutions are provided at the end of each chapter, whereas for the activities the
solution is provided immediately following the question.
At the end of each chapter there is a comprehensive range of self-assessment
questions designed to help you decide if the material in the text has been
understood. Auditing in practice requires the exercise of considerable judge-
ment in the context of a particular set of circumstances, and some of the ques-
tions are mini-case studies aimed at giving you experience in analyzing and
interpreting information and forming reasoned conclusions. Suggested solu-
tions to some of these questions have been provided for students on the com-
panion website. Other solutions are only available to recognized tutors on the
same website, for which they need to register.
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Preface xxi
Figure 0.1 shows how the audit process flows through the contents of the
study chapters. You will find it useful to look back at this diagram occasionally
when studying individual chapters (right-hand column) to locate the subject you
are studying within a particular stage of the auditing process (left-hand column).
Note that the chapters are not set out in strict numerical sequence. This is
because some chapters are relevant to more than one stage. Some of the chapters
do not fit into the process itself but are useful in that they throw light onto how
auditing is viewed and on possible directions that auditing will take in the future.
FIGURE 0.1 Stages in the auditing process and how they are covered in the chapters
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xxii Preface
NO T E
Please note that official Examination Questions, together with suggested s olutions,
can be found on the companion website for the book.
These contain two sets of questions. The first set has been presented in
the form of two examination papers, each containing six questions. Suggested
solutions have been provided for the questions on these papers but of course
you should first attempt to answer them by yourself. The second set contains
selected questions which you can use as additional exercises to test your knowl-
edge and understanding for yourself. Your tutors may wish to set some of
these questions as a formal exercise, so check with them before attempting any.
Suggested solutions to the second set of questions are available on the website
mentioned above.
H OW T O U S E TH I S B O O K
NO T E FO R T UT O R S
The authors have prepared guidance notes for tutors to accompany this book. This
guidance is available in the lecturers’ section of the companion website of this title.
To use the book intelligently you need to plan your work and set aside regular
time each week for study. If you have no prior knowledge of auditing, you will
probably need about 150 hours of study to cover the material in this book to
examination standard – say about 4.5 hours per week of concentrated study over
a period of eight to nine months. Time for additional reading and for practice
questions is included in this total and it is absolutely essential for you to devote
time to these. Auditing as a subject requires both literacy and to some extent
numeracy – particularly the former in the examination context – and it is vital
that you gain experience in expressing yourself and writing up your solutions to
the selected questions. You should not look at the suggested solutions until you
have worked the questions yourself. Don’t forget that frequently there may be
no single ‘correct’ solution. If this is the case our suggested solution will make
it clear.
Your approach to using the book should be something like this:
• Read the learning objectives at the beginning of the chapter then briefly
skim through the chapter page by page to get a feel for the length and
complexity of the subjects it covers. It might also be useful at this stage to
have a brief look through the summary at the end of the chapter.
• Begin reading the chapter, following up where necessary the occasional
suggestions for further reading, references to source material or cross-
references to other parts of the text, and make sure you understand each
section before moving on. The marginal notes are usually brief explanatory
notes that have been devised to carry information or advice which is not
essential to your understanding of the subject or your mastery of your own
particular syllabus. Make notes in the remaining marginal space as you go
along, especially on those topics featured in the learning objectives.
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Preface xxiii
• When you come to each task or activity you should attempt to answer
it before moving on. Check your own answers against the suggested
solutions at the end of each chapter (in the case of tasks) and against our
comments following each activity. If your answers are incorrect, make
sure you understand where and why you went wrong before moving on
to the next subject. Sometimes tasks will require you to think of answers
which have not been specifically covered in the preceding text, but by
using a combination of common sense and imagination you should still
be able to answer them. These questions are designed to involve you
actively in the learning process, not simply to test your knowledge; they
ask you to engage in critical thought at strategic points throughout the text
and this will ultimately deepen your understanding of the subject. Don’t
be tempted to skip them. Indeed, you may lose out if you do, since later
topics often require an understanding of the areas covered by them.
At the end of each chapter you will find a series of self-assessment questions.
