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SHERRI
S HERRI MORA
M O RA

THE STATE OF TEXAS

GOVERNMENT, POLITICS, AND POLICY
FOURTH EDITION
THE STATE OF TEXAS: GOVERNMENT, POLITICS, AND POLICY, FOURTH EDITION

Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Education. All
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Mora, Sherri, author.

Title: The state of Texas : government, politics, and policy / Sherri Mora.
Description: Fourth Edition. | New York : McGraw-Hill Education, [2019] |
Audience: Age: 18+
Identifiers: LCCN 2018042882| ISBN 9781259912412 (acid-free paper) | ISBN
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Subjects: LCSH: Texas--Politics and government.
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endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the
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mheducation.com/highered
 P reface

Built for Texas Government Courses . . .

By Texas Government Voices . . .

For Texas Government Students!

The State of Texas: Government, Politics, and Policy, 4e,

combines concise content with effective digital tools that
provide a personalized learning experience for every student.
Built to align directly with state learning outcomes and core
objectives, this highly readable program provides students with the content
and tools to make Texas government relevant in their lives.

with disabilities. And as part of any government

Developing Foundational
course, SmartBook now focuses on the broader con-
Knowledge and Honing Skills text for and building blocks of the political system.
With a comprehensive content program, a revision Specifically, it has been enhanced with improved
that was informed by student data, and numerous learning objectives to ensure that students gain foun-
assignable activities in Connect Texas Govern- dational knowledge while also learning to make con-
ment®, The State of Texas includes ample material nections for broader understanding of government
for a full semester course on Texas government. institutions, events, and behavior. SmartBook per-
sonalizes learning to individual student needs, con-
SmartBook 2.0®, found in Connect Texas Govern-
tinually adapting to pinpoint knowledge gaps and
ment, is organized around the Texas Learning Out-
focus learning on topics that need the most atten-
comes and Core Objectives, providing the ability to
tion. Study time is more productive and, as a result,
assess directly on those outcomes.
students are better prepared for class and course-
Better Data, Smarter Revision, work. For instructors, SmartBook tracks student
Improved Results progress and provides insights that can help guide
teaching strategies.
Students study more effectively with SmartBook 2.0. Using SmartBook, students helped inform the
SmartBook 2.0 is an adaptive reading experience revision strategy:
designed to help students learn better, study smarter,
and retain more knowledge for greater success. It STEP 1. Over the course of two years, data points
helps students distinguish what they know from showing concepts that caused students
what they don’t know and focus on concepts they the most difficulty were anonymously
are most likely to forget. collected from the Connect Texas
New to this edition, SmartBook is now optimized Government SmartBook product.
for mobile and tablet and is accessible for students
vii
viii The State of Texas: Government, Politics, and Policy

STEP 2. The data from SmartBook were provided to the authors in the form
of a Heat Map, which graphically illustrated “hot spots” in the text
that impacted student learning (see images left).
STEP 3. The authors used the Heat Map data to refine the content and rein-
force student comprehension in the new edition. Additional quiz ques-
tions and assignable activities were created for use in Connect Texas
Government
ChapTer 4 The Executive Department toOffice
and the further support
of the Governorstudent
of Texas success. 153
RESULT: Because the Heat Map gave the authors empirically based feedback
at the paragraph and even sentence level, they were able to develop
Each governor is going to make different theuse
newof edition
her or his staff.
using In recent
precise years
student data that pinpointed concepts
most have used their staff to keep track of that
statecaused
agencies over which
students the governors
the most difficulty.
themselves have little or no direct control. The staff also gathers information and
makes recommendations on changes in policy that affect most areas of state gov-
ernment. A message from a member Understanding Impact
of the governor’s staff to a state agency is
taken seriously. A report issued by the governor’s office automatically attracts the
Understanding Impact features help students understand why key content matters
attention of significant state leaders and the news media. Often the governor must
and includes critical thinking questions to help them apply what they learn. Top-
use the information gathered to wage a public relations war with the legislature or
ics include understanding the impact of informal qualifications in the Texas
state agencies. In Texas, the increases in the size, professionalism, and complexity
gubernatorial race and understanding the impact of Internet-savvy campaigns for
of the governor’s staff have become necessary to offset the limited formal control
upstart candidates.
the governor has over state government.

Understanding Impact In the previous section, Formal Powers of the Governor, you learned that the powers of the Texas
governor are relatively weak when compared to the power conferred on governors of other states. In this section you
learned that the informal powers of the governor have evolved over time and the position has achieved new relevance. Do
you believe the governor’s informal powers have strengthened the power of the office, or does our governor still occupy
a relatively weak position in state government? Give reasons for your answer.

Conclusion
How To
Even though governors in most states do not have much governing this large, diverse, and economically impor-
formal power, the office has great To featuresinprovide
Howimportance state students tant statewithchallenging.
step-by-stepSome guidance
reformfor of developing
the powers of skills
the
they need for college
politics. In recent years, the importance of the office has and for life. Topics include “How to Think
governor is still needed, but it is doubtful that such Critically about
increased. Of the past five U.S.Issues” and “How
presidents, three haveto Interpret a Table.”
changes will occur. The political culture of the state
140 T S he T : Government, Politics, and Policy
TaTe of exaS
been state governors before their move to the White does not support that change. Leadership will have to
House (Ronald Reagan in California, Bill Clinton in come from force of will and personality, not from for-
Arkansas, and George W. Bush in Texas).
How to The office has mal changes in structure. Interest groups do not sup-
become increasingly visible in both state and national port transferring power from state agencies they can
politics. The need for strong leadership in thisa Table
Interpret office will dominate to agencies under the control of a single indi-
continue to increase. vidual appointed
Tables summarize and simplify information. They present
by the governor. Although the Sunset
$10,616 each. This information suggests that those ap-
Texas is now the second-largestnames,state in population
numbers, Advisory
percentages, and amounts in a way thatCommission has had
pointed to education boardsaand
positive impact
commissions gave moreon
and one of the leading states in industrial growth.
is easy to read. Let’s use The some
Table 4.3 to work agencies,
through the general
money to Rick reorganization of state
Perry’s campaign than govern-
any other ap-
process of interpreting a table. pointed office category. Conversely, 28 individuals that
governor’s lack of formal power makes the task of ment is not likely anytime soon.
Perry appointed to retirement boards and commissions
Step 1: What is the title of Table 4.3?
contributed less than other appointed office categories,
The title of the table tells you how the elements within the
with an average contribution of $248 per appointee.
table are related. Table 4.3 has the title “Governor Rick
Summary Perry Campaign Contributions and Appointments to Step 4: What conclusions can you draw from
Boards and Commissions.” The title presents the relation- Table 4.3?
ship between Governor Perry’s campaign contributions Though it is possible to make several observations about
LO: Summarize the formal and informal
and the appointments he made to state boardsEachandstate
com-elects andincluded
the data provides for
in the theit succession
table, is important to of lookits
qualifications for the governor of Texas.
missions. executive officials according
for the big to its the
picture. For example, own totalrules.
appointeeTexas
do-
nations in the education category ($1,433,093) made up
Step 2: What areincluding
While there are certain formal qualifications the column headings? elects the governor and lieutenant governor separately
37 percent (calculated as 1,433,093 divided by
The column headings or subheadings identify what data
citizenship, age, and residency, required
the tableby law in Texas,
is reporting.
and could,
In Table 4.3 the column headings
therefore,
3,870,324) have
of totalaappointee
split executive,
donations fromthough this
all catego-

gubernatorial candidates are subject to a much broader

show (1) the “Appointed Office Category”seldom
expressed happens.
as a If a governor
ries combined leaves
($3,870,324). the state
The combination or
of the is
totalre-
appointee donations in the combined categories of Edu-
percentage of all appointments, (2) the “Average Appoin-
 Preface ix

Critical Thinking Activities

At the apply, analyze, and evaluate levels of Bloom’s taxonomy, Critical Thinking
activities in Connect Texas Government allow students to engage with the politi-
cal process and learn by doing. For example, students will understand how Texas
is a majority-minority state.

Informing and Engaging Students on Texas

Government . . . as It Happens
Using Connect Texas Government, students can learn the course material more
deeply and study more effectively than ever before.

Texas NewsFlash
We ensure that you have the most up-to-date content to share with your students
through our NewsFlash activities, which are updated monthly. NewsFlash exer-
cises tie current news stories to key Texas government concepts and learning
objectives. After interacting with a contemporary news story, students are assessed
on their ability to make the connection between real-life events and course
content.

Texas Podcasts
Texas government faculty can now create broader interest, engagement, and rele-
vancy in their courses by leveraging political podcasts about Texas government
and politics. These assignments, which will be periodically expanded, will ask
students to listen to relevant podcasts, demonstrate their understanding of the
basic concepts presented, and reflect the broader context of the Texas political
system.

