Philosophers/Schools Main Tenets Understanding of the Human Person Politics Wider Scope of Influence

Paradigm shift: 6th Century BC: MYTHOS --> LOGOS – movement from supernatural understandings to natural understandings of the world

Major Themes: Change, the PHYSIS (substance which all matter is made out of)

Pre-Socratic Philosophers:
Major Movements of Influence:
- Sophism – Relativity of Truth (subjectivity) + solipsism (the self can only be aware of sense expressions and experiences)
- Pythagoreans (influence of asceticism; pursuit of true knowledge – ‘mathematics’)

Socrates (470–399 BC) Views on Knowledge: - First Moral Philosopher Taught Plato
*influenced by Sophists on - Knowledge is INBORN (not - Scope of Life was to GAIN KNOWLEDGE (‘an unexamined Questioned the authority of the
the importance of acquired or produced as the life is not a life worth living’) senate – got executed for
subjectivity of truth – world one can acquire it through corrupting the youth
however believed that truth is imperfect) Knowledge is virtue; impropriety stems from ignorance (vice) First Existential Philosopher
could be general & shared - ‘mid-wife’ theory --> Socratic Method of Questioning
with others (so he wasn’t knowledge can be revealed -> Father of dialectics
too much of a fan) through philosophers and (dialogue)
DIALOGUE
Believed in oral tradition – The Inductive Definition: ‘discovering
therefore all that he said was general concepts by examining isolated
written by Plato examples’ – concepts then transcend the
manifestations of the concept (eg. beauty
and what is considered beautiful)

Essence: the pure, universal concept; the

truth of a particular idea.

Moral Virtues:
 Temperance
 Prudence
 Fortitude
 Justice

Plato (427–347 BC) 1) Rationalist – true knowledge can The form of the ‘good’ Thought that all political Founded the first Academy
Divided into two periods: only be attained through reason *later becomes conflated with God styles led to ruin
1) Early Writings: first (mental operations) (including democracy) Influenced religious theology (see
just echoed Socrates 2) Nativist (KNOWLEDGE IS As human beings, we strive towards the Neoplatonism)
INBORN) attainment of happiness through the The Republic
2) Middle and Late: - Reminiscence theory of development of the self. Inhibited science through the
Influence of the Knowledge: (eudaimonia: eu = good + daimon = spirit) *see personality theory: ignoring of sense experience and
Pythagoreans** - Metempsychosis (transmigration the dualism of the human person:
of the soul) – knowledge is **Asceticism: Biological urges must be Society should be led by
inborn through the soul living in suppressed in the pursuit of moral philosopher-kings/queen – soul + imperfect material body
the world of pure forms before attainment s --> hierarchical
entering a body) structure
i) Pre-Existent Stage – Nature of the Soul:
soul in the world of pure i) Appetitive - ‘INSTINCT’ Justice forms when all
forms, without body ii) Courageous/Spirited – three parts were
ii) Existent Stage – soul is ‘EMOTION’ working in harmony –
born, forgets the iii) Rational (the ‘soul’) both individually and in
knowledge of the world Develops with the use of the society (microcosm-
of pure forms (amnesia) virtues (*see Socrates) – the macrocosm idea)
through the trauma of urges of the other two must be
birth CONTROLLED in order to Eugenics in order to
iii) Post-Existent Stage – develop this part of the soul ‘breed’ philosopher-
soul attains freedom kings --> then a rigorous
through death Personality theory: upbringing at an
*through INTROSPECTION – one can Dependent on which part was dominant: academy.
remember this knowledge of the world - Appetitive --> servants/workers
of pure forms. (aided by temperance)
3) Idealist (ultimate reality - Spirited --> soldiers (aided by
consisted of ideas/forms as fortitude)
opposed to material reality) - Rational --> philosopher-kings
4) Dualist (influence of (aided by prudence)
Pythagoreans)
- Reality can be divided into: Dreams and Sleep: - the Appetitive part
i) Nature (sense experience) -- takes over as the Rational sleeps (similar to
> pistis (belief) + doxa Freud)
(opinion)
 ii) Reason (where knowledge
is derived from) --> noesis
(intelligence) + episteme
(knowledge) through
introspection on the idea of
pure form + Dianoia ( the
knowledge we can gain
through mathematics)
- ANALOGY OF THE
DIVIDED LINE

Continued on Socrates’s idea of

essences; (!!!!) however – for Socrates
the essence is merely a definition of a
concept – for Plato the essence is tied
into its FORM.

Theory of Forms:
- Everything in the world of
matter are inferior
(‘untrue’/incomplete – as there
are differences) manifestations
of their pure essence which
exists in the world of forms.

- Allegory of the Cave

 Key differences between Plato and Aristotle

Plato: deception of the senses; knowledge attainable through introspection on form (which exists independent to material reality)
Aristotle: knowledge attainable through the studying of material, physical nature; by studying the manifestations – one can infer the essence

Therefore, for Aristotle the body is a way to explore nature; not something to be controlled
For Plato (and the Pythagoreans) – the body and the senses must be reigned over (like a charioteer over horses)

ARISTOTLE VS PLATO: EPISTEMOLOGY

Aristotle: Nature is the source of all knowledge; (empiricist) – change is natural.

