Ebook PDF The State of Texas Government Politics and Policy 4th Edition PDF
Ebook PDF The State of Texas Government Politics and Policy 4th Edition PDF
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mheducation.com/highered
P reface
STEP 2. The data from SmartBook were provided to the authors in the form
of a Heat Map, which graphically illustrated “hot spots” in the text
that impacted student learning (see images left).
STEP 3. The authors used the Heat Map data to refine the content and rein-
force student comprehension in the new edition. Additional quiz ques-
tions and assignable activities were created for use in Connect Texas
Government
ChapTer 4 The Executive Department toOffice
and the further support
of the Governorstudent
of Texas success. 153
RESULT: Because the Heat Map gave the authors empirically based feedback
at the paragraph and even sentence level, they were able to develop
Each governor is going to make different theuse
newof edition
her or his staff.
using In recent
precise years
student data that pinpointed concepts
most have used their staff to keep track of that
statecaused
agencies over which
students the governors
the most difficulty.
themselves have little or no direct control. The staff also gathers information and
makes recommendations on changes in policy that affect most areas of state gov-
ernment. A message from a member Understanding Impact
of the governor’s staff to a state agency is
taken seriously. A report issued by the governor’s office automatically attracts the
Understanding Impact features help students understand why key content matters
attention of significant state leaders and the news media. Often the governor must
and includes critical thinking questions to help them apply what they learn. Top-
use the information gathered to wage a public relations war with the legislature or
ics include understanding the impact of informal qualifications in the Texas
state agencies. In Texas, the increases in the size, professionalism, and complexity
gubernatorial race and understanding the impact of Internet-savvy campaigns for
of the governor’s staff have become necessary to offset the limited formal control
upstart candidates.
the governor has over state government.
Understanding Impact In the previous section, Formal Powers of the Governor, you learned that the powers of the Texas
governor are relatively weak when compared to the power conferred on governors of other states. In this section you
learned that the informal powers of the governor have evolved over time and the position has achieved new relevance. Do
you believe the governor’s informal powers have strengthened the power of the office, or does our governor still occupy
a relatively weak position in state government? Give reasons for your answer.
Conclusion
How To
Even though governors in most states do not have much governing this large, diverse, and economically impor-
formal power, the office has great To featuresinprovide
Howimportance state students tant statewithchallenging.
step-by-stepSome guidance
reformfor of developing
the powers of skills
the
they need for college
politics. In recent years, the importance of the office has and for life. Topics include “How to Think
governor is still needed, but it is doubtful that such Critically about
increased. Of the past five U.S.Issues” and “How
presidents, three haveto Interpret a Table.”
changes will occur. The political culture of the state
140 T S he T : Government, Politics, and Policy
TaTe of exaS
been state governors before their move to the White does not support that change. Leadership will have to
House (Ronald Reagan in California, Bill Clinton in come from force of will and personality, not from for-
Arkansas, and George W. Bush in Texas).
How to The office has mal changes in structure. Interest groups do not sup-
become increasingly visible in both state and national port transferring power from state agencies they can
politics. The need for strong leadership in thisa Table
Interpret office will dominate to agencies under the control of a single indi-
continue to increase. vidual appointed
Tables summarize and simplify information. They present
by the governor. Although the Sunset
$10,616 each. This information suggests that those ap-
Texas is now the second-largestnames,state in population
numbers, Advisory
percentages, and amounts in a way thatCommission has had
pointed to education boardsaand
positive impact
commissions gave moreon
and one of the leading states in industrial growth.
is easy to read. Let’s use The some
Table 4.3 to work agencies,
through the general
money to Rick reorganization of state
Perry’s campaign than govern-
any other ap-
process of interpreting a table. pointed office category. Conversely, 28 individuals that
governor’s lack of formal power makes the task of ment is not likely anytime soon.