Concept Clips
Concept Clips help students break down key concepts in government. Using easy-
to-understand audio narration, visual cues, and colorful animations, Concept
Clips provide a step-by-step presentation that aids in student retention. In addi-
tion to the concept-based clips, the new edition also offers several Skills Based
Clips that equip students for work within and outside the classroom. These skills-
based clips include the following:
• How to Evaluate News Source
• How to Think Critically
• How to Read a Court Case
• How to Understand Charts and Graphs
• How to Interpret Political Cartoons
• How to Avoid Plagiarism
x The State of Texas: Government, Politics, and Policy

Focus On
Focus On features present students with engaging examples of how Hispanic and
Latino individuals, groups, and culture play an important role in Texas political
life. Focus On features now profile individuals relevant to today’s student.
In Chapter 4, for example, the Focus On feature is titled “A Hispanic Governor
for Texas?”
ChapTer 4 The Executive Department and the Office of the Governor of Texas 121

Focus On
A Hispanic Governor for Texas?
Absolutely, proclaims Texas Monthly magazine. The article, “El
Gobernador,” written in February 2008, begins with a hypo-
thetical story of Rafael Anchia, currently serving as a state
legislator from Dallas, winning the 2018 Texas gubernatorial
race. Although the article begins with a look forward, its main
focus is on the history of Hispanic politics and the changing
demographics of the state.3 According to the U.S. Census, 38.6
percent of Texans are Hispanic.4 Texas will likely have a His-
panic governor someday; the main question is when.
During the 2002 governor’s race, the state came very close.
Tony Sanchez, a business executive and politician from Laredo,
was the first Hispanic to run for governor in the statewide
election. Before the election, he served as board regent for the
University of Texas at Austin and also worked, albeit unsuc- ©Tony Gutierrez/ASSOCIATED PRESS
cessfully, to get a Hispanic to run for president of the UT
Health Science Center in San Antonio. Moving into election season, Sanchez won the Democratic primary with 60 per-
cent of the vote and faced off against Rick Perry, who had been unopposed in the Republican primary.5
During the election, many Democrats hoped that the state’s Hispanic population would turn out in larger numbers
and become a more distinct bloc in favor of the Democratic Party.6 Unfortunately for Democrats and Sanchez, there was
less Hispanic mobilization for their party than desired. Sanchez lost the election, winning only 40 percent of the vote.7 In
addition, although Hispanic turnout improved somewhat from the 2000 election, there was not enough movement to
indicate a surge.8 Hispanic turnout has been historically low as a percentage of Hispanic population and remains so.9
(See Chapter 9 for more information on Hispanic voter turnout.)

2018 Governor’s Race

Lupe Valdez, former sheriff of Dallas County, was one of the
two top vote-getting candidates in an indecisive Democratic
primary in March 2018. She faced off against Andrew White,
the son of former governor Mark White, in a May 2018 runoff
to determine the candidate of the Democratic Party.
Both the Democratic and Republican parties have been
making inroads, capturing votes as well as candidates from the
grassroots up. Although voter turnout among Hispanics re-
mains low, Rafael Anchia and Lupe Valdez are part of a rising
group of Hispanic politicians who have very real potential to
capture the governor’s office in the near future. This group also
includes current Texas Land Commissioner George P. Bush and
former secretary of Housing and Urban Development Julian
Castro.
Lupe Valdez©REX/Shutterstock
Critical Thinking Questions
1. What do you think it will take to mobilize and expand the Hispanic electorate?
2. In your opinion, why might the Hispanic vote be important for candidates seeking statewide office?

mor12418_ch04_119-156.indd 121 9/27/18 11:26 AM

 Preface xi

Emphasizing Texas Voices

The Fourth Edition is proud to include the contributions from several Texas faculty
members with a wealth of experience in the Texas government classroom:
• Donna Hooper, North Central Texas College
• Patrick Moore, Richland College
• Veronica Reyna, Houston Community College
• Thomas Varacalli, Texas State University
• Geoffrey Willbanks, Tyler Junior College

Real-Time Reports, On the Go, Made Easier

Student performance reports show you their progress.
Connect Insight is a one-of-a-kind visual analytics dashboard—available for
both instructors and students—that provides at-a-glance information regarding
student performance.
• Make It Intuitive. You receive instant, at-a-glance views of student
performance matched with student activity.
• Make It Dynamic. Connect Insight puts real-time analytics in your hands
so you can take action early and keep struggling students from falling
behind.
• Make It Mobile. Connect Insight travels from office to classroom, available
on demand wherever and whenever it’s needed.

Content Changes
As mentioned, we revised the Fourth Edition in response to student Heat Map
data that pinpointed the topics and concepts where students struggled the most.
This was reflected primarily in the chapter on public policy in Texas.
Chapter 1: Introduction to Texas History and Politics
• Reduced the number of historical details
• Added information on diversity within Texas
• Updated political and economic information
• Added a “How to Read a Map” feature
Chapter 2: The American Federal System and the Texas State Constitution
• Enhanced discussion of American federalism
• Explained the connection between culture and constitutional history
• Highlighted characteristics common to state institutions
• Updated information on Navarro’s legacy today and how it impacts us
• Added a “How to Read Critically” feature
Chapter 3: The Texas Legislature
• Reordered text to improve flow
• Reduced the amount of detail
xii The State of Texas: Government, Politics, and Policy

• Revised information on gerrymandering

• Included information on how students can find contact information for
their own representatives
• Added a “How to Think Critically about Issues” feature
• Updated political information, economic information, and research results
Chapter 4: The Executive Department and the Office of the Governor of Texas
• Enhanced discussion of governor’s formal and informal powers
• Explained how race, class, and gender play into the history of the Texas
governorship
• Highlighted the role informal powers play in the governorship
• Updated the Focus On feature with the 2018 Texas governor’s race
• Added a “How to Interpret a Table” feature
Chapter 5: The Court System in Texas
• Enhanced discussion of Texas judicial selection
• Explained the role campaign finance plays in judicial elections and
decision making
• Highlighted the difference between civil and criminal procedures
• Updated the Focus On feature to include a brief discussion of Hispanics
on the Texas Supreme Court today
• Added a “How to Interpret Figures” feature
Chapter 6: The Criminal Justice System in Texas
• Added information on juvenile justice and the death penalty
• Updated research data and polling results
• Added a “How to Locate Primary Sources” feature, with a focus on Texas
primary sources
Chapter 7: Local Governments in Texas
• Enhanced discussion of types of local government
• Explained municipal elections in Texas
• Highlighted the issue of voter turnout
• Updated information on special purpose districts
• Added a “How to Speak Effectively” feature
Chapter 8: Public Opinion and the Media in Texas
• Enhanced coverage on the role of public opinion
• Explained the functions of media in Texas politics
• Highlighted the role of the media in Texas political campaigns
• Updated information of the various sources of media
• Added a “How to Interpret Polling Data” feature
Chapter 9: Voting and Political Participation in Texas
• Added an explanation of how wealth and political protests affect politics
• Added information on gerrymandering in Texas
 Preface xiii

Chapter 10: Campaigns and Elections in Texas

• Enhanced coverage of the election process
• Explained primary elections
• Highlighted information on federal Voting Rights Act
• Updated data on early voting
• Added a “How to Get Involved with a Candidate or Issue” feature
Chapter 11: Political Parties in Texas
• Added specifics on voter fraud to make the chapter livelier and easier to
understand
• Included information on Texas women seeking the right to vote
• Included information on “white primaries” in Texas and on nonwhite
people being excluded from voting
• Updated information on Texas political races
• Clarified information on the impact of third parties in Texas, including
Raza Unida
• Included information on the “bathroom bill” in Texas and on transgender
citizens
Chapter 12: Interest Groups and Lobbying in Texas
• Added a “How to Evaluate Sources” feature
• New “Understanding Impact” feature challenging students to think
critically about the political process in which interest groups operate
• Updated map of right-to-work states and added new photos
• Enhanced discussion of Hispanic interest groups and recent challenges to
Texas immigration law
• Updated data on labor union participation rates and lobbyists in Texas
• Provided new examples of interest group activity
Chapter 13: Public Policy in Texas
• Added an introduction explaining what public policy is and why it matters
to an individual student
• Revised and streamlined information on why and how public policy changes
• Revised information on policy liberalism indices to focus on Texas
• Streamlined chapter by reducing or deleting information on welfare policy,
school curricula, sex education, water policy, and veteran policy
• Updated information on LGBTQ rights
• Updated information on border control
• Updated information on tuition costs at public universities in Texas and
elsewhere in the United States
• Updated research results
Chapter 14: Financing State Government
• Enhanced coverage of tax equity
• Explained the principles of taxation
• Highlighted new data on tax structures
• Updated data on Texas expenditures
• Added a “How to Interpret a Graph” feature
xiv The State of Texas: Government, Politics, and Policy

Learning Outcomes and Core Objectives

GOVT 2306 is one of the foundational component areas within the Core Curricu-
lum identified by the Undergraduate Education Advisory Committee (UEAC) of
the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board (THECB). The UEAC has iden-
tified six core objectives, of which four—critical thinking skills, communication
skills, social responsibility, and personal responsibility—must be mapped to con-
tent in GOVT 2306. Those four core objectives are mapped to specific The State
of Texas content here and throughout each chapter.
Institutions must assess learning outcomes (provided in the UEAC’s Academic
Course Guide Manual); for example, the student’s demonstrated ability to explain
the origin and development of the Texas Constitution, consistent with assessment
practices required by the Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of
Colleges and Schools (SACSCOC).
These requirements include an explanation of measures, methodology, fre-
quency, and timeline of assessment; an explanation of targets and benchmarks of
“Core Objective” attainment; evidence of attainment of the required core objec-
tives; interpretation of assessment information; and the use of results for improv-
ing student learning. SACS principles of accreditation 3.3.1.1 requires institutions
to identify expected learning outcomes, assess the extent to which it achieves
these outcomes, and provide evidence of improvement based on analysis of the
results.
Adopting The State of Texas and using the provided assessment tools makes
SACS compliance easy while meeting the purpose of the Core Curriculum.
 Preface xv

Learning Outcomes and Core Objectives Correlation Table

Learning Outcome: Explain the Thinking List the several different “waves” of immigration. How have these settlement pat-
history, demographics, and political Critically terns changed over time and/or how have they stayed the same? How did they
culture of Texas. change the character and culture of Texas?

Learning Outcome: Explain the Communicating Write a short synopsis of Texas’s changing economy and its role in international
history, demographics, and political Effectively trade.
CHAPTER culture of Texas.

1
Learning Outcome: Explain the Taking Personal What can you do to become well informed about political issues so that you can
history, demographics, and political Responsibility make good decisions at election time?
culture of Texas.

