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ZIMSEC Geography Notes Form 1
ZIMSEC Geography Notes Form 1
Geography
TEACHER’S
NOTES.
Weaknesses
Doesn’t explain the origin of the sun and star.
Minimal chance of a star approaching another
Materials would disperse than condense
Earth
rd
The 3 planet from the sun
The earth and the heavenly bodies make the universe
The only planet that supports life
The home of man
Approximately 149m km from the sun
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Takes 365 ¼ days to revolve around the sun
Has one satellite, the moon
Mars
Also called The Red Planet because when it’s observed through a telescope it
appears reddish.
The 4th from the sun
Slightly smaller than the earth
Approximately 228m km from the sun
Takes 687 earth days to revolve around the sun
Between Mass and Jupiter there are small celestial bodies called planetoids.
Has no satellite.
Jupiter
th
5 planet from the sun
Approximately 778m km from the sun
Largest in the universe
Rotates on its own axis at very fast speed
Has flattened poles due to its fast speed of rotation
Has very thick layers of ice on its surface
takes 12 earth years to revolve around the sun
Has 16 satellites
Saturn
th
6 planet from the sun
Second largest planet
Approximately 1427m km from the sun
Takes 29 ½ earth years to revolve around the sun
Has a ring around it
Has 18 satellites
Uranus
th
7 planet from the sun
About 4 times bigger than the earth
Approximately 2870m km from the sun
Also rotates very fast
Also has flattened poles due to fast speed of rotation
It appears greenish foe being surrounded by methane gas
Has 8 satellites
Takes 84 earth years to revolve around the sun
Neptune
One of the farthest from the sun
8th planet from the sun
Approximately 4497m km from the sun
Has 8 satellites
Takes 165 earth years to revolve around the sun
Very similar in size, colour and character with Uranus
Pluto
9th planet from the earth
Farthest from the sun
The smallest
3. Causes changes in the altitude of the midday sun due to the earth’s orbit being
elliptical.
Highest altitude during equinox
B. The Mantle/Asthenosphere
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Layer lying between the crust and the core
Made of iron and magnesium
Has two layers
1. Upper mantle
Rocks are more elastic than those of sima.
Temperature is about 1000◦c.
2. lower mantle
Rocks are like very viscous liquid.
Temperature ranges between 1000◦c to 3000◦c.
Why the Interior of Earth Is Very Hot
a) Due radio-active decay causing most of the heating.
b) Due to great pressure as a result of overlying crustal materials.
c) The original heat resulting from slow cooling of the materials which were
pulled off the sun
Gutenberg Discontinuity
A definite zone of discontinuity between mantle and core.
C. Core/barysphere/Centrosphere
The innermost/central layer of the earth.
Has 2 layers
Outer Core
Composed of very dense rocks
Made up of nickel and iron
Temperatures are up to 3700◦c.
Inner Core
A solid mass of mainly iron
Temperatures are estimated to be 4500◦c to 5000◦c.
External Structure of the Earth
a) The Atmosphere
Layer of gases surrounding the earth.
The earth revolves with it because its held onto it by gravity
It’s about 330km thick.
Composition of the Atmosphere
a) Gases-exist as a mixture
b) Smoke particles
c) Dust particles
d) Water vapour
The structure of the Atmosphere
It’s divided into 4 layers/zones namely:
1. Troposphere
Lowest layer of the atmosphere
Contains 90% of water vapour
Rainfall is got from it
Temperature decreases with increase in altitude (lapse rate)
Air is turbulent due to mixing of air
Contains dust particles
There is a zone of transition between troposphere and stratosphere called
tropopause.
2. Stratosphere/ozonosphere
Layer lying next to troposphere
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Has layers
Lower isothermal layer in which temperature is constant
Upper layer of temperature inversion in which temperature increases
with increasing altitude
Has ozone layer which absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiation.
Air is calm so its used by passenger jets
Limited amounts of water vapour
There is a zone of transition between stratosphere and mesosphere called
stratopause.
3. Mesosphere
Middle layer of the atmosphere.
Temperature decreases with increasing altitude.
There is a zone of transition between mesosphere and thermosphere called
mesopause which is an inversion layer.
4. Thermosphere/ionosphe re
High radiation is present.
The pressure is very low.
Gases and molecules in this layer exist as ions due to high radiation.
