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International
Management
Culture, Strategy, and Behavior
TENTH EDITION
Fred Luthans | Jonathan P. Doh

Preface vii
We have extended from the ninth edition of International Management the chap-
ter-opening discussions called “The World of International Management” (WIM),
based on very recent, relevant news stories to grab readers’ interest and attention. Many
of these opening articles are new to this edition and all have been updated. These
timely opening discussions transition the reader into the chapter topic. At the end of
each chapter, there is a pedagogical feature that revisits the chapter’s subject matter:
“The World of International Management—Revisited.” Here we pose several discussion
questions based on the topic of the opening feature in light of the student’s entire
reading of the chapter. Answering these questions requires readers to reconsider and
to draw from the chapter material. Suggested answers to these “WIM—Revisited”
discussion questions appear in the completely updated Instructor’s Manual, where we
also provide some multiple-choice and true-false questions that draw directly from the
chapters’ World of International Management topic matter for instructors who want to
include this material in their tests.
The use and application of cases are further enhanced in this edition. All cases
have been updated and several new ones have been added. The short within-chapter
country case illustrations—“In the International Spotlight”—can be read and dis-
cussed in class. These have all been revised and three have been added—Cuba, Greece,
and Nigeria. In addition, we have added an additional exercise, “You Be the Interna-
tional Management Consultant,” that presents a challenge or dilemma facing a com-
pany in the subject country of the “Spotlight.” Students are invited to respond to a
question related to this challenge. The revised or newly added “Integrative Cases”
positioned at the end of each main part of the text were created exclusively for this
edition and provide opportunities for reading and analysis outside of class. Review
questions provided for each case are intended to facilitate lively and productive writ-
ten analysis or in-class discussion. Our “Brief Integrative Cases” typically explore a
specific situation or challenge facing an individual or team. Our longer and more
detailed “In-Depth Integrative Cases” provide a broader discussion of the challenges
facing a company. These two formats allow maximum flexibility so that instructors
can use the cases in a tailored and customized fashion. Accompanying many of the
in-depth cases are short exercises that can be used in class to reinforce both the sub-
stantive topic and students’ skills in negotiation, presentation, and analysis. The cases
have been extensively updated and several are new to this edition. Cases concerning
the controversies over drug pricing, TOMS shoes, Russell Athletics/Fruit of the Loom,
Euro Disneyland and Disney Asia, Google in China, IKEA, HSBC, Nike, Walmart,
Tata, Danone, Chiquita, Coca-Cola, and others are unique to this book and specific
to this edition. Of course, instructors also have access to Create (www.mcgraw-hill-
create.com), McGraw-Hill’s extensive content database, which includes thousands of
cases from major sources such as Harvard Business School, Ivey, Darden, and NACRA
case databases.
Along with the new or updated “International Management in Action” boxed appli-
cation examples within each chapter and other pedagogical features at the end of each
chapter (i.e., “Key Terms,” “Review and Discussion Questions,” “The World of Interna-
tional Management—Revisited,” and “Internet Exercise”), the end-of-part brief and in-
depth cases and the end-of-book skill-building exercises and simulations in the Connect
resources complete the package.
International Management is generally recognized to be the first “mainstream”
text of its kind. Strategy casebooks and specialized books in organizational behavior,
human resources, and, of course, international business, finance, marketing, and eco-
nomics preceded it, but there were no international management texts before this
one, and it remains the market leader. We have had sustainability because of the
effort and care put into the revisions. We hope you agree that this tenth edition
continues the tradition and remains the “world-class” text for the study of interna-
tional management.
viii Preface
McGraw-Hill Connect®: connect.mheducation.com

Continually evolving, McGraw-Hill Connect® has been redesigned to provide the only
true adaptive learning experience delivered within a simple and easy-to-navigate environ-
ment, placing students at the very center.
∙ Performance Analytics—Now available for both instructors and students,
easy-to-decipher data illuminate course performance. Students always know
how they’re doing in class, while instructors can view student and section
performance at a glance.
∙ Personalized Learning—Squeezing the most out of study time, the adaptive
engine within Connect creates a highly personalized learning path for each
student by identifying areas of weakness and providing learning resources to
assist in the moment of need.
This seamless integration of reading, practice, and assessment ensures that the focus is
on the most important content for that individual.
Instructor Library The Connect Management Instructor Library is your repository
for additional resources to improve student engagement in and out of class. You can
select and use any asset that enhances your lecture.
To help instructors teach international management, this text is accompanied by a
revised and expanded Instructor’s Resource Manual, Test Bank, and PowerPoint slides,
all of which are in the Connect Library.
Acknowledgments
We would like to acknowledge those who have helped to make this book a reality. We
will never forget the legacy of international management education in general and for this
text in particular provided by our departed colleague Richard M. Hodgetts. Special thanks
also go to our growing number of colleagues throughout the world who have given us
many ideas and inspired us to think internationally. Closer to home, Jonathan Doh would
like to thank the Villanova School of Business and its leadership, especially Provost Pat
Maggitti, Interim Dean Daniel Wright, Dean Joyce Russell, Interim Vice Dean Wen Mao,
and Herb Rammrath, who generously endowed the Chair in International Business
Jonathan now holds. Also, for this new tenth edition we would like to thank Ben Littell,
who did comprehensive research, graphical design, and writing to update chapter material
and cases. Specifically, Ben researched and drafted chapter opening World of International
Management features, developed a number of original graphics, and provided extensive
research assistance for other revisions to the book. Allison Meade researched and drafted
the Chapter 4 World of International Management feature on “Culture Clashes in Cross-
Border Mergers and Acquisitions.” Fred Luthans would like to give special recognition
to two international management scholars: Henry H. Albers, former Chair of the Manage-
ment Department at the University of Nebraska and former Dean at the University of
Petroleum and Minerals, Saudi Arabia, to whom previous editions of this book were
dedicated; and Sang M. Lee, former Chair of the Management Department at Nebraska,
founding and current president of the Pan Pacific Business Association, and close col-
league on many ventures around the world over the past 30 years.
In addition, we would like to acknowledge the help that we received from the many
reviewers from around the globe, whose feedback guided us in preparing the tenth edition
of the text. These include
Joseph S. Anderson, Northern Arizona Lauryn De George, University of Central
University Florida
Chi Anyansi-Archibong, North Carolina Jae Jung, University of Missouri at Kansas
A&T State University City
Koren Borges, University of North Manjula S. Salimath, University of North
Florida Texas
Preface ix
Our thanks, too, to the reviewers of previous editions of the text:

Thomas M. Abbott, Post University Ann Langlois, Palm Beach Atlantic University
Yohannan T. Abraham, Southwest Missouri State Robert Kuhne, Hofstra University
University Christine Lentz, Rider University
Janet S. Adams, Kennesaw State University Ben Lever III, College of Charleston
Irfan Ahmed, Sam Houston State University Robert C. Maddox, University of Tennessee
Chi Anyansi-Archibong, North Carolina A&T State Curtis Matherne III, East Tennessee State University
University Douglas M. McCabe, Georgetown University
Kibok Baik, James Madison University Jeanne M. McNett, Assumption College
R. B. Barton, Murray State University Lauryn Migenes, University of Central Florida
Lawrence A. Beer, Arizona State University Alan N. Miller, University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Koren Borges, University of North Florida Ray Montagno, Ball State University
Tope A. Bello, East Carolina University Rebecca J. Morris, University of Nebraska–Omaha
Mauritz Blonder, Hofstra University Ernst W. Neuland, University of Pretoria
Gunther S. Boroschek, University of Massachusetts–Boston William Newburry, Rutgers Business School
Charles M. Byles, Virginia Commonwealth University Yongsun Paik, Loyola Marymount University
Constance Campbell, Georgia Southern University Valerie S. Perotti, Rochester Institute of Technology
Scott Kenneth Campbell, Georgia College & State Richard B. Peterson, University of Washington
University Suzanne J. Peterson, University of Nebraska–Lincoln
M. Suzanne Clinton, University of Central Oklahoma Joseph A. Petrick, Wright State University
Helen Deresky, SUNY Plattsburgh Juan F. Ramirez, Nova Southeastern University
Dr. Dharma deSilva, Center for International Business Richard David Ramsey, Southeastern Louisiana University
Advancement (CIBA) Owen Sevier, University of Central Oklahoma
David Elloy, Gonzaga University Mansour Sharif-Zadeh, California State Polytechnic
Val Finnigan, Leeds Metropolitan University University–Pomona
David M. Flynn, Hofstra University Emeric Solymossy, Western Illinois University.
Jan Flynn, Georgia College and State University Jane H. Standford, Texas A&M University–Kingsville
Joseph Richard Goldman, University of Minnesota Dale V. Steinmann, San Francisco State University
James Gran, Buena Vista University Randall Stross, San Jose State University
Robert T. Green, University of Texas at Austin George Sutija, Florida International University
Annette Gunter, University of Central Oklahoma Deanna Teel, Houston Community College
Jerry Haar, Florida International University–Miami David Turnipseed, University of South Alabama–Mobile
Jean M. Hanebury, Salisbury State University Katheryn H. Ward, Chicago State University
Richard C. Hoffman, Salisbury State University Li Weixing, University of Nebraska–Lincoln
Johan Hough, University of South Africa Aimee Wheaton, Regis College
Julie Huang, Rio Hondo College Marion M. White, James Madison University
Mohd Nazari Ismail, University of Malaya Timothy Wilkinson, University of Akron
Steve Jenner, California State University–Dominguez Hills George Yacus, Old Dominion University
James P. Johnson, Rollins College Corinne Young, University of Tampa
Marjorie Jones, Nova Southeastern University Zhe Zhang, University of Central Florida–Orlando
Jae C. Jung, University of Missouri–Kansas City Anatoly Zhuplev, Loyola Marymount University
Finally, thanks to the team at McGraw-Hill who worked on this book: Susan Gouijnstook,
Managing Director; Anke Weekes, Executive Brand Manager; Laura Hurst Spell, Senior
Product Developer; Erin Guendelsberger, Development Editor; Michael Gedatus, Market-
ing Manager; and Danielle Clement, Content Project Manager. Last but by no means
least, we greatly appreciate the love and support provided by our families.
Fred Luthans and Jonathan P. Doh