Learning Outcome: Explain the Being Socially Understanding the relationship between religious affiliations and politics can improve
history, demographics, and political Responsible civic knowledge. How would you use this knowledge to engage effectively in your
culture of Texas. community? Think about your own religious affiliations (if any) and political beliefs and
how they compare with those of your neighbors. How might knowing your neighbors’
religious affiliations help you better understand their political views?

Learning Outcome: Describe Communicating Analyze the diagram in Figure 2.3 and the division of powers in Table 2.2 to describe
separation of powers and checks Effectively the separation of powers and checks and balances in both theory and practice in
and balances in both theory and Texas.
practice in Texas.

Learning Outcome: Explain the Thinking What is the impact of a constitutional convention dominated by one party? What
origin and development of the Critically were the consequences of the 1875 constitutional convention in the development of
CHAPTER Texas Constitution. the Texas Constitution?

2 Learning Outcome: Describe state

and local political systems and
their relationship with the federal
Being Socially
Responsible
To what extent should the government “promote general welfare”? What does
promoting general welfare mean to you? In developing an understanding of state
and local political systems and their relationship with the federal government, who
government. do you think should play a greater role—the states or the federal government?

Learning Outcome: Describe state Taking Personal As a resident of Texas and a citizen of the United States, can you identify and dis-
and local political systems and Responsibility cuss examples that reinforce the Full Faith and Credit Clause and the Privileges and
their relationship with the federal Immunities Clause of the U.S. Constitution? Which examples, in your opinion, violate
government. these principles?

Learning Outcome: Describe Communicating Some people contend that smaller constituencies might allow a wider array of
the legislative branch of Texas Effectively people to participate in state politics, rather than just the “rich” or “well born.”
government. How would you argue in favor of or against this statement?

Learning Outcome: Describe Being Socially Use this website to find your representatives: https://capitol.texas.gov/. The “Who
the legislative branch of Texas Responsible Represents Me” section allows you to put in your address and locate your state
government. house and senate members.
CHAPTER
Learning Outcome: Describe Thinking Both demographics and voting patterns have changed in Texas, and some districts

3 the legislative branch of Texas

government.
Critically have become more competitive, especially for Democrats in South Texas and in
inner-city districts. Discuss what these shifts mean for future elections and the
composition of the Texas House and Senate. Reference Table 3.5 in your answer.

Learning Outcome: Describe Taking Personal It has been stated that the success of legislation depends largely on a relative few
the legislative branch of Texas Responsibility individuals who make up the leadership in the Texas House and Senate. Do you
government. think the Speaker of the House and the lieutenant governor have too much control
over the passage of bills? How can you influence legislation? What can individuals
do to affect legislation?
xvi The State of Texas: Government, Politics, and Policy

Learning Outcome: Explain the Communicating Analyze Map 4.1. What inferences can you draw from the data? Think about how the
structure and function of the execu- Effectively data relate to Texas, its neighbors, and other regions of the country.
tive branch of Texas government.

Learning Outcome: Explain the Being Socially How does the comptroller promote effective involvement in regional, national, and
structure and function of the execu- Responsible global communities?
CHAPTER tive branch of Texas government.

4
Learning Outcome: Explain the Taking Personal What can you do to become more actively engaged in the civic discourse about the
structure and function of the execu- Responsibility role of the State Board of Education?
tive branch of Texas government.

Learning Outcome: Explain the Thinking The six factors that influence the strength of the power of the governor are the
structure and function of the execu- Critically number of elected statewide executives, the tenure of office, the governor’s ap-
tive branch of Texas government. pointive powers, the governor’s budgetary powers, the governor’s veto powers,
and the extent to which the governor controls his or her political party. What can
you conclude about the powers of the governor?

Learning Outcome: Describe the Communicating Analyze Figure 5.4. Describe the appeals process for a civil case filed in county
structure and function of the judi- Effectively court.
cial branch of Texas government.

Learning Outcome: Describe the Being Socially What impact, if any, do you think partisan election of judges has on judicial outcomes?
structure and function of the judi- Responsible
CHAPTER cial branch of Texas government.

5 Learning Outcome: Describe the

structure and function of the judi-
cial branch of Texas government.
Thinking
Critically
Reflecting on the discussion about representation of minorities and women in the
Texas judicial system, do you think it is important to have a judiciary that is repre-
sentative of the general population? Why or why not?

Learning Outcome: Describe the Taking Personal Given what you read in this section, it would seem that citizens have little impact in
structure and function of the judi- Responsibility disciplining and/or removing judges. What do you think is a citizen’s responsibility
cial branch of Texas government. in this matter? How can individuals take greater personal responsibility to ensure
that judges perform properly?

Learning Outcome: Analyze issues Communicating Explain the difference between criminal and civil law, including how the standard of
and policies in Texas. Effectively proof differs for each. Provide an example of each type of case.

Learning Outcome: Analyze issues Taking Personal Currently, at what age does the state of Texas consider a person an adult in criminal
CHAPTER and policies in Texas. Responsibility and civil proceedings? At what age do you think the state should require individuals
to take personal responsibility? Why?

6 Learning Outcome: Analyze issues

and policies in Texas.
Being Socially
Responsible
Why might the use of special courts to punish crimes like prostitution provide a cost
savings for the criminal justice system?

Learning Outcome: Analyze issues Thinking Given the current challenges faced by the criminal justice system, what types of re-
and policies in Texas. Critically forms would you recommend? What might be some of the negative or unintended
consequences of your recommendations?

Learning Outcome: Describe local Communicating Compare Figures 7.1, 7.3, and 7.4 with Table 7.2. Discuss the fundamental differ-
political systems in Texas. Effectively ences between weak mayor, strong mayor, and council-manager forms of govern-
ment. Which do you prefer and why?

Learning Outcome: Describe local Being Socially Compare at-large election systems and single-member district systems. An argu-
CHAPTER political systems in Texas. Responsible ment in favor of single-member district systems is that they increase minority repre-

7
sentation in local government. In your opinion, does increased minority
representation increase intercultural competency? Why?

Learning Outcome: Describe local Taking Personal Local government directly impacts people in their daily lives. What can you do to
political systems in Texas. Responsibility improve local governance?

Learning Outcome: Describe local Thinking Identify some of the problems facing county governments. What solutions would
political systems in Texas. Critically you propose?
 Preface xvii

Learning Outcome: Evaluate Thinking Review Figure 8.3. Note that Donald Trump (Republican) was the U.S. president
public opinion and the role of the Critically at the time of polling. Why might Texas Democrats display higher levels of trust in
media in Texas politics. the U.S. Supreme Court than in other branches of government? Why might Texas
Republicans and Independents display less trust in the Supreme Court than in the
presidency?

CHAPTER Learning Outcome: Evaluate Taking Personal What media sources do you consume? Print? Television? Social media? Which do
public opinion and the role of the Responsibility you access most and least often? How might social media influence you differently

8 media in Texas politics.

Learning Outcome: Evaluate

public opinion and the role of the
Being Socially
Responsible
than television?

What responsibility do citizens have as social media participants within the context
of political campaigns?
media in Texas politics.

Learning Outcome: Evaluate Communicating Explain how the federal government regulates print and electronic media.
public opinion and the role of the Effectively
media in Texas politics.

Learning Outcome: Identify Taking Personal What activities do you engage in that are related to governance? Which forms of
the rights and responsibilities Responsibility political participation do you think are the most effective?
of citizens.

Learning Outcome: Identify Thinking How do you think the Texas voter ID law impacts voter turnout in Texas? Where do
CHAPTER the rights and responsibilities Critically you stand on the issue? Explain why you favor or oppose voter ID laws.
of citizens.

9 Learning Outcome: Identify

the rights and responsibilities
of citizens.
Being Socially
Responsible
Considering the discussion of the socioeconomic factors that affect voter turnout,
identify effective ways to increase civic knowledge in culturally diverse communities.

Learning Outcome: Identify Communicating Write a one-page summary of the rationalist explanations for low voter turnout.
the rights and responsibilities Effectively
of citizens.

Learning Outcome: Analyze the Thinking Explain the challenges that hinder minor party candidates from succeeding in
state and local election process in Critically statewide elections.
Texas.

Learning Outcome: Analyze the Communicating Do you think the Voting Rights Act requirement that Texas provide a bilingual ballot
CHAPTER state and local election process in Effectively increases voter turnout? Construct an argument in favor of or against this provision
Texas. of the Voting Rights Act.

10 Learning Outcome: Analyze the

state and local election process
in Texas.
Being Socially
Responsible
What responsibility do you think the media have in covering campaigns and elections?
Are the media living up to your expectations?

Learning Outcome: Analyze the Taking Personal If you choose to contribute to a candidate’s campaign, to what extent is the candi-
state and local election process Responsibility date obligated to you as a contributor? Should your contribution influence public
in Texas. policy? What about corporate contributions?

Learning Outcome: Evaluate the Communicating Explain how political reforms have weakened political parties.
role of political parties in Texas. Effectively
Learning Outcome: Evaluate the Taking Personal Examine your political values and compare them to the expressed values of both
CHAPTER role of political parties in Texas. Responsibility parties. Do your ideas about the role of government, politics, and policy align with
one particular party?

11 Learning Outcome: Evaluate the

role of political parties in Texas.
Being Socially
Responsible
What impact, if any, do factions have on enhancing or diminishing civic engage-
ment? In your opinion, do factions promote acceptance of diverse opinions?

Learning Outcome: Evaluate the Thinking For a variety of reasons, third parties do not currently have much impact on Texas
role of political parties in Texas. Critically politics. What measures might be taken to level the playing field for third parties
and improve their competitiveness in elections?
xviii The State of Texas: Government, Politics, and Policy

Learning Outcome: Evaluate the Thinking Review Table 12.1. Are you a participant in a membership organization? If so, how
role of interest groups in Texas. Critically does the organization represent your interests? If not, how are your interests repre-
sented at the state and federal levels of government?