Perry appointed to retirement boards and commissions
Step 1: What is the title of Table 4.3?
contributed less than other appointed office categories,
The title of the table tells you how the elements within the
with an average contribution of $248 per appointee.
table are related. Table 4.3 has the title “Governor Rick
Summary Perry Campaign Contributions and Appointments to Step 4: What conclusions can you draw from
Boards and Commissions.” The title presents the relation- Table 4.3?
ship between Governor Perry’s campaign contributions Though it is possible to make several observations about
LO: Summarize the formal and informal
and the appointments he made to state boardsEachandstate
com-elects andincluded
the data provides for
in the theit succession
table, is important to of lookits
qualifications for the governor of Texas.
missions. executive officials according
for the big to its the
picture. For example, own totalrules.
appointeeTexas
do-
nations in the education category ($1,433,093) made up
Step 2: What areincluding
While there are certain formal qualifications the column headings? elects the governor and lieutenant governor separately
37 percent (calculated as 1,433,093 divided by
The column headings or subheadings identify what data
citizenship, age, and residency, required
the tableby law in Texas,
is reporting.
and could,
In Table 4.3 the column headings
therefore,
3,870,324) have
of totalaappointee
split executive,
donations fromthough this
all catego-
Texas NewsFlash
We ensure that you have the most up-to-date content to share with your students
through our NewsFlash activities, which are updated monthly. NewsFlash exer-
cises tie current news stories to key Texas government concepts and learning
objectives. After interacting with a contemporary news story, students are assessed
on their ability to make the connection between real-life events and course
content.
Texas Podcasts
Texas government faculty can now create broader interest, engagement, and rele-
vancy in their courses by leveraging political podcasts about Texas government
and politics. These assignments, which will be periodically expanded, will ask
students to listen to relevant podcasts, demonstrate their understanding of the
basic concepts presented, and reflect the broader context of the Texas political
system.
Concept Clips
Concept Clips help students break down key concepts in government. Using easy-
to-understand audio narration, visual cues, and colorful animations, Concept
Clips provide a step-by-step presentation that aids in student retention. In addi-
tion to the concept-based clips, the new edition also offers several Skills Based
Clips that equip students for work within and outside the classroom. These skills-
based clips include the following:
• How to Evaluate News Source
• How to Think Critically
• How to Read a Court Case
• How to Understand Charts and Graphs
• How to Interpret Political Cartoons
• How to Avoid Plagiarism
x The State of Texas: Government, Politics, and Policy
Focus On
Focus On features present students with engaging examples of how Hispanic and
Latino individuals, groups, and culture play an important role in Texas political
life. Focus On features now profile individuals relevant to today’s student.
In Chapter 4, for example, the Focus On feature is titled “A Hispanic Governor
for Texas?”
ChapTer 4 The Executive Department and the Office of the Governor of Texas 121
Focus On
A Hispanic Governor for Texas?
Absolutely, proclaims Texas Monthly magazine. The article, “El
Gobernador,” written in February 2008, begins with a hypo-
thetical story of Rafael Anchia, currently serving as a state
legislator from Dallas, winning the 2018 Texas gubernatorial
race. Although the article begins with a look forward, its main
focus is on the history of Hispanic politics and the changing
demographics of the state.3 According to the U.S. Census, 38.6
percent of Texans are Hispanic.4 Texas will likely have a His-
panic governor someday; the main question is when.
During the 2002 governor’s race, the state came very close.
Tony Sanchez, a business executive and politician from Laredo,
was the first Hispanic to run for governor in the statewide
election. Before the election, he served as board regent for the
University of Texas at Austin and also worked, albeit unsuc- ©Tony Gutierrez/ASSOCIATED PRESS
cessfully, to get a Hispanic to run for president of the UT
Health Science Center in San Antonio. Moving into election season, Sanchez won the Democratic primary with 60 per-
cent of the vote and faced off against Rick Perry, who had been unopposed in the Republican primary.5
During the election, many Democrats hoped that the state’s Hispanic population would turn out in larger numbers
and become a more distinct bloc in favor of the Democratic Party.6 Unfortunately for Democrats and Sanchez, there was
less Hispanic mobilization for their party than desired. Sanchez lost the election, winning only 40 percent of the vote.7 In
addition, although Hispanic turnout improved somewhat from the 2000 election, there was not enough movement to
indicate a surge.8 Hispanic turnout has been historically low as a percentage of Hispanic population and remains so.9
(See Chapter 9 for more information on Hispanic voter turnout.)
Content Changes
As mentioned, we revised the Fourth Edition in response to student Heat Map
data that pinpointed the topics and concepts where students struggled the most.
This was reflected primarily in the chapter on public policy in Texas.