Has no definite top but merges gradually into the outermost part of the
atmosphere called exosphere.
Exosphere consists of rare gases like hydrogen and helium.
Beyond the atmosphere there is the outer space.
Outer space is the universe beyond the atmosphere in which other planets
and stars exist.
Significance of Atmosphere
a) Animals and plants breathe in from it oxygen for respiration.
b) Plants use carbon dioxide from it for photosynthesis.
c) Water vapour in the atmosphere condenses to form clouds which give us
rain.
d) Ozone layer in the stratosphere shields us from ultraviolet radiation which
may cause cancers.
e) Carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere cause global warming
through the green house effect.
b) The Hydrosphere
Part of the earth’s surface covered by water masses e.g. oceans, seas, lakes,
rivers and even underground water.
It comprises 73% of the earth’s surface area.
The atmosphere and hydrosphere are related in that atmospheric gases
penetrate to the ocean depth in solution form.
The lower atmosphere, hydrosphere and the upper part of the earths crust
are called biosphere meaning the sphere of the earth in which organic life
exists.
WEATHER
-Daily atmospheric conditions of a place at a particular time.
Elements of Weather
1. Temperature
2. Humidity precipitation
3. Precipitation
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4. Atmospheric pressure
5. Wind
6. Sunshine
7. Cloud cover
A Weather Station
-A place where observation, measuring and recording of weather elements is done
Factors to Be Taken Into Account When Sitting a Weather Station
1. An open place where there is little obstruction of weather elements.
2. Accessible place so that recording can be done easily.
3. A fairly level or gently sloping ground (5◦) so that it’s easy to position
weather instruments.
4. The place should provide a wide view of the surrounding landscape and the
sky.
5. The site should be free from flooding.
6. The place should have security.
Instruments for Measuring Elements of Weather
1. Thermometer-temperature
2. Hygrometer- humidity
3. Rain gauge-rainfall
4. Barometer-air pressure
5. Sunshine recorder-sunshine duration and intensity
6. Wind vane –wind direction
7. Anemometer-wind speed
8. Evaporimeter-rate and amount of evaporation.
The Stevenson Screen
Importance
1. Provide shade conditions for accurate temperature recording.
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2. Ensure safety of thermometers because they are delicate.
Qualifications Which Make Stevenson Screen Suitable For Its Work
1. Painted white for little absorption of solar heat energy.
2. Made of wood which is a bad conductor of heat.
3. Well ventilated to allow easier flow of air inside it.
4. Raised to prevent contact with terrestrial radiation.
5. Has double roof which acts as an insulator to prevent direct heating from
the sun.
Recording and Calculating Weather Conditions
Temperature
-Degree of hotness of an object or a place.
It’s measured using 3 types of thermometers namely:
1. Maximum thermometer
2. Minimum thermometer
3. Six’s thermometer
Maximum Thermometer
Rain gauge is the instrument used to measure the amount of rainfall in a day.
It should be made of impermeable material which can’t absorb water.
How It’s Used/Works
It’s taken to an open space to prevent water from dropping into the funnel.
Its sunk into the ground to prevent evaporation
The funnel top is left 30cm above the ground to prevent splashes of water
and run off.
After 24 hours water is emptied into the measuring cylinder.
The reading of the amount of rainfall is got from the measuring cylinder in
millimetres.
The figure represents the millimetres of water falling on each square
millimetre of the ground.
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It could be used to measure snow fall by melting it before the readings are
gotten.
Calculating Rainfall
1. Monthly Rainfall Total
-Sum of rainfall recorded in a month.
2. Annual Rainfall Total
-Sum of monthly rainfall totals for 12 months.
3. Mean Monthly Rainfall
-Sum of rainfall totals for a particular month over several years divided by the
number of the years of observation.
4. Mean Annual Rainfall
-Sum of mean monthly rainfall for 12 months of the year.
Sunshine
How It Works
Air exerts pressure on the mercury in the beaker.
The height of mercury in the tube is proportional to the atmospheric
pressure.
The readings are taken in mmHg.
Its 760mmHg at sea level
Advantage
Quite accurate
Disadvantage
1. Cumbersome to carry around.
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2. Can be damaged quite easily while being carried around.
Aneroid Barometer
-Measures changes in atmospheric pressure.
How It Works
Has air tight compartment (vacuum).
Compartment expands when pressure decreases.