Plato: Knowledge is stored in the soul (nativist); truth is unchanging – therefore the changing world cannot provide true knowledge
ARISTOTLE VS PLATO: DUALISM OF THE HUMAN PERSON

Plato: Soul can exist separate from the body; components do not need each other
Aristotle: Soul has the shape of the body and are INSEPARABLE

Aristotle (384-322 BC) Cont. on essence --> the Hierarchy of Souls: Founded the Lyceum
principle/purpose/reason for existence 1) Vegetative/Nutritive soul – growth (plants) Taught Alexander the Great
(learned through rational thought – by 2) Sensitive soul (animals) – has ‘senses’/instinct
studying individual manifestations in 3) Rational soul (humans) – rational thought First Psychological Philosopher:
nature) explained psychological processes
Knowledge is acquired through the senses’ interaction with nature in terms of biology
Teleology – everything exists for a (sensory input) and then synthesised:
purpose - to reach its potential - Observation and classification of
 Passive Reason – using synthesised experience for everyday the natural world
The actualised ‘potential’ eg. an acorn is life (no understanding of essence – application/practical use)
an oak tree in potentia – but an acorn  Active Reason – the use of rational powers; creativity – ‘encyclopaedia of nature’
cannot become an olive tree. abstraction allows to understand essence – underlying
concepts/laws Developer of the first actualisation
Non-living beings are acted upon:  Common Sense (synthesis) – coordinates sensory input and theory
The Four Causes: makes it meaningful
Eg. a statue: Promoted empirical observation
1) Material [matter] Cause – Motivation Theory:
marble Man is motivated by APPETITES: - driven to fulfil the appetite (which
 2) Formal [form] Cause – a statue causes discomfort) in order to be satisfied. (The Hedonist Principle)
of Venus
3) Efficient [*from efficiere – to Man has the ability to suppress these appetites to reach higher goals –
accomplish – what made it] SELF CONTROL – A LIFE OF MODERATION – The Golden
Cause – the sculptor Mean
4) Final [purpose] Cause – to
decorate a temple Acting in accordance with one’s nature was man’s highest purpose –
engaging in active reason --> leads to the greatest pleasure --> THE
Hylomorphic Theory: everything is FIRST ACTUALISATION THEORY (as man may not reach this
made out of MATTER + FORM goal)

Scala Naturae:
Hierarchy of animals up until the Memory and Recall:
UNMOVED MOVER (essentially, God) Retention of the images produced by the senses in the mind -->
– see Hierarchy of Souls. memory
Remembering: spontaneous recollection.
Recall & The Laws of Association:
1) Law of Contiguity – we remember events that happened
alongside it
2) Law of Similarity – we remember similar events
3) Law of Contrast – we remember things opposite to each other
4) Law of Frequency – the more often experiences happen
together, the stronger the association

Imagination and Dreaming:

Imagination: the lingering effects of sensory experience
Dreaming: the sensory expressions/events brought about by past
experience:
- Not coordinated by reason
- Not compared against any present/past sensory experience
Emotion:
- Cause SELECTIVE PERCEPTION – AMPLIFY/MODIFY
THE SENSORY EXPERIENCE

PARADIGM SHIFT: THE SEARCH FOR A GOOD LIFE – identity crisis on the part of the Greeks due to being joined under the Roman empire to countries who they had previously
considered barbarians.

 Greater focus on identity, morality and ethics on a more personal scale

 Addressing the problems of everyday living (since the Greeks no longer led their own city states – societal issues were less important now)

Scepticism Critical of other philosophies Promoted a life of imperturbability, tranquility and quietude as Contributed to later Romantic and
Formed by Phyrro of Elis the ‘good life’ – by suspending judgement; one can avoid the Existentialist philosophy
(360-270BC) Suspension of judgement – choosing frustration of adhering to a philosophy that is then proven false.
not to believe in anything; to remain Humanist psychology (with relation
Roots in sophism (relativity unattached to any moral theory Primary guides for living: to the validity of any person’s
of truth) 1) Appearances – sensations and feelings without life/subjective experience of the
The belief that both arguments for and interpretation/judgement of those feelings as good/bad. world.)
Formed in attack of against a philosophical doctrine were 2) Conventions – laws, traditions and customs of society –
DOGMATISTS – the belief equally uncompelling followed without faith, or the assignment of meaning or
in an objective, indisputable, purpose.
realisable moral truth

Cynicism Critical of other philosophies Promoted a life of simplicity, back-to-nature, and independence Influenced Rousseau, Nietzsche and
Founded by Antisthenes from any societal conventions as the good life Humanist psychology
(445-365BC) – Against all societal conventions:
contemporary of Gorgias marriage, money, slavery, class, Rejected any ideals based on birth, sex, race, education, or rank.
(sophist) and a friend of religion etc. as well as ideas such as
Socrates. goodness – as being unnatural Proclaimed brotherhood for all, free love and cosmopolitanism