Learning Outcome: Evaluate the Taking Personal Socrates suggested “know thyself,” and Shakespeare’s Hamlet admonished “to
role of interest groups in Texas. Responsibility thine own self be true.” It is important to know what your interests are and how
CHAPTER they are represented in government. Consider what you have read in this chapter
and determine how interest group efforts align with your personal interests. If they

12 Learning Outcome: Evaluate the Communicating

do not, what can you do to ensure that government addresses your interests or the
interests of those who share similar values?

Review the data presented in Table 12.4. Identify the interest group category that
role of interest groups in Texas. Effectively spent the most money in 2014. Discuss the impact that PAC spending has on
government.

Learning Outcome: Evaluate the Being Socially How can geographic distribution of interest groups improve political awareness
role of interest groups in Texas. Responsible between culturally diverse populations?

Learning Outcome: Analyze Taking Personal How can you impact public policy decisions? At what point in the policy cycle could
important public policy issues Responsibility you voice your preferences? Use Figure 13.1, the policy cycle graphic, to help you
in Texas. answer these questions.

Learning Outcome: Analyze Being Socially To what extent should Texas be responsible for ensuring equal funding for wealthy
CHAPTER important public policy issues Responsible school districts and poor school districts?
in Texas.

13 Learning Outcome: Analyze

important public policy issues
in Texas.
Communicating
Effectively
Summarize the legislation that Texas has passed on abortion. Discuss the
advantages and disadvantages of state involvement in this policy issue.

Learning Outcome: Analyze Thinking Given the water-related challenges facing Texas, what measures would you recom-
important public policy issues Critically mend to ensure all Texans have access to water? What might be some negative or
in Texas. unintended consequences of your recommendations?

Learning Outcome: Analyze state Thinking What goods and services do you think state government should provide? Consider
financing issues and policies in Critically the consequences of your answer. What would the possible impact to society be,
Texas. given your position? Who would benefit, and who would lose out?

Learning Outcome: Analyze Being Socially Texas taxes prepared food items, but does not tax unprepared food items (e.g., raw
state financing issues and policies Responsible meats and fresh produce). Earlier in this chapter, you learned that individuals can
CHAPTER in Texas. be excluded from receiving services such as electricity if they cannot pay. Keeping
this in mind, how does taxing prepared food affect our state’s poorest citizens?

14 Learning Outcome: Analyze

state financing issues and policies
in Texas.
Communicating
Effectively
Consider Table 14.8, which illustrates how specific appropriations are restricted.
What percentage of funds is not restricted? How does restricting funds impact
budget flexibility?

Learning Outcome: Analyze Taking Personal Although few individuals would express a preference for higher taxes, given the
state financing issues and policies Responsibility information in this chapter about the goods and services the state provides and the
in Texas. revenue data presented in Figure 14.9 and Table 14.9, should Texans advocate for a
personal income tax? Why or why not?
 B rief C onten ts

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Texas History and Politics 1

CHAPTER 2 The American Federal System and the Texas State

Constitution 37

CHAPTER 3 The Texas Legislature 73

CHAPTER 4 The Executive Department and the Office of the

Governor of Texas 119

CHAPTER 5 The Court System in Texas 157

CHAPTER 6 The Criminal Justice System in Texas 185

CHAPTER 7 Local Governments in Texas 231

CHAPTER 8 Public Opinion and the Media in Texas 263

CHAPTER 9 Voting and Political Participation in Texas 311

CHAPTER 10 Campaigns and Elections in Texas 339

CHAPTER 11 Political Parties in Texas 361

CHAPTER 12 Interest Groups and Lobbying in Texas 405

CHAPTER 13 Public Policy in Texas 433

CHAPTER 14 Financing State Government 467

xix
C ontents

Immigration and In-Migration Today 26

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO TEXAS In-Migration 26
HISTORY AND POLITICS 1 Immigration 26

Flags of Texas: From Spain to Statehood 2 Texas Political Culture 27

Spain 2 Types of Political Culture 27
France, Briefly 2 Populism, Progressivism, and Other Ideologies 29
Spain Returns 2 Conclusion 31
The Republic of Mexico 3 Summary 32
Key Terms 32
The Republic of Texas 4 Notes 32
Core Objective: Thinking Critically . . . 5
The Twenty-Eighth State of the Union 5
The Confederate State of Texas 6 CHAPTER 2 THE AMERICAN FEDERAL
How To: Read a Map 7 SYSTEM AND THE TEXAS
Civil War and Reconstruction: A Time STATE CONSTITUTION 37
of Transition 7 The American Federal System of Government 38
Effects of the Civil War 8
The Federal Structure 38
Reconstruction in Texas 9 Division of Powers between National and State Governments 38
Post-Reconstruction Texas 11 The “Necessary and Proper” Clause and the Tenth Amendment 39
Land 11 Interstate Commerce Clause 40
Transformation of the Texas Economy 11 Equal Protection and Due Process Clause of the
Fourteenth Amendment 41
Core Objective: Communicating Effectively . . . 13
How To: Read Critically 42
Texas’s Economic Regions 13 Power to Tax and Spend to Promote the
Texas Politics: From Democrat to Republican 15 General Welfare of Citizens 43

Core Objective: Taking Personal Responsibility . . . 17 Core Objective: Being Socially Responsible . . . 43
Demographics: The Road to Majority-Minority 17 The Evolution of American Federalism 44
Urban and Rural 17 Relations between States in the Federal System 45
Majority-Minority 19
Core Objective: Taking Personal Responsibility . . . 46
Focus On: How the Government Defines
“Hispanic” 20 Conclusion to Federalism 47
Religion in Texas 22 Principles of Constitutional Government 47
Core Objective: Being Socially Responsible . . . 24 Characteristics Common to State
Constitutions 48
Challenges in Texas 24 Separation of Powers 48
Recession in Texas 24
Core Objective: Communicating Effectively . . . 50
National Issues 25
Income and Poverty 25 Bill of Rights 50
Education 25 Supreme Law of the State 51

xx
 Contents xxi

Evolution of the Texas Constitution: 1824–1876 51 Core Objective: Being Socially Responsible . . . 90
Constitutions under the Republic of Mexico 51 Redistricting in 2001 90
The Republic of Texas Constitution of 1836 52 2003 and the Texas Eleven 91
Statehood Constitution of 1845 53 Redistricting in 2011 and Beyond 92
Focus On: The Tejano Contribution to Texas’s How To: Think Critically about Issues Getting
Founding 54 Elected 94
The Civil War and Reconstruction Constitutions of 1861, Competition for House and Senate Seats 95
1866, and 1869 55
Core Objective: Thinking Critically . . . 97
The Constitution of 1876 55
Term Limits 97
Core Objective: Thinking Critically . . . 56
Turnover in State Legislatures 97
Culture Drives Institutions 56 Leadership Positions in the Texas Legislature 98
Important Sections of the Texas Constitution 56 Speaker of the House 98
Article 1: Bill of Rights 57 Lieutenant Governor 100
Article 2: The Powers of Government 57 Committees in the House and Senate 101
Article 3: Legislative Department 57
Core Objective: Taking Personal Responsibility . . .103
Article 4: Executive Department 57
Article 5: Judicial Department 58 Functions 103
Additional Articles 58 Lawmaking 103
Comparing the Structure of State Constitutions 58 Bills 103
Resolutions 104
Amending and Revising State Constitutions 62
Budget and Taxation 104
Patterns of Constitutional Change 63
Oversight 104
Amending the Texas Constitution 63
Impeachment 105
Criticisms of the Texas Constitution 67
Procedures 106
Conclusion to the Texas Constitution 68
Summary 69 Formal Rules: How a Bill Becomes a Law 106
Key Terms 70 Conference Committee 108
Notes 71 The Governor 108
Legislative Workload and Logjams 108
Informal Rules 109
CHAPTER 3 THE TEXAS LEGISLATURE 73
Legislative Roles 110
The Structure and Size of the Texas Legislature 74 Representational Roles 111
Partisan Roles 111
Core Objective: Communicating Effectively . . . 75
Legislative Professionalism versus Citizen
General Characteristics of the Legislature 75 Legislatures 112
Sessions and Session Length 75
Conclusion 112
Qualifications and Demographics 78 Summary 112
Core Objective: Taking Personal Responsibility . . . 78 Key Terms 113
Notes 113
Focus On: The First Hispanic Woman in the
Texas Legislature 79
Salary 81 CHAPTER 4 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT
Staff and Facilities 84 AND THE OFFICE OF THE
GOVERNOR OF TEXAS 119
Single-Member versus Multimember Districts 84
Reapportionment and Redistricting 86 Qualifications 119
Equity of Representation 86 Formal Qualifications 119
Minority Representation 88 Informal Qualifications 120
Political and Racial Gerrymandering 89 Experience 120
xxii The State of Texas: Government, Politics, and Policy

Focus On: A Hispanic Governor for Texas? 121 Sunset Review 148
Race and Ethnicity 122 Powers of the Texas Governor in Comparative Context 148
Women 122
Core Objective: Thinking Critically . . . 149
Wealth 122
Informal Powers 151
Core Objective: Communicating Effectively . . .123
Roles 151
Salary 123 The Governor’s Staff 152
Succession to Office and Acting
Conclusion 153
Governor 124 Summary 153
Postgubernatorial Office 125 Key Terms 154
Removal from Office 125 Notes 154