Luthans Doh
New and Enhanced Themes
The tenth
∙ Thoroughly revised and updated chapters to reflect the most
edition of International critical issues for international managers.
∙ Greater attention to demographic trends and human mobility,
Management: Culture, underscoring the importance of aging work forces, migration,
culture, and global talent management.
Strategy, and Behavior ∙ Focus on global sustainability and sustainable management
is still setting the practices and their impact on international management.
∙ New or revised opening World of International Management
standard. Authors (WIM) features written by the authors on current international
management challenges; these mini-cases were prepared
Jonathan Doh and expressly for this edition and are not available elsewhere.
∙ Discussions of the rise of global terrorism, the migrant crisis,
Fred Luthans have the growing role of social media in international transactions,
and many other contemporary topics presented in the opening
taken care to retain chapter and throughout the book.
∙ New and updated discussions of major issues in global ethics,
the effective
sustainability, and insights from project GLOBE and other
foundation gained cutting-edge research.
∙ Greater emphasis on major emerging regions, economic challenges
from research and in major countries such as Brazil and Russia, and specific case
illustrations on how companies are managing these challenges.
practice over the past
Thoroughly Revised and Updated Chapter Content
decades. At the same
∙ New or revised opening WIM discussions on topics including
time, they have fully
the global influences of social media using the case of Snap-
incorporated important chat; the role of social networking in political change in the
Middle East; sustainability as a global competitive advantage
new and emerging using examples of Patagonia, Tesla, and Nestlé; and cultural
challenges in global mergers and acquisitions. Others address
developments that the competitive dynamics between Apple and Xiaomi and
Amazon and Alibaba, the emergence of Haier as the largest
have changed what global appliance company, Netflix’s challenges in China and
Russia, and many others. These features were written expressly
international managers for this edition and are not available elsewhere.
∙ Updated and strengthened emphasis on ethics, social
are currently facing
responsibility, and sustainability.
and likely to face in ∙ Extensive coverage of Project GLOBE, its relationship to other
cultural frameworks, and its application to international man-
the coming years. agement practice (Chapters 4, 13).
∙ Revised or new “In the International Spotlight” inserts that
profile the key economic and political issues relevant to
managers in specific countries.
∙ Greater coverage of the challenges and opportunities for inter-
national strategy targeted to the developing “base of the
pyramid” economies (Chapter 8 and Tata cases).
x
Continues to Set the Standard. . .
Thoroughly Updated and/or New Cases,

Inserts, and Exercises
∙ Completely new “In the International Spotlight” country profiles at
the end of every chapter including the addition of profiles on Cuba,
Greece, and Nigeria.
∙ “You Be the International Management Consultant” exercises pre-
senting an actual company’s challenge in that country and inviting
students to recommend a course of action.
∙ New “International Management in Action” features, including
discussions on timely topics such as the rise of Bitcoin, the
Volkswagen emissions scandal, and the political risks facing Uber,
to name a few.
∙ Thoroughly updated cases (not available elsewhere): TOMS shoes,
Russell Athletics/Fruit of the Loom, Euro Disneyland and Disney
Asia, Google in China, IKEA, HSBC, Nike, Walmart, Tata, Danone,
Chiquita, Coca-Cola, and others are unique to this book and specific
to this edition.
∙ Brand new end-of-part cases developed exclusively for this edition
(not available elsewhere): TOMS Puts Its Right Foot Forward; The
Ethics of Global Drug Pricing.
∙ Brand new “World of International Management” chapter opening
discussions, including topics such as Netflix’s expansion to emerg-
ing markets, the merger of ABInBev and SABMiller, the battle
brewing between Apple’s iPhone and Chinese cell phone startups,
the impact of Russian sanctions on international businesses, and the
growth of Chinese brand Haier, to name a few.
∙ New and revised graphics throughout.
∙ Timely updates throughout, based on the latest research, including
an extended discussion of the GLOBE project, the continued impact
of global terrorism on international business, and the push towards a
sustainable future, to name a few.
Totally Revised Instructor and Student Support

The following instructor and student support materials can be found in
Connect® at connect.mheducation.com for the Tenth Edition.
∙ The Instructor’s Manual offers a summary of Learning Objectives
and a teaching outline with lecture notes and teaching tips, as
well as suggested answers to questions found throughout and at
the conclusion of each chapter. Suggested answers are also pro-
vided for all the cases found in the book.
∙ The test bank is offered in both Word and EZ Test formats and
offers over 1,000 test items consisting of true/false, multiple choice,
and essay. Answers are provided for all test bank questions.
xi
xii Continues to Set the Standard. . .
∙ PowerPoint Presentations consisting of 30 slides per chapter give instructors

talking points, feature exhibits from the text, and are summarized with a
review and discussion slide.
∙ LearnSmart®: The Tenth Edition of International Management is avail-
able with LearnSmart, the most widely used adaptive learning resource,
which is proven to improve grades. To improve your understanding of
this subject and improve your grades, go to McGraw-Hill Connect® at
connect.mheducation.com and find out more about LearnSmart. By
helping students focus on the most important information they need to
learn, LearnSmart personalizes the learning experience so they can study
as efficiently as possible.
∙ SmartBook®: An extension of LearnSmart, SmartBook is an adaptive eBook
that helps students focus their study time more effectively. As students read,
SmartBook assesses comprehension and dynamically highlights where they
need to study more.
∙ Create: Instructors can now tailor their teaching resources to match the way
they teach! With McGraw-Hill Create, create.mheducation.com, instructors
can easily rearrange chapters, combine material from other content sources,
and quickly upload and integrate their own content, like course syllabi or
teaching notes. Find the right content in Create by searching through thou-
sands of leading McGraw-Hill textbooks. Arrange the material to fit your
teaching style. Order a Create book and receive a complimentary print
review copy in 3–5 business days or a complimentary electronic review
copy (echo) via e-mail within one hour. Go to create.mheducation.com
today and register.
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McGraw-Hill Campus is a new one-stop teaching and learning experience available to
users of any learning management system.
This institutional service allows faculty and students to enjoy single sign-on
(SSO) access to all McGraw-Hill Higher Education materials, including the award-
winning McGraw-Hill Connect platform, from directly within the institution’s web-
site. With McGraw-Hill Campus, faculty receive instant access to teaching materials
(e.g., eTextbooks, test banks, PowerPoint slides, learning objectives, etc.), allowing
them to browse, search, and use any instructor ancillary content in our vast library
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nect). With McGraw-Hill Campus enabled, faculty and students will never need to
create another account to access McGraw-Hill products and services. Learn more at
www.mhcampus.com.
Assurance of Learning Ready