Influenced by Sophism
Nature should guide human behaviour
Later picked up by Diogenes
(412-323BC)

Cynic means ‘doglike’ –

claimed that animals
provided the best model for
human conduct
Stoicism Interested in the moral conduct of Living in accordance with nature is the ultimate virtue Influenced Roman society greatly –
Founded by Zeno of Citium humanity large importance of law and order
(335-263BC) – named after Virtue is all that is important – material possessions not too important
the word stoa poikile Based in the experience of the empirical Beat Epicureanism as the main
(painted porch) due to the world philosophy of the Roman Empire
place it was taught. The good life is one where one accepts their fate with indifference,
Belief in the ruling of a divine plan – even if suffering is involved.
‘whatever happens, happens for a reason’
– purely determinist Accepting suffering with courage is extremely admirable.

Materialist: Soul is made out of

pneuma which allows for the creation
of rational choices and psychological
events. Pneuma and the body interact
(body-body dualism) – therefore the
soul is the body.

Epicureanism Interested in the moral conduct of The good life was one attained in this life – a balanced life free of Lasted around 600 years
Founded by Epicurus of humanity pain, surrounded by moderate long-term pleasures: free, simple,
Samos (341-270BC) rational and moderate.
Based his philosophy on Based in the experience of the empirical
Democritus (atomic theory) world Free will of humanity – from the assumption that the atoms making up
apart from the deterministic the body are free to move wherever they please
part. Materialist: the material world is all that
exists – the soul is material (made of Hedonism: pleasure is good/pain is bad. Short-term/extreme pleasure
atoms) brings pain and should be avoided – as well as the striving for fame,
recognition etc.
--> denies the existence of an afterlife
(dispersal of atoms into different forms) Importance of reason and correct judgement

PARADIGM SHIFT – Fall of the Roman Empire; invasion by Germanic barbarians, internal corruption etc. --> with the conversion of the Roman emperor Constantine – Edict of Milan
--> promoted diversity of religion within the Roman Empire; allowing Christianity to bloom and become the dominant religion.
Development of Neoplatonism – 476AC
Renewed interest in Plato’s philosophy post-Stoicism and Epicureanism in the Roman Empire

Influenced Christian theology as a philosophical basis to their theology.

Philo (25BC–50AD) Dualist; humans have a dual nature; one Man has a body made of earth (thou are dust) and a soul made of the Created a bridge between Judaism
of lowly earth, the other of divine spirit breath of God and Plato
Started off from the creation
account (Genesis) Rationalist: knowledge comes only Man can either choose to move:
from God, sensory experience should be - Downward: towards earth --> the pleasures of the flesh
cast aside. (unlike Plato & Socrates: not - Upward: towards heaven --> the experiences of the light
via. introspection)
Since sense experience interferes with the direct revelation of
Soul & mind are the same substance; the knowledge from God:
way God is present in humanity
Catharsis:
The mind must be purified by becoming free of all sensory
interference & by developing an intimate relationship with God:
(**asceticism)
1) Meditation
2) Dreams
3) Trance states

Plotinus (205-270AD) Monotheist – One god Hierarchy of Emanations: Bridged the gap between Plato and
the newly developing Christianity
Expanded upon the mystical Believed in the beauty of sensory 1) The One – God – essence of ‘Goodness’ & ‘Beauty’
aspect of Plato’s philosophy experience (*unlike Plato and Philo); art, 2) The Spirit – emanates from God Founder of Neoplatonism
attractive people, music etc. but it is less 3) The Soul – emanates from the Spirit -> resides in nature
perfect than the spirit world – NOT 4) Nature – emanates from the Soul
EVIL
The One is found in all emanations in the form of the Spirit, the Spirit
Physical world is an inferior copy of the is found in all emanations in the form of the Soul etc.
divine world (*Plato’s theory of forms)
 One can know God through introspection – eudaimonia can be
attained in consciousness (*like Plato)

Beginning of the Medieval Period/Middle Ages

St. Augustine (354-430AD) Dualism: body of flesh + soul alike Contempt for the desires of the flesh: (*see Pythagoreans, Plato, Philo) Combined Stoicism, Neoplatonism
to/part of God --> the fight between and Judaism into the basis for
St. Jerome and St. Ambrose these two natures (*see Plato) --> Emphasis on man’s FREE WILL; free to choose between: (*see Christian philosophy
argument – sided with St. God vs Satan Philo)
Ambrose on the inclusion of 1) The way of the Flesh – sinful; Satan Raised the status of the Christian
non-Christian philosophies Free Will – the human ability to choose 2) The way of the Divine – listening to God’s words religion to appeal to the intellectual
into Christianity if they is the reason why EVIL exists in the elites
were compatible. world if God is so good --> Evil depends Free Will --> personal responsibility for one’s actions
on the choices of humanity
Predestination: Entry into heaven depends by God’s grace alone, and
Internal Subjective Experience is predestined at birth – making the right choices will not secure a
place in Heaven.
Hedonistic Principle: anything that is
compatible with achieving the state of However; man should choose goodness so as to not feel guilty and
ecstasy derived from contemplating God know God; knowing God leads one into a state of ecstasy.