Chapter 1: Introduction to Texas History and Politics
• Reduced the number of historical details
• Added information on diversity within Texas
• Updated political and economic information
• Added a “How to Read a Map” feature
Chapter 2: The American Federal System and the Texas State Constitution
• Enhanced discussion of American federalism
• Explained the connection between culture and constitutional history
• Highlighted characteristics common to state institutions
• Updated information on Navarro’s legacy today and how it impacts us
• Added a “How to Read Critically” feature
Chapter 3: The Texas Legislature
• Reordered text to improve flow
• Reduced the amount of detail
xii The State of Texas: Government, Politics, and Policy
Learning Outcome: Explain the Thinking List the several different “waves” of immigration. How have these settlement pat-
history, demographics, and political Critically terns changed over time and/or how have they stayed the same? How did they
culture of Texas. change the character and culture of Texas?
Learning Outcome: Explain the Communicating Write a short synopsis of Texas’s changing economy and its role in international
history, demographics, and political Effectively trade.
CHAPTER culture of Texas.
1
Learning Outcome: Explain the Taking Personal What can you do to become well informed about political issues so that you can
history, demographics, and political Responsibility make good decisions at election time?
culture of Texas.
Learning Outcome: Explain the Being Socially Understanding the relationship between religious affiliations and politics can improve
history, demographics, and political Responsible civic knowledge. How would you use this knowledge to engage effectively in your
culture of Texas. community? Think about your own religious affiliations (if any) and political beliefs and
how they compare with those of your neighbors. How might knowing your neighbors’
religious affiliations help you better understand their political views?
Learning Outcome: Describe Communicating Analyze the diagram in Figure 2.3 and the division of powers in Table 2.2 to describe
separation of powers and checks Effectively the separation of powers and checks and balances in both theory and practice in
and balances in both theory and Texas.
practice in Texas.
Learning Outcome: Explain the Thinking What is the impact of a constitutional convention dominated by one party? What
origin and development of the Critically were the consequences of the 1875 constitutional convention in the development of
CHAPTER Texas Constitution. the Texas Constitution?
Learning Outcome: Describe state Taking Personal As a resident of Texas and a citizen of the United States, can you identify and dis-
and local political systems and Responsibility cuss examples that reinforce the Full Faith and Credit Clause and the Privileges and
their relationship with the federal Immunities Clause of the U.S. Constitution? Which examples, in your opinion, violate
government. these principles?
Learning Outcome: Describe Communicating Some people contend that smaller constituencies might allow a wider array of
the legislative branch of Texas Effectively people to participate in state politics, rather than just the “rich” or “well born.”
government. How would you argue in favor of or against this statement?
Learning Outcome: Describe Being Socially Use this website to find your representatives: https://capitol.texas.gov/. The “Who
the legislative branch of Texas Responsible Represents Me” section allows you to put in your address and locate your state
government. house and senate members.
CHAPTER
Learning Outcome: Describe Thinking Both demographics and voting patterns have changed in Texas, and some districts
Learning Outcome: Describe Taking Personal It has been stated that the success of legislation depends largely on a relative few
the legislative branch of Texas Responsibility individuals who make up the leadership in the Texas House and Senate. Do you
government. think the Speaker of the House and the lieutenant governor have too much control
over the passage of bills? How can you influence legislation? What can individuals
do to affect legislation?
xvi The State of Texas: Government, Politics, and Policy
Learning Outcome: Explain the Communicating Analyze Map 4.1. What inferences can you draw from the data? Think about how the
structure and function of the execu- Effectively data relate to Texas, its neighbors, and other regions of the country.
tive branch of Texas government.
Learning Outcome: Explain the Being Socially How does the comptroller promote effective involvement in regional, national, and
structure and function of the execu- Responsible global communities?
CHAPTER tive branch of Texas government.
4
Learning Outcome: Explain the Taking Personal What can you do to become more actively engaged in the civic discourse about the
structure and function of the execu- Responsibility role of the State Board of Education?
tive branch of Texas government.
Learning Outcome: Explain the Thinking The six factors that influence the strength of the power of the governor are the
structure and function of the execu- Critically number of elected statewide executives, the tenure of office, the governor’s ap-
tive branch of Texas government. pointive powers, the governor’s budgetary powers, the governor’s veto powers,
and the extent to which the governor controls his or her political party. What can
you conclude about the powers of the governor?
Learning Outcome: Describe the Communicating Analyze Figure 5.4. Describe the appeals process for a civil case filed in county
structure and function of the judi- Effectively court.
cial branch of Texas government.