Many educational institutions today focus on the notion of assurance of learning, an
important element of some accreditation standards. International Management is designed
specifically to support instructors’ assurance of learning initiatives with a simple yet
powerful solution. Each test bank question for International Management maps to a
specific chapter learning objective listed in the text. Instructors can use our test bank
software, EZ Test and EZ Test Online, to easily query for learning objectives that directly
relate to the learning outcomes for their course. Instructors can then use the reporting
features of EZ Test to aggregate student results in similar fashion, making the collection
and presentation of assurance of learning data simple and easy.
Continues to Set the Standard. . . xiii
AACSB Tagging
McGraw-Hill Education is a proud corporate member of AACSB International. Under-
standing the importance and value of AACSB accreditation, International Management
recognizes the curriculum guidelines detailed in the AACSB standards for business
accreditation by connecting selected questions in the text and the test bank to the six
general knowledge and skill guidelines in the AACSB standards. The statements con-
tained in International Management are provided only as a guide for the users of this
textbook. The AACSB leaves content coverage and assessment within the purview of
individual schools, the mission of the school, and the faculty. While the International
Management teaching package makes no claim of any specific AACSB qualification or
evaluation, we have within International Management labeled selected questions accord-
ing to the six general knowledge and skills areas.
About the Authors
JONATHAN P. DOH is the Herbert G. Rammrath Chair in International Business, found-
ing Director of the Center for Global Leadership, and Professor of Management at the
Villanova School of Business, ranked in 2016 as the #1 undergraduate program in the
United States by Bloomberg Businessweek. He is also an occasional executive educator
for the Wharton School of Business. Jonathan teaches, does research, and serves as an
executive instructor and consultant in the areas of international strategy and corporate
responsibility. Previously, he was on the faculty of American and Georgetown Universi-
ties and a trade official with the U.S. government. Jonathan is author or co-author of more
than 70 refereed articles published in leading international business and management
journals, more than 30 chapters in scholarly edited volumes, and more than 90 conference
papers. Recent articles have appeared in journals such as Academy of Management Review,
California Management Review, Journal of International Business Studies, Journal of
© Villanova University, John Shetron Management, Journal of Management Studies, Journal of World Business, Organization
Science, Sloan Management Review, and Strategic Management Journal. He is co-editor
and contributing author of Globalization and NGOs (Praeger, 2003) and Handbook on
Responsible Leadership and Governance in Global Business (Elgar, 2005) and co-author
of the previous edition of International Management: Culture, Strategy, and Behavior (9th
ed., McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 2015), the best-selling international management text. His current
research focus is on strategy for and in emerging markets, global corporate responsibility,
and offshore outsourcing of services. His most recent scholarly books are Multinationals
and Development (with Alan Rugman, Yale University Press, 2008), NGOs and Corpora-
tions: Conflict and Collaboration (with Michael Yaziji, Cambridge University Press,
2009) and Aligning for Advantage: Competitive Strategy for the Social and Political Arenas
(with Tom Lawton and Tazeeb Rajwani, Oxford University Press, 2014). He has been an
associate, consulting, or senior editor for numerous journals, and is currently the editor-
in-chief of Journal of World Business. Jonathan has also developed more than a dozen
original cases and simulations published in books, journals, and case databases and used
at many leading global universities. He has been a consultant or executive instructor for
ABB, Anglo American, Bodycote, Bosch, China Minsheng Bank, Hana Financial, HSBC,
Ingersoll Rand, Medtronic, Shanghai Municipal Government, Siam Cement, the World
Economic Forum, among others. He is an external adviser to the Global Energy Resource
Group of Deloitte Touche. Jonathan is part of the Executive Committee of the Academy
of Management Organizations and Natural Environment Division, a role that culminated
in service as chair of the division in 2016. He was ranked among the top 15 most prolific
international business scholars in the world for the period 2001–2009 (Lahiri and Kumar,
2012) and in 2015 was elected a fellow of the Academy of International Business. He
is a frequent keynote speaker to academic and professional groups in Europe, Asia, and
Latin America. He holds a PhD in strategic and international management from George
Washington University.
FRED LUTHANS is University and the George Holmes Distinguished Professor of Man-
agement, Emeritus at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln. He is also a Senior Research
Scientist for HUMANeX Ventures Inc. He received his BA, MBA, and PhD from the
University of Iowa, where he received the Distinguished Alumni Award in 2002. While
serving as an officer in the U.S. Army from 1965–1967, he taught leadership at the U.S.
Courtesy of University of Nebraska-
Lincoln College of Business
Military Academy at West Point. He has been a visiting scholar at a number of colleges
Administration and universities and has lectured in numerous European and Pacific Rim countries. He
xiv
About the Authors xv
has taught international management as a visiting faculty member at the universities

of Bangkok, Hawaii, Henley in England, Norwegian Management School, Monash in
Australia, Macau, Chemnitz in Germany, and Tirana in Albania. A past president of the
Academy of Management, in 1997 he received the Academy’s Distinguished Educator
Award. In 2000 he became an inaugural member of the Academy’s Hall of Fame for
being one of the “Top Five” all-time published authors in the prestigious Academy
journals. For many years he was co-editor-in-chief of the Journal of World Busi-
ness and editor of Organizational Dynamics and is currently co-editor of Journal of
Leadership and Organizational Studies. The author of numerous books, his seminal Orga-
nizational Behavior is now in its 13th edition and the 2007 groundbreaking book Psy-
chological Capital (Oxford University Press) with Carolyn Youssef and Bruce
Avolio came out in a new version in 2015. He is one of very few management scholars
who is a Fellow of the Academy of Management, the Decision Sciences Institute, and
the Pan Pacific Business Association. He received the Global Leadership Award from
the Pan Pacific Association and has been a member of its Executive Committee since it
was founded over 30 years ago. This committee helps to organize the annual meeting
held in Pacific Rim countries. He has been involved with some of the first empirical
studies on motivation and behavioral management techniques and the analysis of mana-
gerial activities in Russia; these articles were published in the Academy of Management
Journal, Journal of International Business Studies, Journal of World Business, and
European Management Journal. Since the very beginning of the transition to market
economies after the fall of communism in Eastern Europe, he has been actively involved
in management education programs sponsored by the U.S. Agency for International
Development in Albania and Macedonia, and in U.S. Information Agency programs
involving the Central Asian countries of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan. Profes-
sor Luthans’s recent international research involves his construct of positive psychologi-
cal capital (PsyCap). For example, he and colleagues have published their research
demonstrating the impact of Chinese workers’ PsyCap on their performance in the Inter-
national Journal of Human Resource Management and Management and Organization
Review. He is applying his positive approach to positive organizational behavior (POB),
PsyCap, and authentic leadership to effective global management and has been the
keynote at programs in China (numerous times), Malaysia, South Korea, Indonesia, Phil-
ippines, Singapore, Taiwan, Japan, Vietnam, Costa Rica, Mexico, Chile, Fiji, Germany,
France, England, Spain, Norway, Finland, Denmark, Netherlands, Italy, Russia, Macedonia,
Albania, Morocco, South Africa, New Zealand, and Australia.
Brief Contents
Part One Environmental Foundation
1 Globalization and International Linkages 2
2 The Political, Legal, and Technological Environment 44
3 Ethics, Social Responsibility, and Sustainability 74
Brief Integrative Case 1.1: Advertising or Free Speech?
The Case of Nike and Human Rights 99
Brief Integrative Case 1.2: TOMS Puts Its Right Foot Forward 102
In-Depth Integrative Case 1.1: Student Advocacy and
“Sweatshop” Labor: The Case of Russell Athletic 107
In-Depth Integrative Case 1.2: The Ethics of Global Drug
Pricing 113
Part Two The Role of Culture

4 The Meanings and Dimensions of Culture 122
5 Managing Across Cultures 156
6 Organizational Cultures and Diversity 182
7 Cross-Cultural Communication and Negotiation 208
Brief Integrative Case 2.1: Coca-Cola in India 248
Brief Integrative Case 2.2: Danone’s Wrangle with Wahaha 255
In-Depth Integrative Case 2.1a: Euro Disneyland 262
In-Depth Integrative Case 2.1b: Disney in Asia 273
In-Depth Integrative Case 2.2: Walmart’s Global Strategies 279
Part Three International Strategic Management

8 Strategy Formulation and Implementation 290
9 Entry Strategies and Organizational Structures 328
10 Managing Political Risk, Government Relations, and
Alliances 360
11 Management Decision and Control 388
Brief Integrative Case 3.1: Google in China: Protecting
Property and Rights 415
In-Depth Integrative Case 3.1: Tata “Nano”:
The People’s Car 421
xvi
Brief Contents xvii
Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management Part Four

12 Motivation Across Cultures 432
13 Leadership Across Cultures 468
14 Human Resource Selection and Development Across Cultures 508
Brief Integrative Case 4.1: IKEA’s Global Renovations 555
In-Depth Integrative Case 4.1: HSBC in China 563
In-Depth Integrative Case 4.2: Chiquita’s Global Turnaround 575
Skill-Building and Experiential Exercises 583
Glossary 599
Indexes 605
Table of Contents
Part One Environmental Foundation
1 Globalization and International Linkages 2

The World of International Management: An Interconnected World 2
Introduction 5
Globalization and Internationalization 7
Globalization, Antiglobalization, and Global Pressures for Change 7
Global and Regional Integration 10
Changing Global Demographics 14
The Shifting Balance of Economic Power in the Global Economy 15
Global Economic Systems 22
Market Economy 22
Command Economy 23
Mixed Economy 23
Economic Performance and Issues of Major Regions 23
Established Economies 24
Emerging and Developing Economies 26
Developing Economies on the Verge 30
The World of International Management—Revisited 35

Summary of Key Points 37
Key Terms 37
Review and Discussion Questions 37
Answers to the In-Chapter Quiz 38
Internet Exercise: Global Competition in Fast Food 38
Endnotes 38
In the International Spotlight: India 42
2 The Political, Legal, and Technological Environment 44

The World of International Management: Social Media and
Political Change 44
Political Environment 46
Ideologies 47
Political Systems 50
Legal and Regulatory Environment 52
Basic Principles of International Law 53
Examples of Legal and Regulatory Issues 54
xviii
Table of Contents xix
Privatization 57
Regulation of Trade and Investment 60
Technological Environment and Global Shifts in Production 60
Trends in Technology, Communication, and Innovation 60
Biotechnology 62
E-Business 63
Telecommunications 64
Technological Advancements, Outsourcing, and Offshoring 65

Key Terms 68
Internet Exercise: Hitachi Goes Worldwide 69
Endnotes 69
In the International Spotlight: Greece 73
3 Ethics, Social Responsibility, and Sustainability 74