Formal Powers of the Governor 127

Election of Other Statewide Executives 127
Office of the Attorney General 128
CHAPTER 5 THE COURT SYSTEM IN
Comptroller of Public Accounts 128
TEXAS 157
Core Objective: Being Socially Responsible . . . 129 The Legal System 158
Commissioner of the General Land Office 129 Types of Law 158
Commissioner of Agriculture 130 Grand Jury 160
The Texas Railroad Commission 130 Petit Jury 161
The State Board of Education 131 Judicial Federalism 162
Core Objective: Taking Personal Responsibility . . .131 The Structure of State Courts 162
Trial and Appellate Courts 162
Tenure of Office 131
Governor’s Appointment Powers 133 How To: Interpret Figures 164
Secretary of State 136 Magistrate or Minor Courts 164
Commissioner for Health and Human Services 136 Core Objective: Communicating Effectively… 165
Office of State-Federal Relations 137
County Courts 165
Adjutant General of the National Guard 137
District Courts 166
Other Single-Head Agencies 137
Boards and Commissions 137 Appellate Courts 166
Appointment and Campaign Contributions 138 Supreme Courts 166
Removal Powers 138 Judicial Selection 167
How To: Interpret a Table 140 Appointment by the Governor 167
Budgetary Powers 140 Election by the Legislature 167
Legislative Powers 142 Partisan Election 168
Governor’s Control over Party 143 Nonpartisan Election 168
Administrative Agencies of State Government 144 The Merit, or Missouri, Plan 168
State Employees 144 Judicial Selection in Texas 171
Legislative Agencies 144 Partisan Elections 171
Legislative Budget Board 145
Core Objective: Being Socially Responsible… 172
Texas Legislative Council 145
Legislative Audit Committee and State Auditor’s Office 145 Appointive-Elective System 172
Legislative Reference Library 146 Is There a Best System for Judicial Selection? 173
Judicial Agencies 146 Challenges to the Judiciary in Texas 174
Judicial Powers 146 Familiar Names Can Skew Judicial Elections 174
Ex Officio Boards and Commissions 147 Straight-Ticket Voting 174
Multi-Appointment Boards 147 Campaign Contributions 174
Democratic Control and Bureaucratic Gender and Minority Representation in the Texas
Responsiveness 147 Judiciary 175
 Contents xxiii

Focus On: The First Hispanic Justice on the Technology and Crime 216
Texas Supreme Court 176 Exoneration 216
Core Objective: Thinking Critically . . . 178 Race, Gender, and the Criminal Justice System 217
Misconduct in the Justice System 218
Removing and Disciplining Judges 178
How to: Locate Primary Sources 220
Core Objective: Taking Personal Responsibility . . .179
Core Objective: Thinking Critically . . . 221
Court Decision Making 179
Conclusion 221
Conclusion 180 Summary 221
Summary 180 Key Terms 222
Key Terms 181 Notes 222
Notes 182

CHAPTER 6 THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE CHAPTER 7 LOCAL GOVERNMENTS IN

SYSTEM IN TEXAS 185 TEXAS 231

Elements of the Criminal Justice System 186 Federalism Revisited 232

Creatures of the State 232
Law Enforcement and Policing 186
Criminal Law and Civil Law 188 General Law Cities and Home Rule 233
Incorporation: The Process of Creating a City 234
Core Objective: Communicating Effectively . . .191
Annexation 225
Criminal Justice Policy 192 Types of City Government 236
Focus On: Navigating the Criminal Justice Council-Manager Government 236
System in Spanish 192 Role of the Mayor 238
Juvenile Justice 193 Role of the City Manager 238
Government’s Duties to Minors 194 Weaknesses of the Council-Manager Form 239
Procedures Involving Juveniles 195 Mayor-Council Government 239
Core Objective: Taking Personal Responsibility . . .197 Core Objective: Communicating Effectively . . .241
Correction and Rehabilitation 198 Focus On: Hispanic Representation in Local
The State Prison System 198 Government 241
Managing the Prison Population 199 Commission Form of Government 242
Weaknesses of the Commission Form of Government 243
Core Objective: Being Socially Responsible . . . 200
Impact on the Evolution of Local Government 243
Private Prisons 201 Municipal Elections 243
Local Government Jails 204 Texas Municipal Election Systems 244
The “Three R’s”: Recidivism, Rehabilitation, and At-Large Election Systems 244
Reform 205 Single-Member District Election Systems 245
The Death Penalty 206
Core Objective: Being Socially Responsible . . . 246
Texas, the Death Penalty, and the Harris County Factor 208
Poverty and Access to Legal Services 211 Cumulative and Preferential Voting Systems 246
Nonpartisan Elections 246
Problems and Reform: Implications
for Public Policy 212 Voter Turnout in Local Elections 247
Overcriminalization 212 Core Objective: Taking Personal Responsibility . . .248
Sentencing Reform 212 County Governments 248
Police Militarization 213 The Structure of County Government 249
Civil Asset Forfeiture 213 The County Commissioner’s Court 249
Mental Illness in Prison 213 The County Sheriff 251
Fine and Fee Practices 214 The County and District Attorneys 251
Suicide 215 The County Tax Assessor/Collector 251
Another random document with
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similar in form to other species of the genus. We represent the
development of this larva in Fig. 237. We may call attention to the fact
that this figure illustrates the large size of the paunch, which is so
extraordinary in some of the states of the Termitidae.

It will be recollected that the genus Calotermes is destitute of workers.

There is another genus, Anoplotermes, in which the reverse condition
prevails, and the soldier is absent; this is the only case yet known in
which such a state of affairs exists. The species is called A. pacificus by
Fritz Müller; it differs from other Termitidae in possessing a proventriculus
destitute of triturating ridges. The nests of this species are utilised by a
little Eutermes (E. inquilinus Müller) for its own advantage; whether by
first destroying the Anoplotermes or whether by merely taking possession
of the nests abandoned by their owners is not known. It is a most
remarkable fact that the Eutermes resembles the Anoplotermes so
extremely that the two can scarcely be distinguished, though anatomically
they are quite different. The resemblance is indeed so great that it
deceived Von Jhering into supposing that the two genera were alternate
generations of a single species, one generation possessing soldiers, the
other being without them. Subsequently, by anatomical investigation, he
recognised[299] the error into which he had fallen—an error that, under
such peculiar circumstances, was quite pardonable.

Fig. 237.—Changes in external form of the young larva of Calotermes

rugosus. A, Newly hatched with nine joints in antennae, × 8; B, older
larva with ten joints, × 8; C, next stage with eleven joints, × 8; D, larva
with twelve joints; the position of the parts of the alimentary canal are
shown—v, crop; m, stomach; b, paunch; e, intestine; r, dorsal vessel, ×
16⁄3 (After Fritz Müller.)
Hagen has suggested[300] that Hodotermes japonicus never produces
winged forms. Very little, however, is actually known as to this species.

Marching and Harvesting Termites.—Smeathman alluded to a

remarkable Termes seen by him in Africa, giving it the name of T. viarum.
Nothing further is known of this Insect, which, according to Smeathman's
account, may possibly be the most remarkable of the family. T. viarum is
said to be larger than T. bellicosus, and was discovered issuing in large
numbers from a hole in the ground and marching in columns consisting of
workers directed by soldiers of enormous size, some of whom climbed up
plants and gave audible signals to the army, which immediately
responded with a hissing noise and by increasing their pace with the
utmost hurry; they continued marching by the spot where Smeathman
observed them for upwards of an hour. He was not able to find their
nests, and no specimens have been preserved; both soldiers and workers
possessed eyes. Marching in this way by daylight is contrary to the nature
of ordinary Termites, and some doubt has existed as to the correctness of
Smeathman's observation, which has in fact remained for upwards of a
century without confirmation.

Fig. 238.—Eyed, grass-cutting Termite, Hodotermes havilandi, A, soldier; B,

worker. South Africa. In life the head is carried horizontally, so the
piece of grass sticks up like a flag-pole.

Mr. G. D. Haviland has, however, this year discovered in Natal a Termite

which shows that there are species in Africa of the kind described by
Smeathman, the workers and soldiers being possessed of facetted eyes.
Mr. Haviland states that the workers of this species issue from holes in
the ground during the heat of the day and cut grass both dead and green.
They carry it, in lengths of about two inches, to the mouths of the holes,
often leaving it there and going at once to fetch more. Under acacia
bushes they carry acacia leaflets as well as grass. In the middle of the
day more grass accumulates at the entrance to the holes than can be
taken in, but as the heat of the day diminishes the workers cease to
forage and take in the accumulation. When the grass is all in they
sometimes close the mouth of the hole with moistened pellets of earth
brought in their mouths. The soldiers remain in the holes; when disturbed
they jerk themselves like soldiers of other species to frighten away the
intruder; when they bite, their grip is very tenacious. The holes are about
⅓ of an inch in diameter, and there are usually several of them a few
yards apart; around each of them is a patch over which the grass has
been cut quite short. Mr. Haviland followed these holes by digging for a
distance of 20 feet and to a depth of 5½ feet; they remain uniform in size
except that near the entrance there may be one or two chambers in which
the grass is temporarily stored, but these do not hold more than would be
collected in an hour or two. As the burrow descends it is occasionally
joined by another, and at the point of junction there is usually a
considerable widening. Sometimes they run straight for 6 or 7 feet,
sometimes they curve abruptly, sometimes they are nearly horizontal, but
near the mouth may be almost vertical in direction. These Termites are
very local, but the specimens are numerous when found. Mr. Haviland
dug for these Insects at two places on the Tugela river, one of them being
at Colenso. It is much to be regretted that he was unable to reach the
nest. We figure a soldier selected from specimens sent by Mr. Haviland to
the Cambridge University Museum. This Insect is apparently much
smaller than Smeathman's T. viarum. Other species of Termitidae have
been described[301] as forming underground tunnels in Africa, but none of
the species have yet been satisfactorily identified.

It was stated by Smeathman that some species of Termites had

chambers in their habitations in which grew a kind of fungus used by the
Insects for food; Mr. Haviland is able to confirm Smeathman in this
particular; he having found fungus-chambers in the nests of more than
one species both in Singapore and South Africa (Fig. 240).

