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Article 3
Article 3
Abstract
Social media may promote health and social connectedness, but its misuse and frequency of use may pose risks. Social media
use during adolescence requires parental monitoring and mediation to mitigate potentially harmful effects such as depression,
anxiety, and risk-taking behaviors. While parents and health care professionals convey concern surrounding exposure to
inappropriate content, prolonged screen time, and cyberbullying, appropriate social media monitoring remains challenging.
The purpose of this study was to explore parental monitoring and mediation of social media use in adolescents. Online
recruitment yielded a nationwide sample (n ¼ 836) of parents of adolescents. The results of the online survey indicated that
parents are concerned about adolescent social media use and endorse positive attitudes toward monitoring. Yet parents
perceived little control over monitoring. Findings from this study support the school nurse in promoting healthy social media
use, media literacy among parents and adolescents, and the use of screening tools.
Keywords
parent/family, social media, school-based clinics, middle/junior/high school, mental health
for adolescents to limit their screen time to less than 2 hr, Parental Monitoring
excluding school and homework (U.S. Department of Health
As it relates to various types of media, research indicates
and Human Services, 2010).
parental monitoring results in less aggression and fewer
Late-night social media use and emotional investment in
risky sexual behaviors (Collier et al., 2016; Khurana
social media in adolescence have been associated with poor
et al., 2015; Padilla-Walker et al., 2012). Defined as “a set
sleep quality, anxiety, and depression (Kelly et al., 2018;
of correlated parenting behaviors involving attention to and
Woods & Scott, 2016). Furthermore, girls report more neg-
tracking of the child’s whereabouts, activities, and
ative consequences of social media use including low self- adaptations” (Dishion & McMahon, 1998, p. 61), parental
esteem, body dissatisfaction, and depressive symptoms and monitoring includes efforts to know which social media
are more likely to be a victim of cyberbullying than boys sites (SMS) their adolescent visits, how often their adoles-
(Kelly et al., 2018). According to the 2019 Youth Risk cent uses social media, and with whom the adolescent
Behavior Surveillance System, 15.7% of high school stu- interacts using social media. Parents may shadow their
dents in the United States have reported being bullied elec- adolescent by “friending” or “following” their social media
tronically through texting or some type of social media profile or search the adolescent’s activities online (e.g.,
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2020). Of searching the adolescent’s name on a search engine or
those who reported being bullied, 20.4% were female com- check websites the adolescent visited by reviewing the
pared to 10.9% of males (2020). Cyberbullying has been browsing history). Although the terms monitoring and
linked to depression, anxiety, and suicide (Byrne et al., mediation are sometimes used interchangeably, in this
2018; Hamm et al., 2015; Hutson et al., 2018). Equally study, parental monitoring was distinct from parental med-
concerning, high school students who engaged in consensual iation. Specifically, in parental monitoring, the parent can
sexting reported higher rates of sexual activity compared to track the adolescent’s activities without intervening
those who were not sexting (Frankel et al., 2018). between the child and the media (Dishion & McMahon,
Social media provide avenues for adolescents to experi- 1998). Parental mediation refers to actual strategies used
ment, explore, and express their identities in a public to help reduce negative effects of the media (Livingstone &
forum. However, adolescents have a propensity for risky Helsper, 2008).
behavior and poor decision making. These tendencies
toward risky behaviors are related to adolescent brain
development (Feldstein Ewing et al., 2016). Specifically,
Study Framework
an underdeveloped prefrontal cortex in the adolescent brain Parental Mediation
has been linked to impaired executive functioning and “Parental management of the relation between children and
decision making in situations of high emotion or high media” (Livingstone & Helsper, 2008, p. 581) served as one
reward, for example, sex, substance use, and obtaining part of the theoretical framework and the definition of
“likes” or “follows” on social media (Hartley & Somer- parental mediation in this research (Figure 1). Practices of
ville, 2015; Schiebener et al., 2015). parental mediation include three categories: active mediation,
Parental monitoring of adolescents is a known protective restrictive mediation, and co-use (Nathanson, 1999; Schofield
factor against risky behavior (Collier et al., 2016). Parents Clark, 2011; Valkenburg et al., 1999). Active mediation refers
aim to protect adolescents from harmful cyber interactions, to parent–child discussions about media content that can be
but in the digital age, parental monitoring has become more instructive or critical in efforts to help the child critically think
challenging due to the ubiquitous use of smartphone and about what is viewed (Nikken & Jansz, 2014; Schofield Clark,
social media apps. Increasing the number of parents who 2011). Restrictive mediation refers to exerting control over the
follow the AAP recommendations to place limits on the time interaction with media by setting rules and restrictions to
children and adolescents spend online is set as a high priority accessing media (Livingstone & Helsper, 2008; Nikken &
public health issue according to the Healthy People 2030 Jansz, 2014; Schofield Clark, 2011). Finally, co-use (also
objectives (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, called co-viewing) relates to the parent watching or interacting
2020). More research is needed to understand how parents with the media together with the child (Livingstone & Helsper,
manage adolescent social media use, and evidence-based 2008; Schofield Clark, 2011).