The World of International Management: Sustaining
Sustainable Companies 74
Ethics and Social Responsibility 77
Ethics and Social Responsibility in International Management 77
Ethics Theories and Philosophy 77
Human Rights 79
Labor, Employment, and Business Practices 80
Environmental Protection and Development 81
Globalization and Ethical Obligations of MNCs 83
Reconciling Ethical Differences across Cultures 85
Corporate Social Responsibility and Sustainability 85
Corporate Governance 89
Corruption 90
International Assistance 92

Summary of Key points 94
Key Terms 94
Endnotes 94
In the International Spotlight: Cuba 98
Brief Integrative Case 1.1: Advertising or Free Speech? The Case
of Nike and Human Rights 99
Endnotes 101
Brief Integrative Case 1.2: TOMS Puts Its Right Foot Forward 102
Endnotes 105
xx Table of Contents
In-Depth Integrative Case 1.1: Student Advocacy and “Sweatshop” Labor:

The Case of Russell Athletic 107
Endnotes 111
In-Depth Integrative Case 1.2: The Ethics of Global Drug Pricing 113
Endnotes 120
Part Two The Role of Culture
4 The Meanings and Dimensions of Culture 122

The World of International Management: Culture Clashes
in Cross-Border Mergers and Acquisitions 122
The Nature of Culture 124
Cultural Diversity 125
Values in Culture 128
Values in Transition 128
Cultural Dimensions 129
Hofstede 129
Trompenaars 139
Integrating Culture and Management: The GLOBE Project 145
Culture and Management 146
GLOBE’s Cultural Dimensions 146
GLOBE Country Analysis 147

Key Terms 150
Internet Exercise: Renault-Nissan in South Africa 151
Endnotes 151
In the International Spotlight: South Africa 154
5 Managing Across Cultures 156

The World of International Management: Taking a Bite Out
of Apple: Corporate Culture and an Unlikely Chinese Start-Up 156
The Strategy for Managing across Cultures 158
Strategic Predispositions 159
Meeting the Challenge 160
Cross-Cultural Differences and Similarities 162
Parochialism and Simplification 162
Similarities across Cultures 164
Many Differences across Cultures 165
Cultural Differences in Selected Countries and Regions 168
Using the GLOBE Project to Compare Managerial Differences 169
Managing Culture in Selected Countries and Regions 170
Table of Contents xxi

Key Terms 176
Internet Exercise: Haier’s Approach 176
Endnotes 177
In the International Spotlight: Poland 180
6 Organizational Cultures and Diversity 182

The World of International Management: Managing Culture
and Diversity in Global Teams 182
The Nature of Organizational Culture 184
Definition and Characteristics 185
Interaction between National and Organizational Cultures 186
Organizational Cultures in MNCs 190
Family Culture 192
Eiffel Tower Culture 192
Guided Missile Culture 193
Incubator Culture 194
Managing Multiculturalism and Diversity 196
Phases of Multicultural Development 196
Types of Multiculturalism 198
Potential Problems Associated with Diversity 199
Advantages of Diversity 200
Building Multicultural Team Effectiveness 201

Key Terms 204
Internet Exercise: Lenovo’s International Focus 205
Endnotes 205
In the International Spotlight: Nigeria 207
7 Cross-Cultural Communication and Negotiation 208

The World of International Management: Netflix’s
Negotiations: China and Russia 208
The Overall Communication Process 210
Verbal Communication Styles 210
Interpretation of Communications 213
Communication Flows 214
Downward Communication 214
Upward Communication 215
xxii Table of Contents
Communication Barriers 216

Language Barriers 216
Perceptual Barriers 219
The Impact of Culture 221
Nonverbal Communication 223
Achieving Communication Effectiveness 226
Improve Feedback Systems 226
Provide Language Training 226
Provide Cultural Training 227
Increase Flexibility and Cooperation 229
Managing Cross-Cultural Negotiations 229
Types of Negotiation 229
The Negotiation Process 230
Cultural Differences Affecting Negotiations 231
Negotiation Tactics 234
Negotiating for Mutual Benefit 235
Bargaining Behaviors 237

Key Terms 241
Internet Exercise: Working Effectively at Toyota 242
Endnotes 242
In the International Spotlight: China 246
Brief Integrative Case 2.1: Coca-Cola in India 248
Endnotes 253
Brief Integrative Case 2.2: Danone’s Wrangle with Wahaha 255
Endnotes 260
In-Depth Integrative Case 2.1a: Euro Disneyland 262
Endnotes 272
In-Depth Integrative Case 2.1b: Disney in Asia 273
Endnotes 277
In-Depth Integrative Case 2.2: Walmart’s Global Strategies 279
Endnotes 286
Part Three International Strategic Management
8 Strategy Formulation and Implementation 290

The World of International Management: GSK’s Prescription
for Global Growth 290
Strategic Management 293
The Growing Need for Strategic Management 294
Benefits of Strategic Planning 295
Table of Contents xxiii
Approaches to Formulating and Implementing Strategy 295

Global and Regional Strategies 299
The Basic Steps in Formulating Strategy 302
Environmental Scanning 302
Internal Resource Analysis 304
Goal Setting for Strategy Formulation 304
Strategy Implementation 306
Location Considerations for Implementation 306
Combining Country and Firm-Specific Factors
in International Strategy 308
The Role of the Functional Areas in Implementation 310
Specialized Strategies 311
Strategies for Emerging Markets 311
Entrepreneurial Strategy and New Ventures 317

Key Terms 320
Internet Exercise: Infosys’s Global Strategy 321
Endnotes 321
In the International Spotlight: Saudi Arabia 327
9 Entry Strategies and Organizational Structures 328

The World of International Management: Building
a Global Brand: Haier’s Alignment of Strategy
and Structure 328
Entry Strategies and Ownership Structures 329
Export/Import 330
Wholly Owned Subsidiary 330
Mergers/Acquisitions 331
Alliances and Joint Ventures 332
Alliances, Joint Ventures, and M&A: The Case
of the Automotive Industry 333
Licensing 335
Franchising 336
The Organization Challenge 337
Basic Organizational Structures 338
Initial Division Structure 338
International Division Structure 339
Global Structural Arrangements 340
Transnational Network Structures 344
xxiv Table of Contents
Nontraditional Organizational Arrangements 346

Organizational Arrangements from Mergers, Acquisitions,
Joint Ventures, and Alliances 346
The Emergence of the Network Organizational Forms 348
Organizing for Product Integration 349
Organizational Characteristics of MNCs 350
Formalization 350
Specialization 351
Centralization 352
Putting Organizational Characteristics in Perspective 352

Key Terms 355
Internet Exercise: Organizing for Effectiveness 355
Endnotes 355
In the International Spotlight: Mexico 359
10 Managing Political Risk, Government Relations,

and Alliances 360
The World of International Management: Russian Roulette:
Risks and Political Uncertainty 360
The Nature and Analysis of Political Risk 362
Macro and Micro Analysis of Political Risk 364
Terrorism and Its Overseas Expansion 367
Analyzing the Expropriation Risk 368
Managing Political Risk and Government Relations 368
Developing a Comprehensive Framework or
Quantitative Analysis 368
Techniques for Responding to Political Risk 373
Relative Bargaining Power Analysis 373
Managing Alliances 377
The Alliance Challenge 377
The Role of Host Governments in Alliances 378
Examples of Challenges and Opportunities in Alliance Management 379

Key Terms 382
Internet Exercise: Nokia in China 382
Endnotes 382
In the International Spotlight: Brazil 386
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poor Galilean, and even their gravest and most puzzling attacks
upon his wisdom and prudence, turned into an absolute jest against
them,――it was quite clear that the amused and delighted multitude
would soon cease to regard the authority and opinions of their
venerable religious and legal rulers, whose subtleties were so easily
foiled by one of the common, uneducated mass. But the very
circumstances which effected and constituted the evil, were also the
grand obstacles to the removal of it. Jesus was by these means
seated firmly in the love and reverence of the people,――and of the
vast numbers of strangers then in Jerusalem at the feast, there were
very many who would have their feelings strongly excited in his
favor, by the circumstance that they, as well as he, were Galileans,
and would therefore be very apt to make common cause with him in
case of any violent attack. All these obstacles required management;
and after having been very many times foiled in their attempts to
seize him, by the resolute determination of the thousands by whom
he was always encircled, to defend him, they found that they must
contrive some way to get hold of him when he was without the
defenses of this admiring host. This could be done, of course, only
by following him to his secret haunts, and coming quietly upon him
before the multitude could assemble to his aid. But his movements
were altogether beyond their notice. No armed band could follow him
about, as he went from the city to the country in his daily and nightly
walks. They needed some spy who could watch his private
movements when unattended, save by the little band of the twelve,
and give notice of the favorable moment for a seizure, when the
time, the place, and the circumstances, would all conspire to prevent
a rescue. Thus taken, he might be safely lodged in some of the
impregnable fortresses of the temple and city, so as to defy the
momentary burst of popular rage, on finding that their idol had been
taken away. They knew too, the fickle character of the commonalty,
well enough to feel certain, that when the tide of condemnation was
once strongly set against the Nazarene, the lip-worship of
“Hosannas” could be easily turned, by a little management, into the
ferocious yell of deadly denunciation. The mass of the people are
always essentially the same in their modes of action. Mobs were
then managed by the same rules as now, and demagogues were
equally well versed in the tricks of their trade. Besides, when Jesus
had once been formally indicted and presented before the secular
tribunal of the Roman governor, as a rioter and seditious person, no
thought of a rescue from the military force could be thought of; and
however unwilling Pilate might be to minister to the wishes of the
Jews, in an act of unnecessary cruelty, he could not resist a call thus
solemnly made to him, in the character of preserver of the Roman
sway, though he would probably have rejected entirely any
proposition to seize Jesus by a military force, in open day, in the
midst of the multitude, so as to create a troublesome and bloody
tumult, by such an imprudent act. In the full consideration of all these
difficulties, the Jewish dignitaries were sitting in conclave, contriving
means to effect the settlement of their troubles, by the complete
removal of him who was unquestionably the cause of all. At once
their anxious deliberations were happily interrupted by the entrance
of the trusted steward of the company of Jesus, who changed all
their doubts and distant hopes into absolute certainty, by offering, for
a reasonable consideration, to give up Jesus into their hands, a
prisoner, without any disturbance or riot. How much delay and
debate there was about terms, it would be hard to say; but after all,
the bargain made, does not seem to have been greatly to the credit
of the liberality of the Sanhedrim, or the sharpness of Judas. Thirty
of the largest pieces of silver then coined, would make but a poor
price for such an extraordinary service, even making all allowance
for a scarcity of money in those times. And taking into account the
wealth and rank of those concerned, as well as the importance of the
object, it is fair to pronounce them a very mean set of fellows. But
Judas especially seems to forfeit almost all right to the character
given him of acuteness in money matters; and it is only by supposing
him to be quite carried out of his usual prudence, by his woful
abandonment to crime, that so poor a bargain can be made
consistent with the otherwise reasonable view of his character.
Thirty pieces of silver.――The value of these pieces is seemingly as vaguely expressed