Habitations.—In nothing do Termites differ more than in the habitations

they form. Sometimes, as we have mentioned in the case of Calotermes,
there is no real structure formed; only a few barriers being erected in
burrows or natural hollows in wood. In other cases very extensive
structures are formed, so that the work of the Termites becomes a
conspicuous feature in the landscape. This is of course only the case in
regions that are not much interfered with by man; the great dwellings
spoken of by Smeathman and others soon disappear from the
neighbourhood of settlements, but in parts of Africa and in Australia large
dwellings are still formed by these creatures. In the latter part of the world
there exists a very remarkable one, formed by an undetermined species
called by the officers and crew of her Majesty's ship Penguin the
"compass ant." The outline of one of the structures formed by this Termite
we represent in Fig. 239. Mr. J. J. Walker, to whom we are indebted for
the sketch from which this figure is taken, has also favoured us with the
following extract from his diary, of date 4th August 1890: "The most
interesting feature in the scenery (about forty miles inland from Port
Darwin) was the constant succession of huge mounds raised by the
Termites, of which I had seen some comparatively small examples in my
rambles near Port Darwin; but these exceeded in dimensions all I had
ever seen. The most frequent as well as the largest kind was usually of a
reddish or ferruginous colour outside, and generally almost cylindrical in
shape with obtusely-pointed top, but nearly always more or less weather-
worn, with great irregular buttresses and deep ruts down the sides; many
of them look like ruined towers in miniature. Their usual height was from 8
to 10 feet, but many were much higher, and some attained an (estimated)
elevation of at least 20 feet. Another kind, seen only in one or two places
along the line, was of a much more singular character; they averaged
only 4 to 5 feet high, were built of a dark-gray mud, and in shape were
like thin flat wedges set upright (see Fig. 239), reminding one of
tombstones in a churchyard. But the most remarkable feature about these
mounds was that they had all the same orientation, viz. with the long
faces of the wedge pointing nearly north and south. Why this is so I am
quite at a loss to imagine, and I much regret that I had no opportunity of
closely examining these most singular structures. A third kind of mound,
usually not exceeding 2 feet in height, was of a simple, acute, conical
figure, and generally of a gray colour somewhat paler than the last."

Fig. 239.—Termitarium of compass or meridian Termite of North Australia.

A, face extending south and north; B, cross-section.
The material used for the construction of the dwellings is either earth,
wood, or the excrement of the Termites. The huge edifices mentioned by
Smeathman are composed of earth cemented together so as to look like
stone or brick, and the buildings appear to be almost as strong as if they
were actually constructed with these materials. In many cases the
substance used is comminuted wood that has passed one or more times
through the alimentary canal of the Insects, and may therefore be called
excrement. Whether the stone-like material is made from earth that has
passed through the alimentary canal or from grains gathered for the
purpose has not been well ascertained. In any case the material is
cemented together by means of the secretions of glands. Dudley and
Beaumont have described the process of construction, in a species
observed by them, saying that earth is brought and placed in position by
the mandibles, and cemented by liquid from the abdomen.[302] Von
Jhering says[303] that some species form the exterior walls of their
dwellings of stone-like material, but make use of woody matter for the
construction of the interior. Smeathman has described the nest of Termes
bellicosus. The whole of the very strong external wall consists of clay-like
material, cemented by the secretions of the Termites to a very firm
consistence. The royal cell is built of the same material as the framework
of the nest; whilst the nurseries in which the young are chiefly found are
built of woody material, and are always covered with a kind of mould—the
mycelium of a fungus—and plentifully sprinkled with small white bodies,
which, under the microscope, are found to be filled with a number of
oblong, spore-like cells.

Fig. 240.—Fragment of Termitarium of Termes angustatus, S. Africa,

showing fungus chambers and orifices of communication.

These nurseries rest on the clay-like framework of the nest, but are not
attached thereto; they in no way support it, or one another, indeed they
have the appearance of being constantly added to on their upper margins
and constantly eaten away on their under parts. Fig. 240 represents the
appearance of the upper boundary of a nursery taken from a nest of
Termes angustatus. The small white bodies, mentioned above, have
disappeared: the mycelium of the fungus, though not shown in the figure,
is still visible on the specimen from which it was drawn, and gives rise to a
whitish, glaucous appearance.

In various parts of the world nests formed on trees by Termites are to be

seen; these tree nests are, it would appear, in some cases only parts of a
community, and are connected with the main body by galleries. In other
cases nests are formed in various positions of advantage; Messrs.
Hubbard and Hagen have given us an account[304] of some of these—
probably the work of Eutermes ripperti—as seen in Jamaica. They
describe the nests as spherical or conical masses, looking externally as if
composed of loamy earth; they are placed on trees, fences, or walls; they
vary in size from that of a man's fist to that of a hogshead; they appear to
be composed of finely comminuted wood fastened together by saliva.
These nests are formed on the same principle as those of the wasps that
make nests hanging to trees and bushes, as they consist of an external
protecting envelope covering a comb-like mass in the interior. At the
bottom of the nest there is a covered gallery leading to the earth, where
the main nest appears to be situate; galleries also are constructed so as
to lead to the tops of trees and other places, in such a manner that the
Termite can still keep up its peculiarity of working and travelling in tunnels
and yet roam over a large area; the activity of these Termites continues
day and night. In each nest there is a queen, who lays eggs that are
removed by the worker Termites to the bottom of the nest. The young are
fed on a prepared food, consisting apparently of comminuted vegetable
matter, of which considerable masses are laid in store. Some of the nests
are rich in containing many pounds' weight of this material, while others
are apparently quite destitute of it. There is a soldier form and at least two
kinds of workers. Some species of true ant frequently shares the nest of
these white ants, but on what terms the two kinds of Insects live together
is not stated.

Termite Ravages.—In countries whose climate is favourable to their

constitutions certain kinds of Termites become of great importance to our
own species. Owing to their taste for woody matter and to their habit of
working in concealment, it is no uncommon thing for it to be discovered
that Termites have obtained access to a building and have practically
destroyed the wooden materials used in its construction; all the interior of
the wood being eaten away and only a thin outer shell left intact. A
Termite, T. tenuis, was introduced—in what manner is not certainly
known[305]—to the Island of St. Helena, and committed such extensive
ravages there that Jamestown, the capital, was practically destroyed and
new buildings had to be erected. Other such cases are on record.
Destructive species can sometimes be destroyed by placing in the nests
a portion of arsenicated food. This is eaten by some individuals, who
perish in consequence; and their dead bodies being consumed by their
comrades, the colony becomes checked if not exterminated.

The number of described species of Termitidae does not much exceed

100, but this is certainly only a small portion of those existing, the total of
which may probably reach 1000 species.

Termitidae are classed by some naturalists with the Orthoptera, and they
have a great deal in common with some of the cursorial division of that
Order, more particularly Forficulidae and Blattidae; but they differ from
Orthoptera in the nature and form of the wings. They are also classed by
some, with a few other forms, as a separate Order of Pseudo-Neuroptera
called Corrodentia, but this is not a very satisfactory course, as the
Termitidae do not agree closely with the forms associated with them,
while the aggregate so formed is far from being very distinct from other
forms of Neuroptera. On the whole the best plan appears to be to treat
the Termitidae as forming a distinct family of the Order Neuroptera, or to
make it a distinct Order, as proposed by Grassi. Packard now associates
Termites in an Order with the biting-lice, and calls it Platyptera.

Fossil Termites.—Termitidae were very abundant in Tertiary times, and

the genera appear to have been then much the same as at present. In
Mesozoic strata the remains of true Termitidae apparently exist in the Lias
in Europe, but farther back than this the family has not been satisfactorily
traced. It was formerly supposed that Termitidae existed in the
Carboniferous strata, but this appears to be very doubtful; and the fossil
remains of that epoch, which were presumed to be those of Termites, are
now referred by Scudder and others to the Neuropteroid division of the
Order Palaeodictyoptera, an Order which is formed entirely of Palaeozoic
fossil remains.
 CHAPTER XVII

NEUROPTERA CONTINUED—PSOCIDAE (BOOK-LICE AND DEATH-WATCHES)—

THE FIRST FAMILY OF AMPHIBIOUS NEUROPTERA (PERLIDAE, STONE-FLIES).

Fam. IV. Psocidae—Book-Lice, Death-Watches.

Minute Insects with slender, thread-like, or hair-like antennae; four

delicate membranous wings, the front pair of which are the larger;
their neuration is not abundant and is irregular, so that the cells are
also irregularly arranged; the transverse nervules are only one or two
in number.[306] Prothorax very small, in the winged forms quite
concealed between the head and the large mesothorax; this latter
closely connected with, or fused with, the metathorax. Species quite
wingless, or with wings unfitted for flight, exist; in them the prothorax
is not so extremely small, while the mesothorax is smaller than in the
winged forms. Tarsi of two or three segments. Metamorphosis slight,
marked chiefly by the development of wings and ocelli.

Fig. 241.—Psocus fasciatus, England. (After M‘Lachlan.)

The Psocidae are without exception small and soft-bodied Insects, and
are only known to those who are not entomologists by the wingless forms
that run about in uninhabited or quiet apartments, and are called dust-lice
or book-lice. They are perhaps more similar to Termitidae than to any
other Insects, but the two families differ much in the structure of their
wings, and are totally dissimilar in the nature of their lives.

Fig. 242.—Transverse horizontal section of head of Psocus: f, fork or pick; t,

lingua; mx, left maxilla; c, cardo; p, stipes; m.m, muscles; m.s, socket
 of mandible.

Fig. 243.—A, Front of head of Psocus heteromorphus; cl, post-clypeus; g,

epicranium: B, transverse horizontal section of post-clypeus of Psocus:
cl, post-clypeus; c.m, clypeal muscles; g, epicranium; t, tendons; l.m,
labial muscle in section; oe, oesophagus; oe.b, oesophageal bone.
(After Burgess and Bertkau.)