Learning Outcome: Describe the Being Socially What impact, if any, do you think partisan election of judges has on judicial outcomes?
structure and function of the judi- Responsible
CHAPTER cial branch of Texas government.
Learning Outcome: Describe the Taking Personal Given what you read in this section, it would seem that citizens have little impact in
structure and function of the judi- Responsibility disciplining and/or removing judges. What do you think is a citizen’s responsibility
cial branch of Texas government. in this matter? How can individuals take greater personal responsibility to ensure
that judges perform properly?
Learning Outcome: Analyze issues Communicating Explain the difference between criminal and civil law, including how the standard of
and policies in Texas. Effectively proof differs for each. Provide an example of each type of case.
Learning Outcome: Analyze issues Taking Personal Currently, at what age does the state of Texas consider a person an adult in criminal
CHAPTER and policies in Texas. Responsibility and civil proceedings? At what age do you think the state should require individuals
to take personal responsibility? Why?
Learning Outcome: Analyze issues Thinking Given the current challenges faced by the criminal justice system, what types of re-
and policies in Texas. Critically forms would you recommend? What might be some of the negative or unintended
consequences of your recommendations?
Learning Outcome: Describe local Communicating Compare Figures 7.1, 7.3, and 7.4 with Table 7.2. Discuss the fundamental differ-
political systems in Texas. Effectively ences between weak mayor, strong mayor, and council-manager forms of govern-
ment. Which do you prefer and why?
Learning Outcome: Describe local Being Socially Compare at-large election systems and single-member district systems. An argu-
CHAPTER political systems in Texas. Responsible ment in favor of single-member district systems is that they increase minority repre-
7
sentation in local government. In your opinion, does increased minority
representation increase intercultural competency? Why?
Learning Outcome: Describe local Taking Personal Local government directly impacts people in their daily lives. What can you do to
political systems in Texas. Responsibility improve local governance?
Learning Outcome: Describe local Thinking Identify some of the problems facing county governments. What solutions would
political systems in Texas. Critically you propose?
Preface xvii
Learning Outcome: Evaluate Thinking Review Figure 8.3. Note that Donald Trump (Republican) was the U.S. president
public opinion and the role of the Critically at the time of polling. Why might Texas Democrats display higher levels of trust in
media in Texas politics. the U.S. Supreme Court than in other branches of government? Why might Texas
Republicans and Independents display less trust in the Supreme Court than in the
presidency?
CHAPTER Learning Outcome: Evaluate Taking Personal What media sources do you consume? Print? Television? Social media? Which do
public opinion and the role of the Responsibility you access most and least often? How might social media influence you differently
What responsibility do citizens have as social media participants within the context
of political campaigns?
media in Texas politics.
Learning Outcome: Evaluate Communicating Explain how the federal government regulates print and electronic media.
public opinion and the role of the Effectively
media in Texas politics.
Learning Outcome: Identify Taking Personal What activities do you engage in that are related to governance? Which forms of
the rights and responsibilities Responsibility political participation do you think are the most effective?
of citizens.
Learning Outcome: Identify Thinking How do you think the Texas voter ID law impacts voter turnout in Texas? Where do
CHAPTER the rights and responsibilities Critically you stand on the issue? Explain why you favor or oppose voter ID laws.
of citizens.
Learning Outcome: Identify Communicating Write a one-page summary of the rationalist explanations for low voter turnout.
the rights and responsibilities Effectively
of citizens.
Learning Outcome: Analyze the Thinking Explain the challenges that hinder minor party candidates from succeeding in
state and local election process in Critically statewide elections.
Texas.
Learning Outcome: Analyze the Communicating Do you think the Voting Rights Act requirement that Texas provide a bilingual ballot
CHAPTER state and local election process in Effectively increases voter turnout? Construct an argument in favor of or against this provision
Texas. of the Voting Rights Act.
Learning Outcome: Analyze the Taking Personal If you choose to contribute to a candidate’s campaign, to what extent is the candi-
state and local election process Responsibility date obligated to you as a contributor? Should your contribution influence public
in Texas. policy? What about corporate contributions?
Learning Outcome: Evaluate the Communicating Explain how political reforms have weakened political parties.
role of political parties in Texas. Effectively
Learning Outcome: Evaluate the Taking Personal Examine your political values and compare them to the expressed values of both
CHAPTER role of political parties in Texas. Responsibility parties. Do your ideas about the role of government, politics, and policy align with
one particular party?