in the original as in the translation; but a reference to Hebrew usages throws some light on
the question of definition. The common Hebrew coin thus expressed was the
shekel,――equivalent to the Greek didrachmon, and worth about sixteen cents. In Hebrew
the expression, thirty “shekels of silver,” was not always written out in full; but the name of
the coin being omitted, the expression was always equally definite, because no other coin
was ever left thus to be implied. Just so in English, the phrase, “a million of money,” is
perfectly well understood here, to mean “a million of dollars;” while in England, the current
coin of that country would make the expression mean so many pounds. In the same
manner, to say, in this country, that any thing or any man is worth “thousands,” always
conveys, with perfect definiteness, the idea of “dollars;” and in every other country the same
expression would imply a particular coin. Thirty pieces of silver, each of which was worth
sixteen cents, would amount only to four dollars and eighty cents, which are just one pound
sterling. A small price for the great Jewish Sanhedrim to pay for the ruin of their most
dangerous foe! Yet for this little sum, the Savior of the world was bought and sold!
Having thus settled this business, the cheaply-purchased traitor

returned to the unsuspecting fellowship of the apostles, mingling with
them, as he supposed, without the slightest suspicion on the part of
any one, respecting the horrible treachery which he had contrived for
the bloody ruin of his Lord. But there was an eye, whose power he
had never learned, though dwelling beneath its gaze for
years,――an eye, which saw the vainly hidden results of his
treachery, even as for years it had scanned the base motives which
governed him. Yet no word of reproach or denunciation broke forth
from the lips of the betrayed One; the progress of crime was suffered
unresistedly to bear him onward to the mournfully necessary
fulfilment of his destiny. Judas meanwhile, from day to day, waited
and watched for the most desirable opportunity of meeting his
engagements with his priestly employers. The first day of the feast of
unleavened bread having arrived, Jesus sat down at evening to eat
the Paschal lamb with his twelve disciples, alone. The whole twelve
were there without one exception,――and among those who
reclined around the table, sharing in the social delights of the
entertainment which celebrated the beginning of the grand national
festival, was the dark-souled accuser also, like Satan among the
sons of God. Even here, amid the general joyous hilarity, his great
scheme of villainy formed the grand theme of his
meditations,――and while the rest were entering fully into the natural
enjoyments of the occasion, he was brooding over the best means of
executing his plans. During the supper, after the performance of the
impressive ceremony of washing their feet, Jesus made a sudden
transition from the comments with which he was illustrating it; and, in
a tone of deep and sorrowful emotion, suddenly exclaimed, “I
solemnly assure you, that one of you will betray me.” This surprising
assertion, so emphatically made, excited the most distressful
sensations among the little assembly;――all enjoyment was at an
end; and grieved by the imputation, in which all seemed included
until the individual was pointed out, they each earnestly inquired,
“Lord, is it I?” As they sat thus looking in the most painful doubt
around their lately cheerful circle, the disciple who held the place of
honor and affection at the table, at the request of Peter, whose
position gave him less advantage for familiar and private
conversation,――plainly asked of Jesus, “Who is it, Lord?” Jesus, to
make his reply as deliberate and impressive as possible, said, “It is
he to whom I shall give a sop when I have dipped it.” The design of
all this circumlocution in pointing out the criminal, was, to mark the
enormity of the offense. “He that eateth bread with me, hath lifted up
his heel against me.” It was his familiar friend, his chosen
companion, enjoying with him at that moment the most intimate
social pleasures of the entertainment, and occupying one of the
places nearest to him, at the board. As he promised, after dipping
the sop, he gave it to Judas Iscariot, who, receiving it, was moved to
no change in his dark purpose; but with a new Satanic spirit,
resolved immediately to execute his plan, in spite of this open
exposure, which, he might think, was meant to shame him from his
baseness. Jesus, with an eye still fixed on his most secret inward
movements, said to him, “What thou doest, do quickly.” Judas, utterly
lost to repentance and to shame, coolly obeyed the direction, as if it
had been an ordinary command, in the way of his official duty, and
went out at the words of Jesus. All this, however, was perfectly
without meaning, to the wondering disciples, who, not yet recovered
from their surprise at the very extraordinary announcement which
they had just heard of the expected treachery, could not suppose
that this quiet movement could have anything to do with the
occurrence which preceded it; but concluded that Judas was going
about the business necessary for the preparation of the next day’s
festal entertainment,――or that he was following the directions of
Jesus about the charity to be administered to the poor out of the
funds in his keeping, in accordance with the commendable Hebrew
usage of remembering the poor on great occasions of
enjoyment,――a custom to which, perhaps, the previous words of
Judas, when he rebuked the waste of the ointment by Mary, had
some especial reference, since at that particular time, money was
actually needed for bestowment in alms to the poor. Judas, after
leaving the place where the declaration of Jesus had made him an
object of such suspicion and dislike, went, under the influence of that
evil spirit, to whose direction he was now abandoned, directly to the
chief priests, (who were anxiously waiting the fulfilment of his
promise,) and made known to them that the time was now come.
The band of watchmen and servants, with their swords and cudgels,
were accordingly mustered and put under the guidance of Judas,
who, well knowing the place to which Jesus would of course go from
the feast, conducted his band of low assistants across the brook
Kedron, to the garden of Gethsemane. On the way he arranged with
them the sign by which they should recognize, in spite of the
darkness and confusion, the person whose capture was the grand
object of this expedition. “The man whom I shall kiss is he: seize
him.” Entering the garden, at length, he led them straight to the spot
which his intimate familiarity with Jesus enabled him to know, as his
favorite retreat. Going up to him with the air of friendly confidence,
he saluted him, as if rejoiced to find him, even after this brief
absence,――another instance of the very close intimacy which had
existed between the traitor and the betrayed. Jesus submitted to this
hollow show, without any attempt to repulse the movement which
marked him for destruction, only saying, in mild but expressive
reproach,――“Judas! Betrayest thou the Son of Man with a kiss?”
Without more delay he announced himself in plain terms, to those
who came to seize him; thus showing how little need there was of
artful contrivance in taking one who did not seek to escape. “If ye
seek Jesus of Nazareth, I am he.” The simple majesty with which
these words were uttered, was such as to overawe even the low
officials; and it was not till he himself had again distinctly reminded
them of their object, that they could execute their errand. So vain
was the arrangement of signals, which had been studiously made by
the careful traitor.
No further mention is made of Iscariot after the scene of his