These have been designed to test your understanding of the main points in each
chapter so you should attempt them whenever they appear. Suggested solutions
to some of these questions have been provided on the companion website in
the student/lecturer section. Other solutions are only available to recognized
tutors on the same website. If you answer any of the questions incorrectly, make
sure you check back in the text to find out why. Often the commentary on the
answers will give you a good idea of where and why you went wrong. Make
sure you follow up these leads.
Occasionally it may be advisable for you to tackle one of the full examina-
tion questions. Remember that it is good practice to ask yourself, before you
start the question, what area of knowledge it is designed to test. Once you have
completed your answer, study the answer provided in the answers section on
the student side of the companion website, noting the main points of principle
and checking back if any of your answers are wrong.
At intervals in your study you will need to build in revision sessions. It may
be helpful to rework the self-assessment questions in earlier chapters to identify
areas needing priority revision attention.
You should aim to have completed your main studies at least one month
before the examination. The final month should be the time for revision, not for
initial learning. Work and rework the practice questions, noting the points of
principle and remembering the vital importance of speed in examination work.
CO M PAN IO N W EB S I T E
For students
• Answers to self-assessment questions (student questions)
• Additional appendix material for chapters in the book
• Related links
For tutors
• Guidance notes for tutors
• PowerPoint lecture slides
• Additional appendix material for chapters in the book
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
experimental and hypothetical method with which he is already
familiar in the physical sciences.
In this version of the work of the three leading pragmatists it is
assumed, of course, that the pragmatist philosophy is the only
philosophy that can show to the average man that philosophy can
really do something useful—can “bake bread,” if you will, can give to
a man the food of a man. It is assumed, too, that it is the only
philosophy which proceeds scientifically, that is to say, by means of
observation and of hypotheses that “work,” and by subsequent
deduction and by “verification.” And again, that it is the only
philosophy that gives to man the realities upon which he can base
his aspirations or his faith in distinction, that is to say, from the mere
abstractions of Rationalism in any form.
By way of a few quotations illustrative of the fundamental
contentions of the pragmatists, we may select the following: “Ideas
become true just in so far as they help us to get into satisfactory
relation with other parts of our experience, to summarise them and
get about among them by conceptional short-cuts instead of
following the interminable succession of particular phenomena. Any
idea upon which we can ride, so to speak; any idea that will carry us
prosperously from any one part of our experience to any other part,
linking things satisfactorily, working securely, simplifying, saving
labour—is true for just so much, true in so far forth, true
29
instrumentally.” “The true is the name of whatever proves itself to
be good in the way of belief, and good for definite and assignable
30
reasons.” From Professor Dewey: “Thinking is a kind of activity
which we perform at specific need, just as at other times we engage
in other sorts of activity, as converse with a friend, draw a plan for a
house, take a walk, eat a dinner, purchase a suit of clothes, etc. etc.
The measure of its success, the standard of its validity is precisely
the degree in which thinking disposes of the difficulty and allows us
to proceed with the more direct modes of experiencing, that are
31
henceforth possessed of more assured and deepened value.”
From Dr. Schiller’s book, Studies in Humanism: “Pragmatism is the
doctrine that when an assertion claims truth, its consequences are
always used to test its claims; that (2) the truth of an assertion
depends on its application; that (3) the meaning of a rule lies in its
application; that (4) all meaning depends on purpose; that (5) all
mental life is purposive. It [Pragmatism] must constitute itself into (6)
a systematic protest against all ignoring of the purposiveness of
actual knowing, alike whether it is abstracted from for the sake of the
imaginary, pure, or absolute reason of the rationalists, or eliminated
for the sake of an equally imaginary or pure mechanism of the
naturalists. So conceived, we may describe it as (7) a conscious
application to logic of a teleological psychology which implies
ultimately a voluntaristic metaphysics.”
From these citations, and from the descriptive remarks of the
preceding two paragraphs, we may perhaps be enabled to infer that
our Anglo-American Pragmatism has progressed from the stage of
(1) a mere method of discussing truth and thinking in relation to the
problem of philosophy as a whole, (2) that of a more or less definite
and detailed criticism of the rationalism that overlooks the practical,
or purposive, character of most of our knowledge, to that of (3) a
humanistic or “voluntaristic” or “personalistic” philosophy, with its
32
many different associations and affiliations. One of the last
developments, for example, of this pragmatist humanism is Dr.