It collapses when pressure increases.
The movement is transmitted by lever to a pointer on a dial.
The readings are in kg/cm3.
Evaporation
The rate and amount of evaporation is measured using piche and tank
evaporimeters.
Piche Evaporimeter
When there is a lot of sunshine water evaporates from the blotting paper.
The level of water in the glass tube reduces.
The rate and amount of evaporation is got by looking at the scale on the
outside of the glass tube.
The units are in mm.
Tank Evaporimeter
How It Works
The tank with water is put in the open.
Water evaporates when there is a lot of sunshine.
Water in the tank reduces.
Types of rainfall
1. Relief/Orographic/Mountain rainfall
Type of rainfall common near large water bodies formed as a result of convective
rising and cooling of moist air.
It’s accompanied by thunderstorms.
How it forms
Ground or water body is heated causing evaporation.
There is convective rising and cooling of moist air.
Condensation takes place forming tiny water droplets (clouds).
The droplets merge and fall as rain.
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The cooled dry air descends to the surface where its heated and its capacity
to hold moisture is increased.
The process is repeated.
2. Frontal/Cyclonic Rainfall
Type of rainfall common in mid-latitudes formed when warm air blows towards a
cold area or when warm air mass meets with a cold air mass.
It’s accompanied by cyclones (violent winds).
How it Forms
Warm moist air mass meets with a cold air mass.
The warm air is forced to rise as it’s less dense.
It cools as it rises at the line of contact with cold air.
The moisture condenses forming clouds resulting in frontal rain.
Factors Influencing Rainfall Types and Amounts
1. Relief/Topography
Relief features such as mountains and hills results in the rising and cooling of
moist winds to form relief rainfall.
2. Aspect
Windward slopes which are on the path of rain bearing winds receive heavier
rainfall than leeward slopes which face away.
3. Forests and Water Bodies
Areas near forests and large water bodies experience higher rainfall and more often
due to high rate of evaporation.
4. air pressure
High pressure areas receive low rainfall than low pressure areas due to pushing of
air masses from high pressure to low pressure. The high pressure areas have
descending dry air.
5. air masses
When warm and cold air masses meet frontal rainfall is formed.
6. Ocean Currents
It influences rainfall whereby coasts washed by warm ocean currents
experience heavy rainfall when moist onshore winds are warmed by the
current and made to hold on to moisture which they release on reaching the
land.
The coasts washed by cold ocean currents on the other hand experience low
rainfall as a result of moist winds being cooled and moisture in them
condensed resulting in rain falling over the ocean thereby bringing little or
It’s a low pressure system characterised by low pressure at the centre and
increases outwards.
Starts in areas where air ascends from the ground to the atmosphere and
descends at high altitude.
It’s of two types. Tropical cyclones e.g. hurricane, typhoon and willy willies
and depressions which are characterised by temperate latitudes.
The movement of wind is anticlockwise in the N. hemisphere and clockwise in
the S. hemisphere.
2. Anticyclone
A high pressure system characterised by high pressure at the centre and
decreases outwards.
-A light and gentle wind which blows from the sea to the adjacent land.
How it Forms
During the day land is heated faster than the sea.
Air over the land is warmed and rises.
Air from the sea moves to the land to replace the rising air.
The rising air from the land cools and descends over the sea at high altitude.
Circulation continues until the pressure difference is reversed at night.
Effects on weather
It takes cooling effect on land on a hot afternoon.
2. Land Breeze
-A light and gentle wind which blows from land to the sea during the night.
-Cool local winds which blow from the valley to the hill tops during summer
afternoons.
How it Forms
During the day hill tops are heated more than valley bottoms.
Air over the hill tops is warmed and rises.
-Cold local winds which blow from hill tops to the valley during the night.
During the night hill tops lose heat faster than the valley.
Air over the valley is warmed and rises.
Cool air over the hill tops move to the valley by gravity to replace the rising
air.
Effect on Weather
-Takes chilly conditions on valley bottoms.
5. Harmattan Winds
-N.E winds which originate from Sahara and blow across W. Africa between
November and March taking dry conditions there.
6. Fohn Winds (Alps)
-Local cold winds which slide down the leeward side of the mountain at high speed
and are warmed producing a temperature rise.
Due to the high speed and temperature they are associated with wild fires.
They are known as Chinook in Rocky Mountains, Santa Anas in California and
Mistral in France.