interventions are needed to help parents mediate social
media use. While this public health crisis is relevant to all Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)
health care providers, especially those working with pedia- The TPB served as the second theory in the framework for
tric populations, school nurses are uniquely positioned to this research (Ajzen, 1985; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Figure
help with this concern. School nurses can be a great resource 1). TPB assumes a person’s intent to perform a behavior is
for adolescents and parents to provide tools and education to directly related to their attitude toward the behavior and the
implement strategies to help reduce the negative impacts of belief that people who are important to them will either
social media. support or not support the behavior, known as the subjective
250 The Journal of School Nursing 39(3)
Figure 1. Research conceptual framework (Ajzen, 1985; Nathanson, 1999; Valkenburg et al., 1999).
norm (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). In this study, attitude explore parental monitoring and mediation practices of
toward monitoring, the subjective norm, and perceived social media use by their adolescents. The original research
behavioral control of monitoring produced the formation questions included:
of a behavioral intention to monitor. Typically, favorable
attitudes, norms, and greater perceived control result in 1. What do parents know about the risks of adolescent
strong intentions to perform the behavior (in this case, mon- social media use?
itor adolescent social media use; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). 2. What are parents’ attitudes toward monitoring their
Assuming parents have complete control over the behavior adolescent’s social media use?
3. What are the parents’ intentions to monitor their
of monitoring, parents were expected to carry out their inten-
adolescent’s social media use?
tions of monitoring.
4. What mediation practices are parents using to subvert
Prior researchers have explored parental mediation of
the negative effects of social media?
internet use, and two studies focused on parental mediation
in children (aged 2–16 years; Nikken & Jansz, 2014; Sonck With new understanding of parental monitoring and
et al., 2013). Another study compared parental mediation in mediation, school nurses and others invested in adolescent
a sample of adolescents (aged 10–18 years) between Dutch health can develop interventions to support parents and
and American parents (Krcmar & Cingel, 2016). Unique to their children as they navigate the benefits and risks of
this study, we expanded exploration to parental monitoring, social media use.
mediation strategies, and parental knowledge of risks related
to social media use. The TPB, concepts of parental monitor-
ing and parental mediation theory, offered a useful frame- Method
work (Figure 1) to explore and describe parental mediation Following expedited approval by the University of Missis-
strategies of their adolescent’s social media use; however, sippi Medical Center’s institutional review board, the
relationships between the concepts were not explored in this research used an exploratory, quantitative design to describe
initial research. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to parental monitoring and mediation practices of adolescent’s
Douglas et al. 251
and is listed in Table 1. Restrictive mediation was measured by one item asking the parent “how often do you use social
by four items. Parents were asked to indicate yes, no, or n/a media (e.g., look at other profiles, make posts, send mes-
if they have ever done actions related to restrictive media- sages or pictures) with your preteen/teen?” Responses were
tion such as “used parental controls on your preteen/teen’s on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 ¼ frequently to 5 ¼ never;
mobile phone or computer.” Active mediation was measured Table 1).
by 12 items. First, parents were asked to indicate yes, no, or
n/a to four statements related to active mediation such as Parental knowledge of risks of adolescent social media. Parental
“read a privacy policy for a website or SMS your preteen/ knowledge of risks related to social media use was measured
teen was using.” Next, the parent was asked how often they by 11 items. Parents were asked, “To what extent are you
talked with the teen about eight statements related to risky concerned, if at all, about the following issues” followed by
social media behavior, for example, “sexting and/or stories 11 statements such as “How your preteen/teen maintains
of teen’s sexting.” Responses used a 5-point Likert-type their reputation online” and “How your preteen/teen talk
scale (1 ¼ frequently to 5 ¼ never). Co-use was measured with people they do not know online” (Table 1). Responses
Douglas et al. 253
Characteristics n % Characteristics n %
were on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 ¼ extremely worried 31.3%, Midwest: 29.5%, West: 13.3%, and Pacific: 0.1%).
to 5 ¼ not at all worried). Parent-reported adolescent demographics showed a majority
of the adolescents were female (62.9%) and White (81.6%).