Schiller’s association of philosophy with the metaphysics of
evolution, with the attempt to find the goal of the world-process and
of human history in a changeless society of perfected individuals.
We shall immediately see, however, that this summary
description of the growth of Pragmatism has to be supplemented by
a recognition of (1) some of the different phases Pragmatism has
assumed on the continent of Europe, (2) the different phases that
may be detected in the reception or criticism accorded to it in
different countries, and (3) some of the results of the pragmatist
movement upon contemporary philosophy. All these things have to
do with the making of the complex thing that we think of as
Pragmatism and the pragmatist movement.
A NOTE ON THE MEANING OF
“PRAGMATISM”
(1) “The opinion that metaphysics is to be largely cleared up by the application of
the following maxim for obtaining clearness of apprehension: ‘Consider what
effects that might conceivably have practical bearings, we conceive the object of
our conception to have. Then, our conception of these effects is the whole of our
conception of the object’” (Baldwin’s Philosophical Dictionary, vol. ii. p. 321). [We
can see from this citation that the application of its formulæ about “consequences”
to metaphysics, or philosophy generally, must be considered as a part, or aspect,
of the pragmatist philosophy.]
(2) “The doctrine that the whole meaning of a conception expresses itself in
practical consequences; consequences either in the shape of conduct to be
recommended, or in that of experiences to be expected, if the conception be true;
which consequences would be different, if it were untrue, and must be different
from the consequences by which the meaning of other conceptions is in turn
expressed. If a second conception should not appear to have other consequence,
then it must be really only the first conception under a different name. In
methodology, it is certain that to trace and compare their respective consequences
is an admirable way of establishing the different meanings of different conceptions”
(ibid., from Professor James).
(3) “A widely current opinion during the last quarter of a century has been that
‘reasonableness’ is not a good in itself, but only for the sake of something.
Whether it be so or not seems to be a synthetical question [i.e. a question that is
not merely a verbal question, a question of words], not to be settled by an appeal
to the Principle of Contradiction [the principle hitherto relied upon by Rationalism
or Intellectualism].... Almost everybody will now agree that the ultimate good lies in
the evolutionary process in some way. If so, it is not in individual reactions in their
segregation, but in something general or continuous. Synechism is founded on the
notion that the coalescence, the becoming continuous, the becoming governed by
laws, the becoming instinct with general ideas, are but phases of one and the
same process of the growth of reasonableness” (ibid. p. 322. From Dr. Peirce, the
bracket clauses being the author’s).
(4) “It is the belief that ideas invariably strive after practical expression, and
that our whole life is teleological. Putting the matter logically, logic formulates
theoretically what is of regulative importance for life—for our ‘experience’ in view of
practical ends. Its philosophical meaning is the conviction that all facts of nature,
physically and spiritually, find their expressions in ‘will’; will and energy are
identical. This tendency is in agreement with the practical tendencies of American
thought and American life in so far as they both set a definite end before Idealism”
(Ueberweg-Heinze, Geschichte der Philosophie, vol. iv., written and contributed by
Professor Matoon Monroe Curtis, Professor of Philosophy in Western Reserve
University, Cleveland, U.S.A.).
(5) See also an article in Mind for October 1900, vol. ix. N.S., upon
“Pragmatism” by the author of this book on Pragmatism and Idealism, referred to
as one of the early sources in Baldwin’s Philosophical Dictionary (New York and
London) and in Ueberweg-Heinze’s Geschichte, Vierter Teil (Berlin, 1906).
The conclusion that I am inclined to draw from the foregoing official statements
(and also, say, from another official article like that of M. Lalande in the Revue
Philosophique, 1906, on “Pragmatisme et Pragmaticisme”) is that the term
“Pragmatism” is not of itself a matter of great importance, and that there is no
separate, intelligible, independent, self-consistent system of philosophy that may
be called Pragmatism. It is a general name for the Practicalism or Voluntarism or
Humanism or the Philosophy of the Practical Reason, or the Activism, or the
Instrumentalism, or the Philosophy of Hypotheses, or the Dynamic Philosophy of
life and things that is discussed in different ways in this book upon Pragmatism
and Idealism. And it is not and cannot be independent of the traditional body of
philosophical truth in relation to which it can alone be defined.
CHAPTER II
PRAGMATISM AND THE PRAGMATIST
MOVEMENT