Learning Outcome: Evaluate the Thinking For a variety of reasons, third parties do not currently have much impact on Texas
role of political parties in Texas. Critically politics. What measures might be taken to level the playing field for third parties
and improve their competitiveness in elections?
xviii The State of Texas: Government, Politics, and Policy
Learning Outcome: Evaluate the Thinking Review Table 12.1. Are you a participant in a membership organization? If so, how
role of interest groups in Texas. Critically does the organization represent your interests? If not, how are your interests repre-
sented at the state and federal levels of government?
Learning Outcome: Evaluate the Taking Personal Socrates suggested “know thyself,” and Shakespeare’s Hamlet admonished “to
role of interest groups in Texas. Responsibility thine own self be true.” It is important to know what your interests are and how
CHAPTER they are represented in government. Consider what you have read in this chapter
and determine how interest group efforts align with your personal interests. If they
Review the data presented in Table 12.4. Identify the interest group category that
role of interest groups in Texas. Effectively spent the most money in 2014. Discuss the impact that PAC spending has on
government.
Learning Outcome: Evaluate the Being Socially How can geographic distribution of interest groups improve political awareness
role of interest groups in Texas. Responsible between culturally diverse populations?
Learning Outcome: Analyze Taking Personal How can you impact public policy decisions? At what point in the policy cycle could
important public policy issues Responsibility you voice your preferences? Use Figure 13.1, the policy cycle graphic, to help you
in Texas. answer these questions.
Learning Outcome: Analyze Being Socially To what extent should Texas be responsible for ensuring equal funding for wealthy
CHAPTER important public policy issues Responsible school districts and poor school districts?
in Texas.
Learning Outcome: Analyze Thinking Given the water-related challenges facing Texas, what measures would you recom-
important public policy issues Critically mend to ensure all Texans have access to water? What might be some negative or
in Texas. unintended consequences of your recommendations?
Learning Outcome: Analyze state Thinking What goods and services do you think state government should provide? Consider
financing issues and policies in Critically the consequences of your answer. What would the possible impact to society be,
Texas. given your position? Who would benefit, and who would lose out?
Learning Outcome: Analyze Being Socially Texas taxes prepared food items, but does not tax unprepared food items (e.g., raw
state financing issues and policies Responsible meats and fresh produce). Earlier in this chapter, you learned that individuals can
CHAPTER in Texas. be excluded from receiving services such as electricity if they cannot pay. Keeping
this in mind, how does taxing prepared food affect our state’s poorest citizens?
Learning Outcome: Analyze Taking Personal Although few individuals would express a preference for higher taxes, given the
state financing issues and policies Responsibility information in this chapter about the goods and services the state provides and the
in Texas. revenue data presented in Figure 14.9 and Table 14.9, should Texans advocate for a
personal income tax? Why or why not?
B rief C onten ts
xix
C ontents
Core Objective: Taking Personal Responsibility . . . 17 Core Objective: Being Socially Responsible . . . 43
Demographics: The Road to Majority-Minority 17 The Evolution of American Federalism 44
Urban and Rural 17 Relations between States in the Federal System 45
Majority-Minority 19
Core Objective: Taking Personal Responsibility . . . 46
Focus On: How the Government Defines
“Hispanic” 20 Conclusion to Federalism 47
Religion in Texas 22 Principles of Constitutional Government 47
Core Objective: Being Socially Responsible . . . 24 Characteristics Common to State
Constitutions 48
Challenges in Texas 24 Separation of Powers 48
Recession in Texas 24
Core Objective: Communicating Effectively . . . 50
National Issues 25
Income and Poverty 25 Bill of Rights 50
Education 25 Supreme Law of the State 51
xx
Contents xxi