Data Analysis
Data analysis was conducted using IBM SPSS Version 24 TPB Constructs
(IBM Corp., 2016) after data were imported from RED- The TPB included variables of parents’ attitudes toward
Cap™. Descriptive statistics were used to describe the sam- monitoring, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control,
ple demographics. The w2 test was used to investigate and intention to monitor. Most parents (92.0%) agreed par-
whether parents’ responses differed by groups of parents. ents should monitor their adolescent’s social media use, a
Responses from parents of sons compared to parents of finding that was consistent with perceived subjective norms
daughters and parents of younger compared to parents of that would encourage (86.5%) and support (92.2%) them to
older adolescents were analyzed. Seventeen items included monitor their teen’s social media (Table 3). However, only
a response of N/A, which ranged from 1.3% to 9.4% of the 69.0% agreed or strongly agreed that they were confident to
responses for those items. In instances where N/A was an monitor their teen. Just under half (46.6%) reported moni-
option, the response was recategorized as “missing” for toring their teen would be “easy,” while 41.5% reported it
analysis purposes. Less than 10% of responses were missing would be “hard.” When asked about their intent to monitor,
for each variable. All tests were two-sided, and a signifi- most parents agreed (76.8%) they had intentions to monitor
cance threshold of p < 0.05 was used for this study. their adolescent’s social media use. Cronbach’s as for the
two subjective norm items and three perceived behavioral
control items were .85 and .76, respectively.
Results
This nationwide sample (n ¼ 836; Table 2) was primarily
Parental Monitoring
mothers (84.9%), White (80.4%), and college educated Most parents in this study reported knowing the password to
(25.8% some college; 52.0% college graduate). Survey their adolescent’s mobile phone (73.3%) and email (66.5%),
responses included participants reporting from every state but fewer parents knew the password for their adolescent’s
in the United States except Hawaii and the District of SMS (59.3%). Parents reported having posted a comment on
Columbia. Locations were aggregated according to the their adolescent’s social media profile (51.0%), checked
U.S. Census Bureau regions (Northeast: 14.4%, South: websites their adolescent has visited (77.0%), checked their
254 The Journal of School Nursing 39(3)
I intend to monitor a 827 332 (39.7) 310 (37.1) 88 (10.5) 40 (4.8) 57 (6.8)
Parents should monitor b 831 534 (63.9) 235 (28.1) 56 (6.7) 4 (0.5) 2 (0.2)
People important to me would 830 442 (52.9) 281 (33.6) 88 (10.5) 16 (1.9) 3 (0.4)
encourage me to monitor c
People important to me would 832 483 (57.8) 288 (34.4) 52 (6.2) 9 (1.1) 0
support me to monitor c
I am confident I can monitor d,e 829 237 (28.3) 342 (40.9) 125 (15.0) 109 (13.0) 16 (1.9)
How much control do have in 830 23 (2.8) 120 (14.4) 516 (61.7) 171 (20.5)
monitoring d
a
Intent. b Attitude. c Subjective norms. d Perceived behavioral control. e Item 18.
adolescent’s social media profile (81.9%), and searched for somewhat frequently), and “cyberbullying” (69.8%—fre-
their teen’s name online (62.1%). Finally, more than half quently or somewhat frequently). Cronbach’s a for the eight
(52.9%) had tracked their adolescent’s location on their ado- active mediation Likert-type scale items was .93. Co-use
lescent’s mobile phone. was used the least among parents in this study (36.4%—
frequently or somewhat frequently).
Parental Mediation
Parents’ Knowledge of Risks of Adolescent Social
Parents reported using some restrictive mediation practices. Media Use
Almost 60% of parents reported using parental controls
(58.9%) on their adolescent’s phone or computer, but only The highest concern of parents in this study expressed was
47.7% reported using web filtering software. Most often “private information getting into the wrong hands”
used restrictive mediation practices included taking away (50.9%—extremely worried or very worried). Parents also
their adolescent’s cell phone or internet privileges as punish- reported concern regarding “depression” (47.3%—extremely
ment (77.4%) and limiting the amount of time or times of worried or very worried) and the “effects on health”
day their adolescent could go online (70.6%). Parents also (44.5%—extremely worried or very worried). Parents were
used active mediation. Just over half of the parents (52.8%) less concerned about “legal trouble because of their teen par-
reported reading a privacy policy for a website or SMS their ticipating in sexting” (26.8%—extremely worried or very
adolescent was using. More than two thirds (66.9%) reported worried) and “how their teen maintains their reputation
helping their adolescent set up privacy settings for an SMS, online” (23.9%—extremely worried or very worried). Cron-
and 65% talked with their adolescent because the parent was bach’s a for the 11 parental knowledge items was .94.
concerned about something posted on their adolescent’s
social media account.