Factors influencing Wind Flow (Speed and direction)
1. Pressure Gradient
If the pressure difference between high and low pressure areas is high the winds
blow at high speed (strong) but if it’s low they blow at high speed (are gentle).
2. distance between Places of High and Low Pressure
if the high and low pressure areas are near each other winds blow at high speed but
if distant from each other winds blow at low speed.
3. Rotation of the earth
Rotation of the earth deflects winds to the right in the N. hemisphere and to the left
in the S. hemisphere.
4. Frictional Force
STATISTICS
Statistics-numerical figures collected systematically and arranged for a particular
purpose.
Statistical data-information presented inform of numbers e.g.
1. No. of students in a school
2. Mean daily temperature of a place
3. Amount of milk produced daily from a farm
4. Amount of money earned from exports annually.
Statistical methods-techniques of collecting, recording, analysing, presenting and
interpreting statistical data.
Significance of Statistics
Illustrates relationship between 2 or more varying quantities e.g. beans
production and acreage under cultivation.
Summarises geographical information which saves time and space.
Makes comparison between components e.g. province with the highest
number of people.
Prediction of future trends of weather and climate.
Prediction of natural disasters e.g. droughts and floods.
Planning for provision of social amenities e.g. hospitals and schools.
Types of Statistical Data
primary Data
-First hand or original information from the field e.g.
Mean daily temperature from a weather station
Enumeration/census
Secondary/Derived Data
-2nd hand information available in stored sources compiled by other researchers
e.g.
Textbooks
Reference books
Maps
Video/audio tapes
Textbooks
Newspapers
Magazines
Census reports
Slides
Census reports
Nature of Statistical Data
1. Discrete Data
-Which is given in whole numbers e.g.
16 elephants
1093 tonnes of wheat
2. Continuous Data
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-Facts and figures which can take any value e.g.
Fractions e.g.23 ¼
Decimals e.g. 6.20 mm
Values within range e.g. 0-30◦c
3. Grouped Data
-Which is non precise/exact but values range in groups e.g.
4. Tabulation
-Drawing of tables and filling
in data systematically e.g. weather recording sheets.
Month J F M A M J J A S O N D
Temp(◦c) 24 24 23 22 19 17 17 18 19 20 22 23
Rainfall(mm) 109 122130 76 52 34 28 38 70 108 121 120
5. Field Sketching
-Summarising information observed in the field by making a rough drawing of
landscape and labelling the essential information.
7. Tape Recording
-Recording image of an object or landscape on a film which is processed to get a
photograph then the photographs are labelled to avoid mix up during storage.
8. Labelling samples
-Recording conversations during interviews on audio tapes using a tape recorder.
Permission should be got from the respondent to record his/her responses.
Advantages
It’s used if responses are too many to be recorded on a note book.
It allows smooth flow of discussion as asking respondents to repeat
answers would irritate them.
Analysis of Data
-Examining the numerical figures in detail.
Techniques of analysing Data
1. Calculation of Percentages
-If in the study of a farm 10 hectares are devoted to coffee, what is the % of the
area under coffee?
10/100×10%
The table below shows the number of tourists who visited Kenya from various
parts of the world in 2006.
Advantages
Easy to calculate for a small data
Summarises data using a single digit
Easy to understand and interpret
Disadvantages
Difficult to calculate for grouped data
Affected by extreme values
b) Median
-The middle value in a set of data arranged in order.
M= (N+1)/2
(I) 20, 50, 90, 100, 150, 180, 200, 220, 240, 300, 360.
(II) 20, 50, 90, 100, 150, 180, 200, 220, 240, 300.
Advantages
Easy to calculate in a small data set
Easy to understand as it’s the value at the middle
Disadvantages
Difficult to calculate in a large data set
Doesn’t show data distribution
b) Calculation of Ranges
-Difference between the largest and smallest values. Calculate the range of for the
data above.
c) Mode
-Most frequently recurring value in a set of data.
10, 2, 5, 9, 10, 11, 20, 15, 18, 10.
The mode is 10.
Advantages
Easy to find as no calculation is involved
Easy to understand
Disadvantage
Rarely used as a measure of central tendency
Statistical Presentation of Data
FIELD WORK
Types
a) Panning
It involves:
Digging a mixture of sand, gravel and mineral from the river bed.