Evolution of the Texas Constitution: 1824–1876 51 Core Objective: Being Socially Responsible . . . 90
Constitutions under the Republic of Mexico 51 Redistricting in 2001 90
The Republic of Texas Constitution of 1836 52 2003 and the Texas Eleven 91
Statehood Constitution of 1845 53 Redistricting in 2011 and Beyond 92
Focus On: The Tejano Contribution to Texas’s How To: Think Critically about Issues Getting
Founding 54 Elected 94
The Civil War and Reconstruction Constitutions of 1861, Competition for House and Senate Seats 95
1866, and 1869 55
Core Objective: Thinking Critically . . . 97
The Constitution of 1876 55
Term Limits 97
Core Objective: Thinking Critically . . . 56
Turnover in State Legislatures 97
Culture Drives Institutions 56 Leadership Positions in the Texas Legislature 98
Important Sections of the Texas Constitution 56 Speaker of the House 98
Article 1: Bill of Rights 57 Lieutenant Governor 100
Article 2: The Powers of Government 57 Committees in the House and Senate 101
Article 3: Legislative Department 57
Core Objective: Taking Personal Responsibility . . .103
Article 4: Executive Department 57
Article 5: Judicial Department 58 Functions 103
Additional Articles 58 Lawmaking 103
Comparing the Structure of State Constitutions 58 Bills 103
Resolutions 104
Amending and Revising State Constitutions 62
Budget and Taxation 104
Patterns of Constitutional Change 63
Oversight 104
Amending the Texas Constitution 63
Impeachment 105
Criticisms of the Texas Constitution 67
Procedures 106
Conclusion to the Texas Constitution 68
Summary 69 Formal Rules: How a Bill Becomes a Law 106
Key Terms 70 Conference Committee 108
Notes 71 The Governor 108
Legislative Workload and Logjams 108
Informal Rules 109
CHAPTER 3 THE TEXAS LEGISLATURE 73
Legislative Roles 110
The Structure and Size of the Texas Legislature 74 Representational Roles 111
Partisan Roles 111
Core Objective: Communicating Effectively . . . 75
Legislative Professionalism versus Citizen
General Characteristics of the Legislature 75 Legislatures 112
Sessions and Session Length 75
Conclusion 112
Qualifications and Demographics 78 Summary 112
Core Objective: Taking Personal Responsibility . . . 78 Key Terms 113
Notes 113
Focus On: The First Hispanic Woman in the
Texas Legislature 79
Salary 81 CHAPTER 4 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT
Staff and Facilities 84 AND THE OFFICE OF THE
GOVERNOR OF TEXAS 119
Single-Member versus Multimember Districts 84
Reapportionment and Redistricting 86 Qualifications 119
Equity of Representation 86 Formal Qualifications 119
Minority Representation 88 Informal Qualifications 120
Political and Racial Gerrymandering 89 Experience 120
xxii The State of Texas: Government, Politics, and Policy
Focus On: A Hispanic Governor for Texas? 121 Sunset Review 148
Race and Ethnicity 122 Powers of the Texas Governor in Comparative Context 148
Women 122
Core Objective: Thinking Critically . . . 149
Wealth 122
Informal Powers 151
Core Objective: Communicating Effectively . . .123
Roles 151
Salary 123 The Governor’s Staff 152
Succession to Office and Acting
Conclusion 153
Governor 124 Summary 153
Postgubernatorial Office 125 Key Terms 154
Removal from Office 125 Notes 154
Focus On: The First Hispanic Justice on the Technology and Crime 216
Texas Supreme Court 176 Exoneration 216
Core Objective: Thinking Critically . . . 178 Race, Gender, and the Criminal Justice System 217
Misconduct in the Justice System 218
Removing and Disciplining Judges 178
How to: Locate Primary Sources 220
Core Objective: Taking Personal Responsibility . . .179
Core Objective: Thinking Critically . . . 221
Court Decision Making 179
Conclusion 221
Conclusion 180 Summary 221
Summary 180 Key Terms 222
Key Terms 181 Notes 222
Notes 182
These nurseries rest on the clay-like framework of the nest, but are not
attached thereto; they in no way support it, or one another, indeed they
have the appearance of being constantly added to on their upper margins
and constantly eaten away on their under parts. Fig. 240 represents the
appearance of the upper boundary of a nursery taken from a nest of
Termes angustatus. The small white bodies, mentioned above, have
disappeared: the mycelium of the fungus, though not shown in the figure,
is still visible on the specimen from which it was drawn, and gives rise to a
whitish, glaucous appearance.