treachery, until the next morning, when Jesus had been condemned
by the high court of the Sanhedrim, and dragged away to undergo
punishment from the secular power. The sun of another day had
risen on his crime; and after a very brief interval, he now had time for
cool meditation on the nature and consequences of his act. Spite
and avarice had both now received their full gratification. The thirty
pieces of silver were his, and the Master whose instructions he had
hated for their purity and spirituality, because they had made known
to him the vileness of his own character and motives, was now in the
hands of those who were impelled, by the darkest passions, to
secure his destruction. But after all, now came the thought, and
inquiry, ‘what had the pure and holy Jesus done, to deserve this
reward at his hands?’ He had called him from the sordid pursuits of a
common life, to the high task of aiding in the regeneration of Israel.
He had taught him, labored with him, prayed for him, trusted him as
a near and worthy friend, making him the steward of all the earthly
possessions of his apostolic family, and the organ of his ministrations
of charity to the poor. All this he had done without the prospect of a
reward, surely. And why? To make him an instrument, not of the
base purposes of a low ambition;――not to acquire by this means
the sordid and bloody honors of a conqueror,――but to effect the
moral and spiritual emancipation of a people, suffering far less under
the evils of a foreign sway, than under the debasing dominion of folly
and sin. And was this an occasion to arm against him the darker
feelings of his trusted and loved companions?――to turn the
instruments of his mercy into weapons of death? Ought the mere
disappointment of a worldly-minded spirit, that was ever clinging to
the love of material things, and that would not learn the solemn truth
of the spiritual character of the Messiah’s reign, now to cause it to
vent its regrets at its own errors, in a traitorous attack upon the life of
him who had called it to a purpose whose glories and rewards it
could not appreciate? These and other mournful thoughts would
naturally rise to the repentant traitor’s mind, in the awful revulsion of
feeling which that morning brought with it. But repentance is not
atonement; nor can any change of feeling in the mind of the sinner,
after the perpetration of the sinful act, avail anything for the removal
or expiation of the evil consequences of it. So vain and unprofitable,
both to the injurer and the injured, are the tears of remorse! And
herein lay the difference between the repentance of Judas and of
Peter. The sin of Peter affected no one but himself, and was criminal
only as the manifestation of a base, selfish spirit of deceit, that fell
from truth through a vain-glorious confidence,――and the effusion of
his gushing tears might prove the means of washing away the
pollution of such an offense from his soul. But the sin of Judas had
wrought a work of crime whose evil could not be affected by any
tardy change of feeling in him. Peter’s repentance came too late
indeed, to exonerate him from guilt; because all repentance is too
late for such a purpose, when it comes after the commission of the
sin. The repentance of an evil purpose, coming in time to prevent the
execution of the act, is indeed available for good; but both Peter and
Judas came to the sense of the heinousness of sin, only after its
commission. Peter however, had no evil to repair for
others,――while Judas saw the bloody sequel of his guilt, coming
with most irrevocable certainty upon the blameless One whom he
had betrayed. Overwhelmed with vain regrets, he took the now
hateful, though once-desired price of his villainy, and seeking the
presence of his purchasers, held out to them the money, with the
useless confession of the guilt, which was too accordant with their
schemes and hopes, for them to think of redeeming him from its
consequences. The words of his confession were, “I have sinned, in
betraying innocent blood.” This late protestation was received by the
proud priests, with as much regard as might have been expected
from exulting tyranny, when in the enjoyment of the grand object of
its efforts. With a cold sneer they replied, “What is that to us? See
thou to that!” Maddened with the immovable and remorseless
determination of the haughty condemners of the just, he flung down
the price of his infamy and woe, upon the floor of the temple, and
rushed out of their presence, to seal his crimes and eternal misery
by the act that put him for ever beyond the power of redemption.
Seeking a place removed from the observation of men, he hurried
out of the city, and contriving the fatal means of death for himself,
before the bloody doom of him whom he betrayed had been fulfilled,
the wretched man saved his eyes the renewed horrors of the sight of
the crucifixion, by closing them in the sleep which earthly sights can
not disturb. But even in the mode of his death, new circumstances of
horror occurred. Swinging himself into the air, by falling from a
highth, as the cord tightened around his neck, checking his descent,
the weight of his body produced the rupture of his abdomen, and his
bowels bursting through, made him, as he swung stiffening and
convulsed in the agonies of this doubly horrid death, a disgusting
and appalling spectacle,――a monument of the vengeance of God
on the traitor, and a shocking witness of his own remorse and self-
condemnation.
A very striking difference is noticeable between the account given by Matthew of the
death of Judas, and that given by Luke in the speech of Peter, Acts i. 18, 19. The various
modes of reconciling these difficulties are found in the ordinary commentaries. In respect to
a single expression in Acts i. 18, there is an ingenious conjecture offered by Granville Penn,
in a very interesting and learned article in the first volume of the transactions of the Royal
Society of Literature, which may very properly be mentioned here, on account of its
originality and plausibility, and because it is found only in an expensive work, hardly ever
seen in this country. Mr. Penn’s view is, that “the word ελακησε (elakese,) in Acts i. 18, is
only an inflection of the Latin verb, laqueo, (to halter or strangle,) rendered insititious in the
Hellenistic Greek, under the form λακεω.” He enters into a very elaborate argument, which
can not be given here, but an extract may be transcribed, in order to enable the learned to
apprehend the nature and force of his views. (Translated by R. S. Lit. Vol. I. P. 2, pp. 51,
52.)
“Those who have been in the southern countries of Europe know, that the operation in
question, as exercised on a criminal, is performed with a great length of cord, with which the
criminal is precipitated from a high beam, and is thus violently laqueated, or snared in a
noose, mid-way――medius or in medio; μεσος, and medius, referring to place as well as to
person; as, μεσος ὑμων ἑστηκεν. (John i. 26.) ‘Considit scopulo medius――――’ (Virgil,
Georgics, iv. 436.) ‘―――― medius prorumpit in hostes.’ (Aeneid, x. 379.)
“Erasmus distinctly perceived this sense in the words πρηνης γενομενος, although he did
not discern it in the word ελακησε, which confirms it: ‘πρηνης Graecis dicitur, qui vultu est in
terram dejecto: expressit autem gestum et habitum laqueo praefocati; alioquin, ex hoc
sane loco non poterat intelligi, quod Judas suspenderit se,’ (in loc.) And so Augustine also
had understood those words, as he shows in his Recit. in Act. Apostol. l. i. col. 474. ‘et
collem sibi alligavit, et dejectus in faciem,’ &c. Hence one MS., cited by Sabatier, for πρηνης
γενομενος, reads αποκρεμαμένος; and Jerom, in his new vulgate, has substituted suspensus
for the pronus factus of the old Latin version, which our old English version of 1542
accordingly renders, and when he was hanged.
“That which follows, and which evidently determined the vulgar interpretation of
ελακησε――εξεχυνθη παντα τα σπλαγχνα αυτου, all his bowels gushed out――states a natural
and probable effect produced, by the sudden interruption in the fall and violent capture in
the noose, in a frame of great corpulency and distension, such as Christian antiquity has
recorded that of the traitor to have been; so that a term to express rupture would have been
altogether unnecessary, and it is therefore equally unnecessary to seek for it in the verb
ελακησε. Had the historian intended to express disruption, we may justly presume that he
would have said, as he had already said in his gospel, v. 6, διερρηγνυτο, or xxiii. 45, εσχισθη
μεσος: it is difficult to conceive, that he would here have traveled into the language of
ancient Greek poetry for a word to express a common idea, when he had common terms at
hand and in practice; but he used the Roman laqueo, λακεω, to mark the infamy of the
death.
“(Πρησθεις επι τοσουτον την σαρκα, ὡστε μη δυνασθαι δειλθειν. Papias, from Routh's
Reliquiæ Sacræ tom. I. p. 9. and Oecumenius, thus rendered by Zegers, Critici Sacri, Acts i.
18, in tantum enim corpore inflatus est ut progredi non posset. The tale transmitted by those
writers of the first and tenth centuries, that Judas was crushed to death by a chariot
proceeding rapidly, from which his unwieldiness rendered him unable to escape, merits no
further attention, after the authenticated descriptions of the traitor’s death which we have
here investigated, than to suggest a possibility that the place where the suicide was
committed might have overhung a public way, and that the body falling by its weight might
have been traversed, after death, by a passing chariot;――from whence might have arisen
the tales transmitted successively by those writers; the first of whom, being an inhabitant of
Asia Minor, and therefore far removed from the theater of Jerusalem, and being also (as
Eusebius witnesses, iii. 39,) a man of a very weak mind――σφοδρα μκρος τον νουν――was
liable to be deceived by false accounts.)
“The words of St. Peter, in the Hellenistic version of St. Luke, will therefore import,
praeceps in ora fusus, laqueavit (i. e. implicuit se laqueo) medius; (i. e. in medio, inter
trabem et terram;) et effusa sunt omnia viscera ejus――throwing himself headlong, he
caught mid-way in the noose, and all his bowels gushed out. And thus the two reporters of
the suicide, from whose respective relations charges of disagreement, and even of
contradiction, have been drawn in consequence of mistaking an insititious Latin word for a
genuine Greek word of corresponding elements, are found, by tracing that insititious word to
its true origin, to report identically the same fact; the one by a single term, the other by a
periphrasis.”
Such was the end of the twelfth of Jesus Christ’s chosen ones. To
such an end was the intimate friend, the trusted steward, the festal
companion of the Savior, brought by the impulse of some not very
unnatural feelings, excited by occasion, into extraordinary action.
The universal and intense horror which the relation of his crime now
invariably awakens, is by no means favorable to a just and fair
appreciation of his sin and its motives, nor to such an honest
consideration of his course from rectitude to guilt, as is most
desirable for the application of the whole story to the moral
improvement of its readers. Originally not an infamous man, he was
numbered among the twelve as a person of respectable character,
and long held among his fellow-disciples a responsible station, which
is itself a testimony of his unblemished reputation. He was sent forth
with them, as one of the heralds of salvation to the lost sheep of the
house of Israel. He shared with them the counsels, the instructions,
and the prayers of Jesus. If he was stupid in apprehending, and
unspiritual in conceiving the truths of the gospel, so were they. If he
was an unbeliever in the resurrection of Jesus, so were they; and
had he survived till the accomplishment of that prophecy, he could
not have been slower in receiving the evidence of the event, than
they. As it was, he died in his unbelief; while they lived to feel the
glorious removal of all their doubts, the purification of all their gross
conceptions, and the effusion of that spirit of truth, through which, by
the grace of God alone, they afterwards were what they were.
Without a merit, in faith, beyond Judas, they maintained their dim
and doubtful adherence to the truth, only by their nearer
approximation to moral perfection; and by their nobler freedom from
the pollution of sordid and spiteful feeling. Through passion alone he
fell, a victim, not to a want of faith merely,――for therein, the rest
could hardly claim a superiority,――but to the radical deficiency of
true love for Jesus, of that “charity which never faileth,” but “endureth
to the end.” It was their simple, devoted affection, which, through all
their ignorance, their grossness of conception, and their
faithlessness in his word, made them still cling to his name and his
grave, till the full revelations of his resurrection and ascension had
displaced their doubts by the most glorious certainties, and given
their faith an eternal assurance. The great cause of the awful ruin of
Judas Iscariot, then, was the fact, that he did not love Jesus. Herein
was his grand distinction from all the rest; for though their regard
was mingled with so much that was base, there was plainly, in all of
them, a solid foundation of true, deep affection. The most ambitious
and skeptical of them, gave the most unquestionable proofs of this.
Peter, John, both the Jameses, and others, are instances of the
mode in which these seemingly opposite feelings were combined.
But Judas was without this great refining and elevating principle,
which so redeemed the most sordid feelings of his fellows. It was not
merely for the love of money that he was led into this horrid crime.
The love of four dollars and eighty cents! Who can believe that this
was the sole motive? It was rather that his sordidness and
selfishness, and ambition, if he had any, lacked this single, purifying
emotion, which redeemed their characters. Is there not, in this
reflection, a moral which each Christian reader can improve to his
own use? For the lack of the love of Jesus alone, Judas fell from his
high estate, to an infamy as immortal as their fame. Wherever,
through all ages, the high heroic energy of Peter, the ready faith of
Andrew, the martyr-fire of James Boanerges, the soul-absorbing love
of John, the willing obedience of Philip, the guileless purity of
Nathanael, the recorded truth of Matthew, the slow but deep
devotion of Thomas, the blameless righteousness of James the Just,
the appellative zeal of Simon, and the earnest warning eloquence of
Jude, are all commemorated in honor and bright renown,――the
murderous, sordid spite of Iscariot, will insure him an equally lasting
proverbial shame. Truly, “the sin of judas is written with a pen
of iron on a tablet of marble.”
MATTHIAS.
The events which concern this person’s connection with the
apostolic company, are briefly these. Soon after the ascension of
Jesus, the eleven disciples being assembled in their “upper room,”
with a large company of believers, making in all, together, a meeting
of one hundred and twenty, Peter arose and presented to their
consideration, the propriety and importance of filling, in the apostolic
college, the vacancy caused by the sad defection of Judas Iscariot.
Beginning with what seems to be an apt allusion to the words of
David concerning Ahithophel,――(a quotation very naturally
suggested by the striking similarity between the fate of that ancient
traitor, and that of the base Iscariot,) he referred to the peculiarly
horrid circumstances of the death of this revolted apostle, and also
applied to these occurrences the words of the same Psalmist
concerning those upon whom he invoked the wrath of God, in words
which might with remarkable emphasis be made descriptive of the
ruin of Judas. “Let his habitation be desolate,” and “let another take
his office.” Applying this last quotation more particularly to the
exigency of their circumstances, he pronounced it to be in
accordance with the will of God that they should immediately
proceed to select a person to “take the office” of Judas. He declared
it an essential requisite for this office, moreover, that the person
should be one of those who, though not numbered with the select
twelve, had been among the intimate companions of Jesus, and had
enjoyed the honors and privileges of a familiar discipleship, so that
they could always testify of his great miracles and divine instructions,
from their own personal knowledge as eye-witnesses of his actions,
from the beginning of his divine career at his baptism by John, to the
time of his ascension.
Agreeably to this counsel of the apostolic chief, the whole
company of the disciples selected two persons from those who had
been witnesses of the great actions of Christ, and nominated them to
the apostles, as equally well qualified for the vacant office. To decide
the question with perfect impartiality, it was resolved, in conformity
with the common ancient practice in such cases, to leave the point
between these two candidates to be settled by lot; and to give this
mode of decision a solemnity proportioned to the importance of the
occasion, they first invoked, in prayer, the aid of God in the
appointment of a person best qualified for his service. They then
drew the lots of the two candidates, and Matthias being thus
selected, was thenceforth enrolled with the eleven apostles.
Of his previous history nothing whatever is known, except that,