Comparing Groups
Parents in this study also reported a high frequency of After our initial analysis of the data, the w2 test was used to
talking with their adolescents about risks related to adoles- investigate for any differences among groups of parents.
cent social media. Parents talked to their adolescent most Responses from parents of sons were compared with parents
often about “everything sent over the internet can be shared” of daughters and parents of younger adolescents (11–14
(81.1%—frequently or somewhat frequently), followed by years) with parents of older adolescents (15–17 years). Few
“what is appropriate to share online” (77.5%—frequently or differences appeared in parental monitoring practices with
somewhat frequently) and “talking with strangers online” parents of sons compared with daughters. Knowing the pass-
(76.5%—frequently or somewhat frequently). Although still word to their teen’s social media and phone differed by
common, the topics parents discussed the least with their gender of the child. Of parents with daughters, 66.9% knew
adolescent were “sexting or stories of sexting” (71.0%— the password to social media accounts, and 83.6% knew the
frequently or somewhat frequently), “which online content password to the phone. Significantly different, 59.6% of
is appropriate for their age” (69.6%—frequently or parents of sons knew the password to social media, and
Douglas et al. 255
Table 4. Parental Monitoring and Mediation Strategies Among Parents of Daughters and Sons.
Parents of n (%)
73.8% knew the password to phone (p ¼ .046; p < .001, media use. The only exception was more parents of sons
respectively). More parents of daughters (92.0%) reported were concerned about their teen watching sexually explicit
checking their teen’s social media profile compared with material compared to parents of daughters (p ¼ .003).
parents of sons (83.8%; p < .001; Table 4). Several differences were seen among parents of younger
No differences existed between the gender of the child adolescents (11–14 years) compared with parents of older
and restrictive mediation practices. More parents of daugh- adolescents (15–17 years). Knowing the password to social
ters, however, reported active mediation strategies com- media accounts, email, and phone differed by age categories
pared with parents of sons. For instance, 76.7% of parents with 73.5% of parents of younger adolescents knowing the
of daughters helped their teen set up privacy settings on their password to their adolescent’s social media compared with
social media compared with 62.4% of parents of sons (p < 55.2% of parents of older adolescents (p < .001), 77.6% of
.001). Finally, slightly more parents of daughters (39.9%) parents of younger adolescents knowing the password to
reported using co-use mediation practices compared with their adolescent’s email compared with 62.4% of parents
31.6% of parents of sons (p ¼ .045). No differences were of older adolescents (p < .001), and 86.8% of parents of
noted among parents of sons compared with parents of younger adolescents knowing the password to their phone
daughters and concern regarding risks of adolescent social compared with 74.1% of parents of older adolescents (p <
256 The Journal of School Nursing 39(3)
Table 5. Parental Monitoring and Mediation Strategies Among Table 6. Active Mediation Among Parents of Younger and Older
Parents of Younger and Older Adolescents. Adolescents.
a
Parents, n (%) Active Mediation (Items 38–45) w2 df p Value
Utilizing the TPB as a framework for exploring parental media (Krcmar & Cingel, 2016; Padilla-Walker & Coyne,
monitoring of adolescent social media use provided insight 2011; Padilla-Walker et al., 2012; Sonck et al., 2013). Nev-
into parents’ intentions to monitor. Most parents agreed or ertheless, slightly fewer parents discussed risks such as sext-
strongly agreed that parents should monitor their adoles- ing and cyberbullying. Prevalence of sexting and
cent’s social media use and reported positive responses to cyberbullying ranges 23%–30% among adolescents (Byrne
subject norms; however, parents reported less confidence in et al., 2018; Frankel et al., 2018; Hamm et al., 2015; Romo
their perceived control of monitoring. These results were et al., 2017). Parents talking to their adolescents about these
similar to other studies both in the United States and inter- risky behaviors can reduce the risk of them engaging in these
nationally (Krcmar & Cingel, 2016; Sonck et al., 2013). activities (Pechmann & Catlin, 2020), but starting these con-
According to the TPB, perceived behavioral control is versations can be difficult for some parents. School nurses
instrumental in predicting intention to perform a behavior can help facilitate these conversations by providing educa-
when behavior is under volitional control and may explain tion for parents on effective communication on difficult
the reduced reports of intention to monitor compared to topics.