Putting it in a pan and rotating the pan while tilted.
Problems
1. Stiff competition from developed countries with large soda deposits e.g. U.S.A
and Israel.
2. Low value of salt is insufficient to meet its production cost.
3. High labour costs due to incentives given so that workers agree to work in the
hostile environment of L. Magadi.
Gold in S. Africa
Gold occurs as small grains in a hard rock.
It’s mined by shaft mining since its bearing rocks are deep below the surface.
The main mining area is the Witwatersrand and others are Ogendaalrus and
lydenburg.
Processing
Ore is crushed to a fine powdery dust.
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Mixed with water until it is fluid mud.
Cyanide is added to dissolve gold.
The fluid is runoff with gold dissolved leaving behind waste salts.
Zinc dust is added to filter gold for solidification.
Gold sinks as it is denser.
Gold is smelted and cast into ingots.
Significance to the Economy of S. Africa
1. Earns the country foreign exchange used for paying foreign debts.
2. Offers employment to many people raising their living standards.
3. Has led to widespread urbanisation contributing to formation of Witwatersrand
conurbation.
4. Has formed a broad market for other industries e.g. engineering, foot wear,
electrical and construction industries.
5. Has led to improvement of infrastructure and social amenities e.g. roads,
schools, hospitals, etc.
6. Led to development of agriculture.
Problems Facing Gold mining
1. Expensive to mine for lying deeply.
2. Large capital is required to start mines.
3. Complication of mining by folds and faults in the crust.
4. Low gold content in the ore.
5. Problem of removal of underground water.
6. Lack of adequate supply of fresh water on the surface in mining areas.
7. Accidents resulting from collapsing of mine roofs.
Diamond Mining in S. Africa
Diamond is the hardest known substance.
-Mined in Kimberly, Bloemfontein and Alexander Bay.
-Mined by underground mining or alluvial mining.
Processing
Diamond bearing kimberlite is crushed
Crushed rock is mixed with water
Diamond sinks to the bottom as it’s denser
Water and less dense residue are drained off
Remaining material is put on heavily greased trays and washed
Diamond repels water so it sticks to grease while remnants are drained off
Diamonds are then sorted out and graded into gem diamonds and industrial
type (for cutting purposes).
Contribution to the Economy
1. Provides employment to thousands of people
2. Earns the country substantial foreign exchange
3. Has led to growth of urban centres e.g. Pretoria and Kimberly.
4. Has contributed to development of infrastructure
Problems Facing Diamond Mining
1. Fluctuation in the world market prices
2. High cost of mining and processing diamond
3. depletion of mines
4. Low mineral in the ore making mining expensive
5. labour competition with other sectors e.g. manufacturing and gold mining
Petroleum in the Middle East
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Oil is a thick black sticky liquid called crude oil
It was formed from small creatures that lived in shallow lagoons about 100-
200m ago.
Decaying remains of those creatures mixed with mud at the bottom as
sediments
The sediments piled on each other and slowly transformed into sedimentary
rocks
Gradually the remains were converted into oil and gas.
Major oil producers in the Middle East are Saudi Arabia with the largest reserves,
Iraq, Kuwait and United Arab Emirates.
Middle East accounts for 64% of world oil reserves.
There are several giant oil fields in Ghawar in Saudi Arabia and Kirkuk in Iraq.
Processing
Crude oil is processed by refining using a technique called fractional distillation.
The process takes place near as possible to the market as it’s cheaper to transport
crude oil than the different refined products.
It’s processed into secondary products such as petrol, paraffin, lubricating oils,
dyes, fertilisers and plastics.
Impurities are removed from the crude oil
Crude oil is heated before entering fluctionating column
It’s turned into vapour or gas
Different ingredients turn back to liquid at different temperatures.
Ingredients gradually cool, condense and collect in various trays and
allowed to overflow until they reach an outlet.
Contribution to the Economies
1. Arab’s investments overseas have increased due to oil reserves.
2. High income per capita due to oil profits.
3. Has led to development of cities e.g. Tripoli in Libya.
4. Investment of oil money in other sectors e.g. power stations, cement factories
and exploitation of other minerals.
5. Earns the countries substantial foreign exchange
6. Increased political and military power.
7. Artesian water is made available for domestic and irrigation purposes e.g. in
Libya.
8. Oil companies help in fixing down the sand dunes and planting trees in the
deserts.