Termitidae are classed by some naturalists with the Orthoptera, and they
have a great deal in common with some of the cursorial division of that
Order, more particularly Forficulidae and Blattidae; but they differ from
Orthoptera in the nature and form of the wings. They are also classed by
some, with a few other forms, as a separate Order of Pseudo-Neuroptera
called Corrodentia, but this is not a very satisfactory course, as the
Termitidae do not agree closely with the forms associated with them,
while the aggregate so formed is far from being very distinct from other
forms of Neuroptera. On the whole the best plan appears to be to treat
the Termitidae as forming a distinct family of the Order Neuroptera, or to
make it a distinct Order, as proposed by Grassi. Packard now associates
Termites in an Order with the biting-lice, and calls it Platyptera.
The Psocidae are without exception small and soft-bodied Insects, and
are only known to those who are not entomologists by the wingless forms
that run about in uninhabited or quiet apartments, and are called dust-lice
or book-lice. They are perhaps more similar to Termitidae than to any
other Insects, but the two families differ much in the structure of their
wings, and are totally dissimilar in the nature of their lives.
The life-history has never been satisfactorily sketched. The young greatly
resemble the old, but have no ocelli or wings, and sometimes the tarsi are
of two joints, while in the adult they have three. The antennae have also
in these cases a less number of joints in the young stage. The food is
animal or vegetable refuse substances; many live on fungoid matter of
various kinds, mouldy chaff being, it is said, a favourite pabulum; the
mould on palings is a source of food to many; others live on the rust-fungi
of leaves, and many frequent the bark of trees. They are able to spin
webs, probably by the aid of the lingual glands; the eggs are deposited, in
some cases, on leaves and covered with a web. Hagen says that a
peculiar organ, possibly a gland—he calls it a hose[309]—exists at the
base of the tarsal claws. In our climate most of the species pass the
winter in the egg-state. There may be two generations in a year, perhaps
more.
In the young the wings first appear as buds, or outgrowths of the sides of
the meso- and meta-thorax; afterwards the prothorax decreases, while
the other two thoracic segments and the wing-rudiments attached to them
increase. The wings from their very origin appear to be different from
those of the Orthoptera, and the changes that take place in the thoracic
segments in the course of the development, differ from those that occur in
Orthoptera.
Fig. 246.—Micropterous form of Mesopsocus unipunctatus. a, a, Wings.
(After Bertkau.)
There are several peculiarities connected with the wings. Frequently they
exist, though of no use for flight; some Psocidae that have perfectly-
formed wings are so reluctant to use them that, M‘Lachlan says, they will
allow themselves to be crushed without seeking to escape by flight. At
certain periods, however, some Psocidae float on the wing in
considerable numbers, especially in a moist still atmosphere, and then
drift about like the winged Aphididae, which are frequently found with
them. There is evidence that individuals, or generations, of some of the
winged species occur with only rudimentary wings; although this has
been denied by Kolbe, there can be no doubt about it. The form figured
above (Fig. 246) was described by Bertkau[312] as a distinct genus, but
was afterwards recognised by him[313] to be a short-winged form of
Mesopsocus unipunctatus. It is probable that the adult female of this
species has the wings always micropterous, while the male has these
organs of the full size. In other species the condition of the rudimentary
wings seems to be quite constant. The facts concerning the wings of
Psocidae are so peculiar that Kolbe came to the conclusion that the
organs exist not because they are of use for flight, so much as because it
is the nature of an Insect to develop wings.[314]
Some of the species of Psocidae have never any trace of wings. These
apterous forms are mostly included in the division Atropinae, and are
usually very minute; it has been again and again erroneously stated that
they are the young state of winged forms. Hagen kept a large colony of
Atropos divinatoria for some years in confinement, so that he saw
numerous generations as well as many specimens. He found the
apterous condition quite constant.
The Rev. W. Derham, who two hundred years ago was Rector of
Upminster, in Essex, and was well known as a distinguished writer and
philosopher, gave an account of the ticking of death-watches to the Royal
Society.[318] This gentleman was a most accurate and minute observer;
he was well acquainted with the ticking of the greater death-watch—
Anobium—which he describes very accurately, as well as the acts
accompanying it, the details he mentions being exactly such as occur at
the present time. He not only heard the ticking of the Psocid or lesser
death-watch, but repeatedly witnessed it. He says: "I am now so used to,
and skilful in the matter as to be able to see, and show them, beating
almost when I please, by having a paper with some of them in it
conveniently placed and imitating their pulsation, which they will readily
answer." He also states that he could only hear them beating when it was
done on paper, and that this death-watch will tick for some hours together
without intermission, with intervals between each beat, so that it much
resembles the ticking of a watch. The act of ticking was accompanied by
rapping the front of the head on the paper, but Mr. Derham could not be
sure that the sound was produced in that manner, because each stroke
was also accompanied by a peculiar shudder, or recoil. After a prolonged
ticking he observed that another individual of the other sex made its
appearance. The species figured by Mr. Derham more resembles a
Hyperetes than it does either of our two known book-lice, Atropos and
Clothilla.