The Internal Sense: THE CONSCIENCE – deviation from this causes

guilt – shifting of the locus of control from the external
(reward/punishment) to the internal (virtue/guilt)

Knowledge of God was possible to achieve during the human lifetime

– through the internal sense:

1) Importance of Doubt: dubito ergo sum – I doubt therefore I

am. One can only know God through rational means

2) Introspection: the examination of personal internal mental

processes (see Plotinus)
St. Thomas Aquinas (1225- The idea of basing faith directly upon reason; they cannot conflict because they both lead to God (see Aristotle): Synthesis of Aristotle’s works with
1274) using the principle of regression: biblical dogma:
 1) Movement – all movement starts from a point which does not move: ‘the unmoved mover’ - God Scala naturae, geocentrism, the
SCHOLASTICISM 2) Cause and Effect – all effects come from a cause; the original cause (with no effect to cause it) – God unmoved mover.
3) Contingency – everything is dependent on something else; but something has to be completely independent
in order for everything to depend on it - God Synthesis of faith and reason made
4) Degree – through comparison things are compared to a standard (more beautiful/stronger/etc.) – the it impossible to study them
ultimate standard is God separately
5) Teleology - entelechy: ‘the purpose’ – the mother gives the purpose to the child – the ultimate mother is
God.
Gothic Period (theocentric) --> Renaissance (anthropocentric) – leading to humanism
Renaissance Humanism Intense interest in the human person: 4 major themes:
1450-1600 1) Individualism – the concern with the individual’s impact on the world + human potential and achievement
2) Personal Religion
3) Interest in the Past
4) Anti-Aristotelianism – conflation with the bible and church dogma; *see St. Thomas Aquinas

Lay the groundwork for the Scientific Revolution and the criticism of church dogma.

The Scientific Revolution (16th and 17th centuries): knowledge can be obtained through the observation of nature.
- The Copernican Revolution (Nikolaus Copernicus) – switch to the heliocentric model (PARADIGM SHIFT)
- Galileo – use of empirical information lay the groundwork for the hypothetico-deductive method: experimental scientific method
- Kepler
- Newton
Rene Descartes Sceptic: cognito ergo sum – believed Mechanist: all animals responded in ways that could be explained in Developed analytic geometry
1596AD – 1652AD that nothing was beyond doubt; except terms of physical laws and principles + most of the body’s functions
the fact that he was thinking about are mechanical in nature Increased the legitimacy of
doubting. studying non-human animals
Dualist + Interactionist: separation of the soul and the body, made
Phenomenologist: introspectively out of different substances; soul inhabits the entire body but interacts Contributed a fully mechanistic
studied the nature of intact and conscious within the pineal gland understanding of bodily processes +
experience the importance of subjective
Body: responsible for mechanical processes experience
Empiricist: rational processes are valid Soul-mind: responsible for thought itself
and knowledge of the world is derived
from sensory experience; however these Study of Reflexes: understanding of nerves as hollow tubes in which
must be analysed to determine their animal spirits travelled – vitalism –
 validity:
1) Intuition: process by which an When an outside stimulus occurs:
unbiased mind arrives at an idea 1) Delicate threads are pulled and the pore opens
whose validity cannot be 2) Animal spirits pass through the nerves and travel to the
doubted corresponding brain area + into the muscles – making them
2) Deduction: creation of new tighten and pull away.
ideas and deductions based upon
the innate, valid concepts. Dreams and Sleep: throughout the day, the amount of animal spirits
within the brain decreases; at night, while they refill, animal spirits
Nativist: innate ideas – eg. the idea of move randomly within the brain and stimulate different areas – causing
God, unity, infinity; natural components dreams.
of the mind.
i) Clear – represented clearly Emotions: intensity is dependent to the amount of animal spirits
in consciousness involved; experienced as passions. The will should modulate and
ii) Distinct – experience cannot control the passions in order for virtuous conduct to arise.
be divided or doubted
further

Deist: God created everything but does

not involve himself in earthly matters

Francis Bacon Radical Empiricist: believed one could Spoke heavily about the different types of biases – the idols - that Main spokesman against Aristotle
1561-1626 only understand nature by OBJECTIVE affect the scientist’s mind:
AND EXPERIENTAL STUDY – 1) The idols of the cave – personal biases that arise out of The Father of Empiricism
disavowed scripture/religion as a way of individual differences
studying nature. 2) The idols of the tribe – biases due to human nature:
imagination, will, hope etc.
Believed in the use of induction over 3) The idols of the marketplace – biases due to the
hypothesis/theory – including only the misinterpretation/overinfluence of words
facts of observation – positivism 4) The idols of the theatre – biases due to blind allegiance/faith
in any ideology
Inductive method

Positivist
British Empiricism - focus on sensory experience: the evidence of sense is the primary data of all knowledge; only this evidence must be used in order to construct propositions about
the real world.