attitudes toward monitoring (Ajzen, 1985). When comparing groups, more parents of daughters
Parental monitoring during the adolescent years is chal- reported knowing the passwords of the various communica-
lenging for parents and is somewhat dependent on the ado- tion devices (phone, email, and social media) and checked
lescent to willingly disclose their activities to the parent their adolescent’s profile compared to parents of sons. These
(Kerr et al., 2010). School nurses may be the first to witness results are similar to those of Khurana et al. (2015) who
such things as cyberbullying or the consequences of cyber- found girls reported increased rates of parental monitoring
bullying and are in a position to assist parents in addressing compared to boys. Yet Kelly et al (2018) found girls were
the negative effects (Byrne et al., 2018). Parents can monitor more at risk for spending more time on social media, to
their adolescent’s activity online by being their “friend” on experience cyberbullying, have low self-esteem, and to
social media to monitor what is posted on their adolescent’s report depressive symptoms. On the contrary, Liau et al.
social media (Romo et al., 2017). Nevertheless, adolescents (2008) found parents reported greater levels of parental
are resourceful, long for privacy, and have found ways to monitoring in the activities of supervision and tracking of
sabotage some monitoring efforts such as blocking their boys compared to girls.
parents from their SMS and creating fake profiles not dis- More parents of younger adolescents reported monitoring
closed to parents. As the landscape of monitoring adoles- and mediation practices compared with parents of older ado-
cent’s activities changes, parents benefit from understanding lescents. These results are consistent with other studies
how to monitor their adolescent social media use in other (Livingstone & Helsper, 2008; Nikken & Jansz, 2014;
ways. Likewise, school nurses need to understand the neg- Padilla-Walker & Coyne, 2011; Sonck et al., 2013) that
ative effects of social media to screen students who may found parents utilize more monitoring and mediation prac-
come to them to receive care (Byrne et al., 2018). Common tices of children’s internet use when their child is younger
Sense Media®, a nonprofit organization providing informa- and then adjust their monitoring efforts as the child ages.
tion and advice to parents and educators about various media Parents rely less on monitoring practices with adolescents to
types, is an easily accessible website for parents, nurses, and allow them greater autonomy. Providing resources to parents
teachers to learn the latest research on social media use before middle school can help parents set standards and
(Common Sense, 2020). healthy social media use behaviors for preadolescents and
Results from this study showed most parents reported guide parents who may want to limit their child’s access or
using restrictive mediation such as using parental controls delay their participation in social media. Another source for
on their adolescent’s phone or computer and limiting the nurses and parents is Families Managing Media®, which
amount of time their adolescent can go online. Nevertheless, provides information, resources, and tools for parents related
just under half of the parents reported using web filtering to delaying and limiting screen time for children and ado-
software. These results are similar to those of Livingstone lescents (Families Managing Media, 2020).
and Helsper (2008) who found parents restricted their child Consistent with prior research regarding parental media-
or adolescent from using the internet, but only a few used tion of adolescent’s internet use, these results showed par-
web filtering software. Web filtering software can help track ents are very concerned about many of the known risks of
and monitor adolescent social media use. School nurses adolescent social media use. In this study, parents’ greatest
could develop educational material to help parents who have concerns were private information getting into the wrong
fewer technical skills to understand the options in web filter- hands followed by depression and effects on health such
ing software and tools already built in some smartphones as sleep. These findings reveal that the greatest concerns
such as “Screen Time” on the Apple iPhone (Apple, 2018). of parents were related to health issues, supporting adoles-
This study’s findings were consistent with other studies cent social media use as an important topic specifically for
regarding active mediation as the most common mediation school nurses as they interact with preadolescents and
strategy used by parents to counteract the negative effects of adolescents.
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Douglas et al. 261
Author Biographies Jean Walker, PhD, RN, is a professor in School of Nursing at the
University of Mississippi Medical Center.
Kimberly D. Douglas, PhD, RN, CNE, is an assistant professor in
School of Nursing at the University of Mississippi Medical Center. Leandro Mena, MD, MPH, is a professor and chair of the Depart-
ment of Population Health Science, a professor of Medicine in Divi-
Kandy K. Smith, DNS, RN, is a professor in School of Nursing at
sion of Infectious Diseases, and School of Population Health/School
the University of Mississippi Medical Center.
of Medicine at the University of Mississippi Medical Center.
Mary W. Stewart, PhD, RN, is a professor in School of Nursing at
Lei Zhang, PhD, MBA, is a professor in School of Nursing at the
the University of Mississippi Medical Center.
University of Mississippi Medical Center.
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