according to what is implied in the address of Peter, he must have
been, from the beginning of Christ’s career to his ascension, one of
his constant attendants and hearers. Some have conjectured that he
was one of the seventy, sent forth by Jesus as apostles, in the same
manner as the twelve had gone; and there is nothing unreasonable
in the supposition; but still it is a conjecture merely, without any fact
to support it. The New Testament is perfectly silent with respect to
both his previous and his subsequent life, and not a fact can be
recorded respecting him. Yet the productive imaginations of the
martyrologists of the Roman and Greek churches, have carried him
through a protracted series of adventures, during his alleged
preaching of the gospel, first in Judea, and then in Ethiopia. They
also pretend that he was martyred, though as to the precise mode
there is some difference in the stories,――some relating that he was
crucified, and others, that he was first stoned and then dispatched by
a blow on the head with an axe. But all these are condemned by the
discreet writers even of the Romish church, and the whole life of
Matthias must be included among those many mysteries which can
never be in any way brought to light by the most devoted and
untiring researches of the Apostolic historian; and this dim and
unsatisfactory trace of his life may well conclude the first grand
division of a work, in which the reader will expect to find so much
curious detail of matters commonly unknown, but which no research
nor learning can furnish, for the prevention of his disappointment.
II. THE HELLENIST APOSTLES.
SAUL,
AFTERWARDS NAMED PAUL.
his country.
On the farthest north-eastern part of the Mediterranean sea,

where its waters are bounded by the great angle made by the
meeting of the Syrian coast with the Asian, there is a peculiarity in
the course of the mountain ranges, which deserves notice in a view
of the countries of that region, modifying as it does, all their most
prominent characteristics. The great chain of Taurus, which can be
traced far eastward in the branching ranges of Singara, Masius and
Niphates, running connectedly also into the distant peaks of mighty
Ararat, here sends off a spur to the shore of the Mediterranean,
which under the name of Mount Amanus meets its waters, just at
their great north-eastern angle in the ancient gulf of Issus, now
called the gulf of Scanderoon. Besides this connection with the
mountain chains of Mesopotamia and Armenia on the northeast,
from the south the great Syrian Lebanon, running very nearly parallel
with the eastern shore of the Mediterranean, at the Issic angle, joins
this common center of convergence, so insensibly losing its
individual character in the Asian ridge, that by many writers, Mount
Amanus itself is considered only a regular continuation of Lebanon.
These, however, are as distinct as any of the chains here uniting,
and the true Libanic mountains cease just at this grand natural
division of Syria from the northern coast of the Mediterranean. A
characteristic of the Syrian mountains is nevertheless prominent in
the northern chain. They all take a general course parallel with the
coast and very near it, occasionally sending out lateral ridges which
mark the projections of the shore with high promontories. Of these,
however, there are much fewer on the southern coast of Asia Minor;
and the western ridge of Taurus, after parting from the grand angle of
convergence, runs exactly parallel to the margin of the sea, in most
parts about seven miles distant. The country thus fenced off by
Taurus, along the southern coast of Asia Minor, is very distinctly
characterized by these circumstances connected with its orography,
and is in a very peculiar manner bounded and inclosed from the rest
of the continent, by these natural features. The great mountain
barrier of Taurus, as above described, stretches along the north,
forming a mighty wall, which is at each end met at right angles by a
lateral ridge, of which the eastern is Amanus, descending within a
few rods of the water, while the western is the true termination of
Taurus in that direction,――the mountains here making a grand
curve from west to south, and stretching out into the sea, in a bold
promontory, which definitely marks the farthest western limit of the
long, narrow section, thus remarkably enclosed. This simple natural
division, in the apostolic age, contained two principal artificial sub-
divisions. On the west, was the province of Pamphylia, occupying
about one fourth of the coast;――and on the east, the rest of the
territory constituted the province of Cilicia, far-famed as the land of
the birth of that great apostle of the Gentiles, whose life is the theme
of these pages.
Cilicia,――opening on the west into Pamphylia,――is elsewhere

inclosed in mountain barriers, impenetrable and impassable, except
in two or three points, which are the only places in which it is
accessible by land, though widely exposed, on the sea, by its long
open coast. Of these two adits, the most important, and the one
through which the vast proportion of its commercial intercourse with
the world, by land, has always been carried on, is the eastern, which
is just at the oft-mentioned great angle of the Mediterranean, where
the mountains descend almost to the waters of the gulf of Issus.
Mount Amanus, coming from the north-east, and stretching along the
eastern boundary of Cilicia an impassable barrier, here advances to
the shore; but just before its base reaches the water, it abruptly
terminates, leaving between the high rocks and the sea a narrow
space, which is capable of being completely commanded and
defended from the mountains which thus guard it; and forming the
only land passage out of Cilicia to the eastern coast of the
Mediterranean, it was thence anciently called “the gates of Syria.”
Through these “gates,” has always passed all the traveling by land
between Asia Minor and Palestine; and it is therefore an important
point in the most celebrated route in apostolic history. The other
main opening in the mountain walls of this region, is the passage
through the Taurus, made by the course of the Sarus, the largest
river of the province, which breaks through the northern ridge, in a
defile that is called “the gates of Cilicia.”
The boundaries of Cilicia are then,――on the north, mountainous