The mind is viewed as PASSIVE: subject to mechanical processes (as opposed to *Rationalism) – thus behaviour is determined

Thomas Hobbes Deductive method of understanding Mechanist: Humans are like machines Believed in absolute Founder of British Empiricism
(1588-1676) functioning within a larger machine (the monarchy; the
Contemporary of Bacon Materialist: all that exists is matter and universe) – no soul government protecting
motion individuals from their
Human beings have an inherently selfish own interests
Determinist: since all humans are and evil nature (homo homini lupus)
mechanical; then free will does not exist
Monist: Mind is unitary and material; the
sum total of all thinking activities:
- Attention: sense organs retaining
the motion caused by outside
stimuli cannot respond to others.
- Complex thought: made up of
simple thoughts strung together by
the law of contiguity (*Aristotle)
- Imagination: sensory impressions
decay over time.
- Memory: related to imagination;
greater decay.
- Dreams: imagination within the
realm of sleep.

Empiricist: All ideas came from sensory

experience

Hedonist: Man is motivated by the

HEDONIST PRINCIPLE: moving towards
 pleasure (appetite) and away from pain
(aversion)

John Locke Empiricist: *see tabula rasa Dualist: mind-body separation (*see Democratic political First proponent of exposure therapy
(1632-1704) Descartes) ideas: to reduce phobias caused by
Partially Nativist: Operations of the However, disagreed with the idea of innate artificial associations
Learnt under Boyle; mind (*see Reflection) – mental faculties ideas. Opposed the divine right
influenced by his - are innate and part of human nature. of Kings and any innate
corpuscular hypothesis. Tabula rasa: the mind is born a ‘blank moral ideas – therefore
The Development of Ideas: slate’ – all knowledge is inscribed upon the also criticizing the
1) Sensation – through direct mind through experience. Church’s position
sensory stimulation (PASSIVE)
2) Reflection – reflexive thinking Emotions: Utilitarianist: what is
on the remnants of the sensory All emotions are derived from PAIN or good is what brings the
stimulation – rearranging, PLEASURE. greatest amount of
furnishing transforming etc. – happiness to the greatest
brings rise to new ideas. Hedonist: believed that humans are amount of people
(ACTIVE) motivated by pleasure/pain.
Ideas can either be:
1) Simple – cannot be divided into
further ideas Encouraged parents to harden their children
2) Complex – composites of and expose them to stressors; but provide
simple ideas; connected through access to fresh air, sufficient food and
the operations of the mind drink, exercise and sleep for physical
health.
Faulty ideas are caused by associations
– Step-by-step approach to learning, against
1) Natural – determined by actual excessive and overly rigorous assignments
relationships eg. the smell of + teachers should recognize and praise
bread with the actual bread student accomplishments
2) Artificial – learned associations
by chance (time and place) or
custom – lead to faulty thinking
eg. avoiding food that got you
 sick before
Qualities:
1) Primary: physical experience;
causes an idea that matches the
physical cause (eg. actual
temperature)
2) Secondary: causes ideas related
to psychological experience
which do not exist physically
(eg. the sensation of temperature
– The Paradox of the Basins) –
thus, SUBJECTIVE.

David Hume Inductive method Experience can be derived from both internal and external events: Made philosophy, science etc. into
(1711-1776) psychology
Empiricist: believed the contents of the Denied the possibility of ever experiencing the physical world directly
Wanted to bring to moral mind derived from experience alone. *see Sophism + Solipsism: Gorgias (Pre-Socratic) + Scepticism
philosophy what Newton
had done for natural Sceptic: humans can be certain of Perceptions:
philosophy nothing; since everything is a collection 1) Impressions – strong/vivid perceptions – sensations, passions
of perceptions and associations. & emotions --> gives rise to SIMPLE IDEAS
2) Ideas – weak/remnant perceptions – thinking & reasoning
Law Of Associationism: *see Aristotle +
Hobbes: based around CONSISTENT Imagination:
OBSERVATIONS – thus one can predict The use of the Law Of Associationism to connect different SIMPLE
based off past experience IDEAS into COMPLEX IDEAS
1) Resemblance – similar ideas
trigger each other Fact/Fiction:
2) Contiguity – recall of other The imagination has the ability to imagine both facts and fictive ideas.
ideas that occurred in the same
time/place Distinguishing between the two is dependent on concordance between
3) Cause & Effect – causation is a the individual ideas making up the imagined idea – the belief that
psychological experience: elements should go together.
merely ideas that occur
consistently alongside each Ideas which are experienced repeatedly have high concordance -->
 other fact
i) Contiguous to time &
space Hedonist: humans are motivated by pleasure principle.
ii) Cause precedes effect
iii) Union of cause and There is NO MIND/SELF – all beliefs occur due to the law of
effect associationism, the ‘mind’/self is merely perceptions occurring in the
iv) Cause must always moment
create the same effect +
effect must not arise Character: individual characters are dependent on the different
from a different cause patterns of passions felt by individuals --> which will then elicit
different behaviours
Determinist: human behaviour, while
inconsistent, is not free. Humans learn
through reward/punishment like non-
human animals.