The antennae consist of eleven to twenty-five joints, or even more, about

thirteen being the usual number; the basal two are thicker than the others,
and are destitute of setae or pubescence such as the others possess.
The maxillae and labium are remarkable. The former possesses a
peculiar hard pick or elongate rod; this is considered by many naturalists
to be the inner lobe, but Burgess thinks it more probably an independent
organ,[307] as it has no articulation of any kind with the outer lobe. The
latter is remarkably thick and fleshy; the palpus is 5-jointed. Other
authorities consider the pick to be certainly the inner lobe; if it be not, the
latter is quite wanting. Hagen agrees with Burgess in stating that the pick
slides in the outer lobe as in a sheath. The labium has a large mentum
and a ligula divided anteriorly into two lobes; at each outer angle in front
there is a globular projection, which is doubtless the labial palpus;
reposing on the labium there is a large free lingua. The labrum is large,
attached to a distinct clypeus, behind which there is a remarkable post-
clypeus, which is usually prominent as if inflated; to its inner face are
attached several muscles which converge to be inserted on a plate
placed below the anterior part of the oesophagus, and called by Burgess
the oesophageal bone; under or within the lingua there is a pair of lingual
glands. Judging from Grosse's study of the mouth of Mallophaga, we may
conclude that the oesophageal bone will prove to be a sclerite of the
hypopharynx. The eyes of the winged forms are frequently remarkably
convex, and there are also three ocelli, triangularly placed on the vertex.
The head is free and very mobile. The coxae are rather small, exserted,
contiguous; the sterna small. The abdomen has usually ten segments,
though sometimes only nine can be detected.

The thorax in Psocidae usually looks as if it consisted of only two

segments. This is due to two opposite conditions: (1) that in the winged
forms the prothorax is reduced to a plate concealed in the fissure
between the head and the mesothorax bearing the first pair of wings; (2)
that in the wingless forms (Fig. 247), though the prothorax is distinct, the
meso- and metathorax are fused into one segment.

Fig. 244.—Reproductive organs of Clothilla pulsatoria. A, Male; a, vesiculae

seminales; b, testes; c, vasa deferentia; d, ejaculatory duct. B, Female;
a, b, egg-tubes; c, oviduct; d, uterus, containing egg; e, accessory
gland (the enveloping sac in section); f, its duct. (After Nitzsch.)

The internal anatomy is only very incompletely known. Nitzsch[308] has,

however, described the alimentary canal and the reproductive organs of
Clothilla pulsatoria. The former is remarkably simple: no proventriculus or
crop was found; the stomach is very elongate, and consists of a sac-like
anterior portion and an elongate, tubular posterior part. There are four
Malpighian tubes. The posterior part of the canal is remarkably short, the
small intestine being scarcely as long as the rectum. The ovaries (Fig.
244, B) consist of five egg-tubes on each side; connected with the oviduct
there is a peculiar accessory gland consisting of a sac containing other
small sacs each with an elongate efferent duct; the number of the
secondary sacs varies from one to four according to the individual. The
testis (Fig. 244, A, b) is a simple capsule; connected with the base of the
ejaculatory duct there is a pair of elongate accessory glands or vesiculae
seminales.

The life-history has never been satisfactorily sketched. The young greatly
resemble the old, but have no ocelli or wings, and sometimes the tarsi are
of two joints, while in the adult they have three. The antennae have also
in these cases a less number of joints in the young stage. The food is
animal or vegetable refuse substances; many live on fungoid matter of
various kinds, mouldy chaff being, it is said, a favourite pabulum; the
mould on palings is a source of food to many; others live on the rust-fungi
of leaves, and many frequent the bark of trees. They are able to spin
webs, probably by the aid of the lingual glands; the eggs are deposited, in
some cases, on leaves and covered with a web. Hagen says that a
peculiar organ, possibly a gland—he calls it a hose[309]—exists at the
base of the tarsal claws. In our climate most of the species pass the
winter in the egg-state. There may be two generations in a year, perhaps
more.

The nomenclature of the wing-veins of Psocidae has given rise to much

discussion.[310] The system shown in the accompanying figure is
probably the most convenient; the subcostal vein (2) is always obscure,
and sometimes can only be detected by very minute examination. Some
interesting information as to the minute structure and mode of formation
of the wings and their nervures has been given by Hagen.[311]

Fig. 245.—Anterior wing of Elipsocus brevistylus. (After Reuter.) 1, Costal

vein; 2, subcostal; 3, radial; 4, cubitus; 4a, branches of cubitus; 5,
sector of the radius; 5a, forks thereof.

In the young the wings first appear as buds, or outgrowths of the sides of
the meso- and meta-thorax; afterwards the prothorax decreases, while
the other two thoracic segments and the wing-rudiments attached to them
increase. The wings from their very origin appear to be different from
those of the Orthoptera, and the changes that take place in the thoracic
segments in the course of the development, differ from those that occur in
Orthoptera.
 Fig. 246.—Micropterous form of Mesopsocus unipunctatus. a, a, Wings.
(After Bertkau.)

There are several peculiarities connected with the wings. Frequently they
exist, though of no use for flight; some Psocidae that have perfectly-
formed wings are so reluctant to use them that, M‘Lachlan says, they will
allow themselves to be crushed without seeking to escape by flight. At
certain periods, however, some Psocidae float on the wing in
considerable numbers, especially in a moist still atmosphere, and then
drift about like the winged Aphididae, which are frequently found with
them. There is evidence that individuals, or generations, of some of the
winged species occur with only rudimentary wings; although this has
been denied by Kolbe, there can be no doubt about it. The form figured
above (Fig. 246) was described by Bertkau[312] as a distinct genus, but
was afterwards recognised by him[313] to be a short-winged form of
Mesopsocus unipunctatus. It is probable that the adult female of this
species has the wings always micropterous, while the male has these
organs of the full size. In other species the condition of the rudimentary
wings seems to be quite constant. The facts concerning the wings of
Psocidae are so peculiar that Kolbe came to the conclusion that the
organs exist not because they are of use for flight, so much as because it
is the nature of an Insect to develop wings.[314]

Some of the species of Psocidae have never any trace of wings. These
apterous forms are mostly included in the division Atropinae, and are
usually very minute; it has been again and again erroneously stated that
they are the young state of winged forms. Hagen kept a large colony of
Atropos divinatoria for some years in confinement, so that he saw
numerous generations as well as many specimens. He found the
apterous condition quite constant.

The association of ocelli with wings is nearly constant in Psocidae. The

genus Clothilla—allied to Atropos—possesses very rudimentary wings but
no ocelli. Hagen, however, found[315] that in a certain locality no less than
12 per cent of the individuals of this species were provided with ocelli,—a
most extraordinary variation.
In some of these apterous forms there is found on each side of the
prothorax a tubercular prominence which, according to Hagen, can be
considered only as the rudiment of a wing that never develops. Though
no existing Insect is known to possess rudimentary wings on the
prothorax, we have previously mentioned (p. 344) that in the
Carboniferous epoch appendages of the nature alluded to were not very
rare.

A genus of living forms—Hyperetes—in which the three thoracic

segments are well developed, but in which there are no alar appendages
or rudiments, is considered by Hagen to be more primitive than the
Psocidae found in amber to which we shall subsequently allude.

The number of described species of Psocidae does not reach two

hundred; we have, however, thirty species or more in Britain.[316] Nietner
observed about the same number in the immediate vicinity of his house in
Ceylon. The isolated and remote Hawaiian group of islands is remarkably
rich in Psocidae. Two thousand is a moderate estimate of the number of
existing species. The largest forms yet discovered belong to the Brazilian
genus Thyrsophorus; they attain, however, a breadth of only about one
inch with the wings fully expanded. The Cuban genus Embidopsocus is
said to be of great interest from its approximation to Embiidae. It is at
present very inadequately known.

One (or more) very minute Insects of this family—Clothilla pulsatoria

according to Hagen, Atropos[317] divinatoria according to some other
authors—is widely known under the name of the death-watch, owing to its
being believed to make a peculiar ticking noise, supposed to be prophetic
of the decease of some individual—a human being we fancy, not a death-
watch. It is difficult to believe that so minute and soft an Insect can
produce a sound audible to human ears, and many entomologists are of
opinion that the sound in question is really produced by a beetle—of the
genus Anobium—which lives in wood, and that as the beetle may be
concealed in a hole, while the Clothilla is seen running about, the sound
is naturally, though erroneously, attributed to the latter. But the rapping of
the Anobium is well known, is produced while the Insect is at large, and is
said to be a different noise from that of the Psocid; evidence too has been
given as to the production of the sound in a workbox when the Psocid
was certainly present, and the most careful search failed to reveal any
beetle.

Fig. 247.—A, Atropos divinatoria; B, Clothilla pulsatoria. (After M‘Lachlan.)

The Rev. W. Derham, who two hundred years ago was Rector of
Upminster, in Essex, and was well known as a distinguished writer and
philosopher, gave an account of the ticking of death-watches to the Royal
Society.[318] This gentleman was a most accurate and minute observer;
he was well acquainted with the ticking of the greater death-watch—
Anobium—which he describes very accurately, as well as the acts
accompanying it, the details he mentions being exactly such as occur at
the present time. He not only heard the ticking of the Psocid or lesser
death-watch, but repeatedly witnessed it. He says: "I am now so used to,
and skilful in the matter as to be able to see, and show them, beating
almost when I please, by having a paper with some of them in it
conveniently placed and imitating their pulsation, which they will readily
answer." He also states that he could only hear them beating when it was
done on paper, and that this death-watch will tick for some hours together
without intermission, with intervals between each beat, so that it much
resembles the ticking of a watch. The act of ticking was accompanied by
rapping the front of the head on the paper, but Mr. Derham could not be
sure that the sound was produced in that manner, because each stroke
was also accompanied by a peculiar shudder, or recoil. After a prolonged
ticking he observed that another individual of the other sex made its
appearance. The species figured by Mr. Derham more resembles a
Hyperetes than it does either of our two known book-lice, Atropos and
Clothilla.
 Fig. 248.—The lesser death-watch of Upminster. (After Derham.) A,
magnified; B, natural size.