Cappadocia, perfectly cut off by the impenetrable chain of Taurus,
except the narrow pass through “the gates of Cilicia;”――on the
east, equally well guarded by Mount Amanus, Northern Syria, the
only land passages being through the famed “Syrian gates,” and
another defile north of the coast, toward the Euphrates;――on the
south, stretches the long margin of the sea, which in the western
two-thirds of the coast takes the name of “the Cilician strait,”
because it here flows between the mainland and the great island of
Cyprus, which lies off the shore, always in sight, being less than
thirty miles distant, the eastern third of the coast being bounded by
the waters of the gulf of Issus;――and on the west Cilicia ends in the
rough highlands of Pamphylia. The territory itself is distinguished by
natural features, into two divisions,――Rocky Cilicia and “Level
Cilicia,”――the former occupying the western third, and the latter the
eastern part,――each district being abundantly well described by the
term applied to it. Within the latter, lay the opening scenes of the
apostle’s life.
Thus peculiarly guarded, and shut off from the world, it might be
expected that this remarkable region would nourish, on the narrow
plains of its fertile shores, and the vast rough mountains of its
gigantic barriers, a race strongly marked in mental, as in physical
characteristics. In all parts of the world, the philosophical observer
may notice a relation borne by man to the soil on which he lives, and
to the air which he breathes,――hardly less striking than the
dependence of the inferior orders of created things, on the material
objects which surround them. Man is an animal, and his natural
history displays as many curious correspondences between his
varying peculiarities and the locality which he inhabits, as can be
observed between the physical constitution of inferior creatures, and
the similar circumstances which affect them. The inhabitants of a
wild, broken region, which rises into mighty inland mountains, or
sends its cliffs and vallies into a vast sea, are, in all ages and climes,
characterized by a peculiar energy and quickness of mind, which
often marks them in history as the prominent actors in events of the
highest importance to mankind in all the world. Even the dwellers of
the cities of such regions, share in that peculiar vivacity of their
countrymen, which is especially imbibed in the air of the mountains;
and carry through all the world, till new local influences have again
subjected them, the original characteristics of the land of their birth.
The restless activity and dauntless spirit of Saul, present a striking
instance of this relation of scenery to character. The ever-rolling
waters of the tideless sea on one side presenting a boundless view,
and on the other the blue mountains rearing a mighty barrier to the
vision,――the thousand streams thence rolling to the former,――the
white sands of the long plains, gemmed with the green of shaded
fountains, as well as the active movements of a busy population, all
living under these same inspiring influences,――would each have
their effect on the soul of the young Cilician as he grew up in the
midst of these modifying circumstances.
Along these shores, from the earliest period of Hellenic

colonization, Grecian enterprise had planted its busy centers of
civilization. On each favorable site, where agriculture or commerce
could thrive, cities grew up in the midst of prosperous colonies, in
which wealth and power in their rapid advance brought in the lights
of science, art, literature, and all the refinements and elegances
which Grecian colonization made the invariable accompaniments of
its march,――adorning its solid triumphs with the graceful polish of
all that could exalt the enjoyment of prosperity. Issus, Mopsuestia,
Anchialus, Selinus and others, were among the early seats of
Grecian refinement; and the more modern efforts of the Syro-
Macedonian sway, had blessed Cilicia with the fruits of royal
munificence, in such cities as Cragic Antioch, Seleucia the Rocky,
and Arsinoe; and in still later times, the ever-active and wide-
spreading beneficence of Roman dominion, had still farther
multiplied the peaceful triumphs and trophies of civilization, by here
raising or renewing cities, of which Baiae, Germanicia and
Pompeiopolis are only a specimen. But of all these monuments of
ancient or later refinement, there was none of higher antiquity or
fame than Tarsus, the city where was born this illustrious apostle,
whose life was so greatly instrumental in the triumphs of Christianity.
Tarsus stands north of the point of a wide indentation of the coast

of Cilicia, forming a very open bay, into which, a few miles south,
flow the waters of the classic Cydnus, a narrow stream which runs a
brief course from the barrier of Taurus, directly southward to the sea.
The river’s mouth forms a spacious and convenient harbor, to which
the light vessels of ancient commerce all easily found safe and ready
access, though most of the floating piles in which the productions of
the world are now transported, might find such a harbor altogether
inaccessible to their heavier burden.
Ammianus Marcellinus, the elegant historian of the decline of the

Roman empire, speaks in high descriptive terms, both of the
province, and the city which makes it eminent in Christian history. In
narrating important events here performed during the times whose
history he records, he alludes to the character of the region in a
preliminary description. “After surmounting the peaks of Taurus,
which towards the east rise into higher elevation, Cilicia spreads out
before the observer, in far stretching areas,――a land, rich in all
good things. To its right (that is the west, as the observer looks south
from the summits of Taurus) is joined Isauria,――in equal degree
verdant with palms and many fruits, and intersected by the navigable
river Calycadnus. This, besides many towns, has two
cities,――Seleucia, the work of Seleucus Nicator of Syria, and
Claudiopolis, a colony founded by Claudius Caesar. Isauria however,
once exceedingly powerful, has formerly been desolated for a
destructive rebellion, and therefore shows but very few traces of its
ancient splendor. But Cilicia, which rejoices in the river Cydnus, is
ennobled by Tarsus, a splendid city,――by Anazarbus, and by
Mopsuestia, the dwelling-place of that Mopsus, who accompanied
the Argonauts. These two provinces (Isauria or ‘Cilicia the Rocky,’
and Cilicia proper or ‘level’) being formerly connected with hordes of
plunderers in a piratical war, were subjugated by the proconsul
Servilius, and made tributary. And these regions, placed, as it were,
on a long tongue of land, are separated from the eastern world by
Mount Amanus.”
This account by Ammianus Marcellinus is found in book XIV. of his history, (p. 19, edited
by Vales.)
The native land of Saul was classic ground. Within the limits of
Cilicia, were laid the scenes of some of the most splendid passages
in early Grecian fable; and here too, were acted some of the
grandest events in authentic history, both Greek and Roman. The
very city of his birth, Tarsus, is said to have been founded by
Perseus, the son of Jupiter and Danae, famed for his exploit at
another place on the shore of this part of the Mediterranean. More
authentic history however, refers its earliest foundation to
Sardanapalus, king of Assyria, who built Tarsus and Anchialus in
Cilicia, nine hundred years before Christ. Its origin is by others
ascribed to Triptolemus with an Argive colony, who is represented on
some medals as the founder. These two stories may be made
consistent with each other, on the supposition that the same place
was successively the scene of the civilizing influence of each of

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(eBook PDF) International Management

Culture Strategy Behavior 10th

Fred Luthans | Jonathan P. Doh

McGraw-Hill Connect®: connect.mheducation.com

Our thanks, too, to the reviewers of previous editions of the text:

Fred Luthans and Jonathan P. Doh

Thoroughly Updated and/or New Cases,

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has taught international management as a visiting faculty member at the universities

Part Two The Role of Culture

Part Three International Strategic Management

Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management Part Four

Skill-Building and Experiential Exercises 583

1 Globalization and International Linkages 2

The World of International Management—Revisited 35

2 The Political, Legal, and Technological Environment 44

The World of International Management—Revisited 67

3 Ethics, Social Responsibility, and Sustainability 74

The World of International Management—Revisited 93

In-Depth Integrative Case 1.1: Student Advocacy and “Sweatshop” Labor:

Part Two The Role of Culture

4 The Meanings and Dimensions of Culture 122

The World of International Management—Revisited 148

5 Managing Across Cultures 156

The World of International Management—Revisited 175

6 Organizational Cultures and Diversity 182

The World of International Management—Revisited 203

7 Cross-Cultural Communication and Negotiation 208

Communication Barriers 216

The World of International Management—Revisited 240

Part Three International Strategic Management

8 Strategy Formulation and Implementation 290

Approaches to Formulating and Implementing Strategy 295

The World of International Management—Revisited 319

9 Entry Strategies and Organizational Structures 328

Nontraditional Organizational Arrangements 346

The World of International Management—Revisited 354

10 Managing Political Risk, Government Relations,

The World of International Management—Revisited 381

Thirty pieces of silver.――The value of these pieces is seemingly as vaguely expressed

Having thus settled this business, the cheaply-purchased traitor

No further mention is made of Iscariot after the scene of his

Of his previous history nothing whatever is known, except that,

On the farthest north-eastern part of the Mediterranean sea,

Cilicia,――opening on the west into Pamphylia,――is elsewhere

The boundaries of Cilicia are then,――on the north, mountainous

Along these shores, from the earliest period of Hellenic

Tarsus stands north of the point of a wide indentation of the coast

Ammianus Marcellinus, the elegant historian of the decline of the

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Skill-Building and Experiential Exercises 583