Positivist:
Two kinds of knowledge:
- Demonstrative: entirely abstract
– a product of imagination (eg.
mathematics)
- Empirical: based on experience
All propositions must be demonstrably
or empirically true.

James Mill Hedonist: human beings are motivated; and happiness is achieved; by the desire to Utilitarianist – Headed Created the most complete
obtain pleasure and to avoid pain by Jeremy Bentham: summary of associationism – added
The political expression evidence to Hartley’s ideas
Mental Physics (heavily influenced by Newton) – the mind is completely passive: of the Hedonistic
association occurs automatically like the law of gravity. Principle: the
government should do
Mechanist + Associationist: The mind consists of sensations and ideas held together what increases
by contiguity: happiness for the
greatest amount of
Complex ideas are made up out of simple ideas that continuously appear together – people
 increases the associative power between them.
Believed in the equality
Association strength is based on: of women.
1) Vividness – more vivid sensations/ideas form stronger associations
i) Sensations are more vivid than ideas; and form stronger associations
ii) Pleasure/pain associated sensations/ideas are more vivid
iii) Recency – recent ideas are more vivid.
2) Frequency – more frequently paired sensations/ideas form stronger
associations.
John Steward Mill Mental Chemistry Expanded upon his father’s work.
Mind is still PASSIVE -
- Primary Mental States: sensations Believed that psychology could
- Secondary Mental States: ideas become a proper science: just like
1) Every sensation leaves behind a weaker impression upon the mind (an idea) tideology –
2) SIMILARITY: Similar ideas excite each other
3) CONTIGUITY: frequently conflated ideas will become associated Divided sciences into two:
4) VIVIDNESS: more vivid sensations/ideas will form stronger associations 1) The ones which have laws
- However; it is possible for elements to combine and create ideas which are that are easily known and
different/more than the sum of their parts (like chemical equations) observable
2) The ones which have laws
that are difficult to observe
and apply:
i) Sciences which
have Primary laws;
and Secondary
laws which
intervene and make
understanding
difficult
Proposed psychology as being
furnished by:
- Primary Laws: the laws of
human nature
- Secondary Laws: ethology
- the science of the
 formation of character
(individual personalities)

Paradigm Shift:
Scientism: the belief that science could solve all human problems + disinterest in religion as a guide for moral philosophy

Positivism All propositions must be demonstrably or empirically true through the experience of the senses.
Similar to *Empiricism but more of an abstract philosophy than experimental.
Auguste Comte Positivist: excluded introspection as a Generalised the Law of Three Stages to Opposite to John Stuart Use of positivism to explain human
1798-1857 valid method of understanding. individual development: Mill: emphasised the social behaviour
1) Theological – Early Childhood group’s happiness over
Sociology: the development of different 2) Metaphysical – Adolescence the individual’s – utopic The Father of Sociology
societies: 3) Scientific – Adulthood + idealist

The Law of Three Stages: Psychology should be based on objective Ideal political system
Societies pass through three stages: study of the human being: would be similar to the
1) Theological – relies on religion, Church with humanity
myth and fantasy to explain the 1) Phrenology – studying the skull at the top; scientists
world 2) Social behaviour replacing priests;
2) Metaphysical – explanations are disciples being the
based on unseen principles, laws working class and
and causes women.
3) Scientific – description,
prediction and control over mere
explanation

Rationalism As opposed to Empiricism – purports an ACTIVE mind – transforms input into meaningful experiences via reason

Most Rationalists emphasised free will and personal responsibility.

Baruch Spinoza Rationalist Monist (unusual for rationalists): the mind and the body are two sides Combined physiology and
(1632-1677) of the same coin: Psycho-physical double Aspectism psychology into the same thing –
*call-back to Descartes – Pantheist: God is nature – found in through the view of the body and
back to accounts of the everything and anything Determinist: no free will; determined by God – the only freedom mind as one
world that include the comes from accepting that things happen in a certain order - ‘God’s
Divine God, matter and mind are one entity: all Plan’ Emotional theory
matter has mental and physical
attributes: panpsychism (many-mind) Hedonist: the human being is motivated for self-preservation. Psychic determinism of the mind
created room for the scientific
The main two emotions (*see Locke) are: analysis of the mind
 Pleasure: entertaining of clear ideas
 Pain: being overwhelmed by passion/entertaining unclear
ideas
From these he derived 48 basic human emotions