Fig. 249.—Sphaeropsocus kunowii. From amber. × 30. (After Hagen.)

Numerous species of Psocidae are preserved in amber; Hagen[319] has

made a careful study, based on a considerable number of specimens, of
about thirteen such species. They belong to no less than nine genera and
five sub-families. Sphaeropsocus is the most remarkable; this Insect has
a well-developed prothorax, as is the case in the wingless Psocids, and a
pair of large wings or tegmina meeting by a straight suture along the
back, as is usual in beetles, though quite unknown in existing Psocidae.
Another species, Amphientomum paradoxum, has the body and
appendages covered with scales like a butterfly or moth; other species,
found in gum-copal or still living, have scales on various parts of the body,
but not to so great an extent as this amber species. The genus
Amphientomum is still represented in Ceylon and elsewhere by living
forms; Packard has figured some of the scales;[320] they appear to be
extremely similar to those of Lepidoptera or Thysanura. The facts
connected with this fauna of amber Psocidae would seem to show that
the family was formerly more extensive and important than it is at present;
we should therefore expect to find numerous fossil forms in strata of date
anterior to that of the amber; but this is not the case, all that is known as
to fossil Psocidae being that Scudder has recently ascribed traces of an
Insect found in the Tertiary rocks of Utah to this family as a distinct genus.

Fam. V. Perlidae.
 Insects of moderate or large size, furnished with four membranous
wings; these are usually complexly reticulate; the hind pair are much
the larger, and have a large anal area of more simple venation, which
becomes plicate when folded. The coxae are small, the legs widely
separated. The larvae are aquatic in habits; the metamorphosis is
slight.

Fig. 250.—Pteronarcys frigida, male. (After Gerstaecker.)

The Perlidae form a small family of Insects unattractive in their general

appearance. The life-history of each individual consists of two abruptly
contrasted portions; the earlier stage being entirely aquatic, the later
aerial. Hence the Perlidae come into the amphibious division of
Neuroptera. The definition we have given above would, except as regards
the texture of the front wings and the aquatic habits of the larvae, apply to
many Insects of the Order Orthoptera. The Phryganeidae, another family
of Neuroptera, have aquatic larvae and wings somewhat similar in form to
those of the Perlidae, but the members of the two families cannot be
confounded, as the Phryganeidae have hairy front wings and large and
contiguous coxae.

The antennae of the Perlidae are long, very flexible, and composed of a
very large number of joints. The parts of the mouth vary a good deal. The
mandibles and maxillae are usually rather small, and all the parts of the
mouth are of feeble consistence or even membranous; the maxillary palpi
are, however, well developed and exserted from the mouth, five-jointed.
The labium is short and but little conspicuous. The mandibles in some
forms are almost membranous, but in other genera they are firmer and
are toothed. The labium is composed of a very large mentum, beyond
which is a large piece, usually undivided, bearing the four terminal lobes;
the three-jointed palpus is seated on the side of the large middle sclerite,
which is no doubt of composite nature. Considerable variety as to the
lower lip prevails. The head is broad and flat; there is an indistinctly-
indicated clypeus, three—more rarely two—ocelli, and on each side an
eye neither very large nor perfect. The prothorax is free, and has a flat,
margined notum. The meso- and the meta-thorax are large, equal
segments. The pro-, meso-, and meta-sternum are large pieces; between
the first and second, and between the second and third there is an
intervening membrane. The metasternum is much prolonged backwards,
and has on each side a peculiar slit; similar orifices exist on the other
sterna (Fig. 254, o). Newport, who has examined them in Pteronarcys,
says that they are blind invaginations of the integument; he calls them the
sternal or furcal orifices.[321] According to this naturalist these very
peculiar openings pass into the body "as strong bone-like tubes, diverging
from the axis to the periphery of the body in the immediate vicinity of
some of the principal tracheae, but that they do not in any way
communicate with them, as they terminate abruptly as caecal structures."
He thinks them analogous with the endo-skeleton of other Insects; a view
which cannot be considered sufficiently established. Laboulbène
states[322] that when Perla parisina is seized and placed on its back, it
does not move, but emits a liquid at the base of the articulation of the
legs. This suggests that it may come from these sternal orifices. The
abdomen consists of ten dorsal plates, the first being short, and of nine
ventral; the dorsal plates are much more ample transversely than the
ventral. Frequently the hind body is terminated by two long, many-jointed
cerci, looking like antennae. The coxae are small, not prominent, and are
directed outwards. The legs are slender, the tibiae often grooved. The
tarsi are three-jointed, terminating in two claws and a more or less distinct
pad. In the genus Isopteryx an auditory organ has been described as
existing in the legs, in a position similar to that of the analogous structures
in Termitidae and Blattidae. The wings when closed repose flat on the
back, and fold and overlap so that only one is seen (Fig. 251); in this state
the costal portion of each front wing is turned downwards, so as to protect
to some extent, the sides of the body.
 Fig. 251.—Perla maxima. (After Pictet.)

Fig. 252.—Perla sp., nymph, showing tracheal gills. Pyrénées orientales.

The early stages are known, but have not been described minutely, and
there appears to be very little information as to the youngest life. All the
species are, when immature, aquatic in their habits; the larvae greatly
resemble the perfect Insects in form, though differing in not possessing
wings and in the ocelli being merely opaque spaces. They have rather
large compound eyes; the future wings are represented by lobe-like
prolongations—varying in length according to age—of the meso- and
meta-notum. In the Nemourae the cerci are absent in the imago though
present in the young. The larvae of Perlidae are carnivorous and are able
to swim well, the legs being provided with abundant swimming hairs; they,
however, as a rule, prefer to walk at the bottom of the pool, or on rocks or
boulders in the water they live in.

One of the most peculiar features of the Perlidae is their respiratory

system. Unfortunately the greatest differences of opinion have prevailed
on various matters in connexion with this subject, and there are several
points about which it is not possible at present to express a decided
opinion.
 Fig. 253.—Tracheal gill and portion of a trachea of Pteronarcys. (After
Newport.)

The larvae have no stigmata; it appears to be generally agreed that there

is in them no means of admitting air to the tracheal system by means of
orifices. Some breathe entirely through the integument, the process being
aided by the accumulation of tracheae at the spots where the breathing
orifices should be, and where the integument is more delicate. Others,
however, possess gills in the form of protruded bunches of filaments,
connected with tracheae in the manner shown in Fig. 253. These
filamentous branchiae occur in numerous species of the family, and are
situate on various parts of the body, but many species are destitute of
them in genera, other members of which possess the filaments. In some
Nemourae instead of bunches of filaments there are tubular projections
on the prothoracic segment; and in Dictyopteryx signata similar structures
occur even in the cephalic region, Hagen stating[323] that there exists a
pair on the submentum and another on the membrane between the head
and the thorax. In the imago state, stigmata are present in the normal
fashion, there being two thoracic and six abdominal pairs. In several
species the filaments persist in the imago, so that in these cases we meet
with the curious condition of the coexistence of branchiae with a well-
developed and functionally active system of spiracles; this is the more
curious because the creatures usually have then nothing to do with the
water, it having been ascertained that in these cases the species live out
of the water as other terrestrial and aerial Insects do. These instances of
persistence of branchiae during the aerial life have been the source of
some perplexity; the condition was shown to exist in Pteronarcys by
Newport, and has since been demonstrated in various other forms.
Newport believed that the imago of Pteronarcys breathes by means of the
gills, although it lives out of the water and possesses spiracles; and he
informs us that Mr. Barnston observed the Insect when on the wing
"constantly dipping on the surface of the water." Hence Newport
concluded that Pteronarcys in the winged state is "an amphibious animal."
That a winged Insect should live in the air and yet breathe by means of
gills would be truly extraordinary, and there can be little doubt that
Newport's idea was erroneous. Hagen[324] was able to examine living
imagos of the species in question. He found that they avoided the water,
and though he placed some individuals therein, yet they did not use the
gills. He also informs us that the branchiae have, during life, a shrivelled
appearance, indicating that they are not functionally active, but are merely
useless organs carried over to the imago from the previous instar, in
which they were truly the means of obtaining air. Hagen also ascertained
that the spiracles of the imago are in a normal state, being adapted for
breathing, even as far back as the seventh abdominal segment.

Fig. 254.—Under side of body of Pteronarcys regalis, imago. (After

Newport.) g, Tracheal gills; o, sternal orifices.

Great difference of opinion has prevailed as to the relations of the

branchiae to the stigmata, it having been contended that the falling off of
some of the branchiae left the stigmatic orifices. The facts appear to be
only consistent with the conclusion that the two are totally independent
organs. This subject has been investigated by Palmén,[325] who finds that
in Perlidae—contrary to what occurs in may-flies—the species are either
entirely destitute of gills, or these organs are persistent throughout life. It
is not to be inferred from this that the gills in the perennibranchiate
Perlidae are as conspicuous as they are in the exceptional Pteronarcys:
for it appears that at the final moult the gills usually become very much
contracted and concealed by the new integument; in some cases they
merely appear as slight prominences in the neighbourhood of the
stigmata.

Pictet, Dufour, Newport, and Imhof[326] have studied the internal anatomy.
The alimentary canal is remarkable for the enormous oesophagus; there
is no distinction between this and the crop. A proventriculus is quite