Fig. 248.—The lesser death-watch of Upminster. (After Derham.) A,
magnified; B, natural size.
Fam. V. Perlidae.
Insects of moderate or large size, furnished with four membranous
wings; these are usually complexly reticulate; the hind pair are much
the larger, and have a large anal area of more simple venation, which
becomes plicate when folded. The coxae are small, the legs widely
separated. The larvae are aquatic in habits; the metamorphosis is
slight.
The antennae of the Perlidae are long, very flexible, and composed of a
very large number of joints. The parts of the mouth vary a good deal. The
mandibles and maxillae are usually rather small, and all the parts of the
mouth are of feeble consistence or even membranous; the maxillary palpi
are, however, well developed and exserted from the mouth, five-jointed.
The labium is short and but little conspicuous. The mandibles in some
forms are almost membranous, but in other genera they are firmer and
are toothed. The labium is composed of a very large mentum, beyond
which is a large piece, usually undivided, bearing the four terminal lobes;
the three-jointed palpus is seated on the side of the large middle sclerite,
which is no doubt of composite nature. Considerable variety as to the
lower lip prevails. The head is broad and flat; there is an indistinctly-
indicated clypeus, three—more rarely two—ocelli, and on each side an
eye neither very large nor perfect. The prothorax is free, and has a flat,
margined notum. The meso- and the meta-thorax are large, equal
segments. The pro-, meso-, and meta-sternum are large pieces; between
the first and second, and between the second and third there is an
intervening membrane. The metasternum is much prolonged backwards,
and has on each side a peculiar slit; similar orifices exist on the other
sterna (Fig. 254, o). Newport, who has examined them in Pteronarcys,
says that they are blind invaginations of the integument; he calls them the
sternal or furcal orifices.[321] According to this naturalist these very
peculiar openings pass into the body "as strong bone-like tubes, diverging
from the axis to the periphery of the body in the immediate vicinity of
some of the principal tracheae, but that they do not in any way
communicate with them, as they terminate abruptly as caecal structures."
He thinks them analogous with the endo-skeleton of other Insects; a view
which cannot be considered sufficiently established. Laboulbène
states[322] that when Perla parisina is seized and placed on its back, it
does not move, but emits a liquid at the base of the articulation of the
legs. This suggests that it may come from these sternal orifices. The
abdomen consists of ten dorsal plates, the first being short, and of nine
ventral; the dorsal plates are much more ample transversely than the
ventral. Frequently the hind body is terminated by two long, many-jointed
cerci, looking like antennae. The coxae are small, not prominent, and are
directed outwards. The legs are slender, the tibiae often grooved. The
tarsi are three-jointed, terminating in two claws and a more or less distinct
pad. In the genus Isopteryx an auditory organ has been described as
existing in the legs, in a position similar to that of the analogous structures
in Termitidae and Blattidae. The wings when closed repose flat on the
back, and fold and overlap so that only one is seen (Fig. 251); in this state
the costal portion of each front wing is turned downwards, so as to protect
to some extent, the sides of the body.
Fig. 251.—Perla maxima. (After Pictet.)
The early stages are known, but have not been described minutely, and
there appears to be very little information as to the youngest life. All the
species are, when immature, aquatic in their habits; the larvae greatly
resemble the perfect Insects in form, though differing in not possessing
wings and in the ocelli being merely opaque spaces. They have rather
large compound eyes; the future wings are represented by lobe-like
prolongations—varying in length according to age—of the meso- and
meta-notum. In the Nemourae the cerci are absent in the imago though
present in the young. The larvae of Perlidae are carnivorous and are able
to swim well, the legs being provided with abundant swimming hairs; they,
however, as a rule, prefer to walk at the bottom of the pool, or on rocks or
boulders in the water they live in.
Pictet, Dufour, Newport, and Imhof[326] have studied the internal anatomy.
The alimentary canal is remarkable for the enormous oesophagus; there
is no distinction between this and the crop. A proventriculus is quite