Gottfried William Von Rationalist: no ideas come from direct Nativist: The mind is endowed with the POTENTIAL for ideas Idea of conscious and unconscious
Leibniz experience ideas + the concept of repressed
Dualist ideas later influenced
Monadology: psychoanalysis
the basic blocks of the universe are Psycho-physical parallelism: the mind and body are separate but
monads: parallel and perfectly in sync (because God made them that way) – Influence upon Herbart
- Active however they are not CAUSALLY RELATED
- Conscious – produce ideas
creatively The mix of monads within humanity is why not all ideas are clear and
- Differ in awareness/intelligence distinct
- Seek to actualise their potential;
increasing their intelligence Conscious & Unconscious Perception:
gives pleasure (hedonist) All change is gradual – ‘nature never makes leaps’: law of continuity
- Do not influence other monads – all changes contain a series of imperceptible intermediate phases –
petit perceptions - between the starting point and the end.
Depending on the organisation of
monads; a hierarchy all the way from Accumulation of petit perceptions – due to the law of contiguity –
inert matter to God forms *see Aristotle: allows ideas to rise past a threshold into consciousness and become
scala naturae. perceptible – apperception

Immanuel Kant Rationalist: Monist: single, unified mind equipped with various faculties Influenced Gestalt psychology
1724-1804 From Hume: the law of cause-effect – it
is impossible to prove causality; however Did not believe psychology could
Began as a disciple of the ingredients needed to think about the Categories of thought: innate concepts that cannot come from become an experimental science as
Leibniz, influenced by concept must be innate. experience: eg. unity, infinity, cause-effect, reality, quantity, negation, the mind was not a physical thing
Hume existence-nonexistence, possibility-impossibility. (*Descartes: NOT and was constantly changing.
THE SAME as innate ideas)
Father of Anthropology: the study
The mind is equipped with various faculties that make thinking of how people behave
possible:
- Comparing
- Thinking
- Analysing
- Perception of time: the conclusion that one situation occurred
before another + the timing of memories
- Perception of space: distance

Categories + sensory interaction = phenomenological experience

Our mind constructs the universe around us.

Moral Philosophy:

Disregarded the hedonistic principle + utilitarianism.

The Categorical Imperative:

‘I should never act except in such a way that I could also will that my
maxim should become a universal principle’

One should act in a way; that if generalised to the entire population (a

principle) the results would be beneficial.

Therefore one should act out of duty to the social order.

Free Will – therefore man is personally responsible for the outcomes

of their actions.

Johann Friedrich Herbart Psychic Mechanics: Influenced Freud and the

(1776-1841) Ideas: psychoanalysts (repression)
- Can be simple/complex
 - Vary in intensity/clarity – motivation is to become as clear as possible Influenced Fechner and Wundt
- Are remnants of sense impressions (see *Hume, John Steward Mill) (apperception)
- Contain a force of will on their own (*see Leibniz)
- Attract and repel each other based on similarity & compatibility – forming complex ideas --> form the First educational psychologist:
apperceptive mass/conscious agglomerate influenced Piaget:
- try and express themselves in consciousness (*see Leibniz) – self-preservation --> thus they compete with 1) Review of learned material
rival ideas 2) Preparation for learning the
- Can never be destroyed, only repressed depending on the type, clarity & intensity of the idea; which new material (gives
determines whether it will be allowed into the apperceptive mass or not. momentum to the
- Repressed ideas retain their desire to emerge, but must wait till a compatible apperceptive mass crosses the appropriate mass
limen (the threshold) into consciousness. 3) Present new material
4) Relate new material with
the old material
5) Show applications of the
new material + overview of
what will be covered next

Gave psychology a higher status

than Kant

The application of mathematics –

calculus - to the study of the mind
(inspired by Newton)

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich The Absolute – the universe as an The purpose of humanity is to become as close as possible to Tried to account for the existence of
Hegel interrelated unity (*see Spinoza) – also God/The Absolute: true knowledge can only come about if one studies Kant’s categories by claiming their
(1770-1831) *see Plato: Theory of Forms – the form in relation to ‘the whole’ origin is through the dialectic
of the Good is equated with God by process and exist to bring humans
Hegel. One must discard sense impressions in order to understand the closer to the Absolute.
Absolute: through introspection one can understand the
The Dialectic Process: interrelatedness of forms (*see Plato) and understand the Absolute Influenced Fechner
There is constant evolution towards the
Absolute through the dialectic process: Alienation: anything that impedes progress towards the Absolute Influenced Gestalt psychology – the
back and forth argumentation among whole is greater than the sum of its
conflicting viewpoints; until a parts.
 synthesizing intermediate viewpoint is
found: thesis-antithesis-synthesis. Concept of alienation was used in
politics, influenced Humanist
This evolution is seen both on an psychology (Rogers & Fromm)
individual intellect scale as well as a
cultural scale.
Romanticism More of a literary/art movement than a philosophical one – focus was on the irrational components of human nature (emotions) – critique of empiricism
for their wholly mechanical view of the human person.

Focus on the ‘wholeness’ of the human being

Focus on ‘back to nature’
The good life is: ‘one lived honestly in accordance with one’s nature’

Jean-Jacques Rousseau The Noble Savage: Human beings have an inherently good nature – who wish to live The only justifiable Fundamental view of the human
1712-1778 in harmony with others – society corrupts this nature government was one person was later picked up by the
that allowed humans to Humanists; mainly by Rogers
The General Will: reach their full
Humans have: potential Influenced developmental
i) Private Will – selfish tendency psychology – mainly Piaget:
ii) General Will – tendency to act in ways beneficial to a community Distrusted organised hands-off method of education +
governance or religion – tailoring to each child’s
Man must inhibit their private will and act in accordance with the general will in order preached no private needs/interests (Vygotsky)
to live in harmony (*see Kant). property, no elections
etc.

Social Contract
Theory (*see Hobbes) –
humans come together
and give up their
personal
freedom/primitive
independence in
exchange for the
benefits of living in a
society
Johann Wolfgang von Dualist (not mind-body) – believed that Humans are torn by the stresses and conflicts of life (storm and stress) Influenced Nietzsche
Goethe life is made up of a series of opposites – the human being should embrace both.
1749-1832 Father of phenomenology – insisted
Introspection: used introspection as a A good human life is one where passion and personal growth is that whole, unified psychological
method to study sensory experience emphasised. experiences should be studied over
isolated experiences
The ultimate happiness is human liberty
Influenced Freud and Jung – Drive
theory: man is made up of opposing
forces that conflict with each other.

Proposed a theory of evolution that

influenced Darwin

Created the first ‘behaviour

therapy’ – used it mainly on himself

Arthur Schopenhauer Life is the postponement of death; death Humans are conflictual creatures (*see Goethe) that have an innate will Influenced Maslow (needs and
1788-1860 will ultimately win – creatures cling to for survival --> this is the primary motivation for fulfilling needs. motivation) and Freud
life out of fear of death (sublimation)
Used Kant’s philosophy as a Needs are derived from suffering and will eventually end up in
basis for his own There is both the conscious and the suffering; or else in boredom – humanity suffers the most as it has
unconscious. the most awareness

Humans have:
- Positive impulses – rational/intellectual
- Negative impulses – animalistic

Sublimation: Human beings are inherently irrational (driven by

unconscious drives) – man must deny and sublimate these irrational
drives by immersing themselves in higher intellectual pursuits – art,
literature, music etc.

The main goal of a human life is insight into one’s existence.

 Homo homini lupus (*see Hobbes) – most of man’s suffering comes
from other people --> therefore the wise man prefers solitude

Repression: thoughts and ideas can be repressed into the unconscious

where one will encounter resistance if one tries to engage with them.

Existentialism Importance is placed on the personal, subjective, free human life – meaning and the ability to choose one’s own meaning.

Influenced the Humanist-Existential movement in psychology.

Soren Kierkegaard Freedom: Stages: Criticized the Considered the first Existentialist
1) Aesthetic – people are open to new experiences and seek pleasure ecclesiastical dogma – a
hedonistically. Are unaware of their ability to make personal choices --> leads relationship with God
to boredom/despair should be personal and
2) Ethical – accept the personal responsibility of making choices – use the heartfelt – a ‘love
guidelines given to them by others (eg. the church) affair’
3) Religious – recognize and accept freedom – enter into a personal relationship
with God – free from moral/social constraints and conventions.

Truth is subjectivity – derived from personal experience

God is the ultimate paradox; trying to understand rationally is impossible – a leap of
faith – must be taken.

Fredrich Wilhelm Nietzsche Non-Determinist – emphasis on free Dualist Human Nature: Heavily influenced Freud – shared
1844-1900 will – however one is only potentially - The Apollonian: the rational, intellectual, tranquil, orderly goal of helping people overcome
free – one must mould and create their part of human nature their irrational urges and live
Influenced by Schopenhauer own personality using their will to - The Dionysian: the wild, chaotic, creative, passionate, fulfilled lives
power – otherwise they are slaves. dynamic part of human nature – das es (the Id)
Admired and influenced by First philosopher to self-define as a
the Cynics Perspectivism: Dionysian urges must be sublimated (*see Schopenhauer) by the psychologist
‘God is dead and we have killed him’ – union with the Apollonian impulse.
the development of science (evolution in Influenced Adler – the expression
particular) and astronomy has stripped One must embrace a fusion of both (*see Goethe) – a life of of the irrational urges: mainly the
 mankind of any ‘special’ place in the reasonable passion. concept of the will to power and
world – and removed the dependence superiority.
mankind had on God/religion. Repression: (*see Schopenhauer) – the way unwanted ideas remain in
the unconscious.
Therefore there are no abstract truths left
to be discovered, only individual The Will to Power: disagreed with the primary motivation being to
subjective perspectives. self-preserve (like Spinoza or Schopenhauer) – the primary motivation
of human beings is to grow and expand themselves. (*see Goethe,
Convictions: unchallengeable dogmas – Plato)
beliefs in absolute truth; a ‘running
away’ from questioning one’s salvation The Übermensch: the person who looks within and discovers their
--> leads to fanaticism. own potentialities through their will to power – utilising self-love –
Opinions: tentative, challengeable, thus living life to the full.
mouldable in light of new information.
A repressive society is the cause of most of human suffering (*see
Rousseau)
Both Kierkegaard and Nietzsche criticized Hegel’s idea of the Absolute.
Bell-Magendie Law The discovery of sensory and motor neurons: specific mental functions are mediated by different anatomical Expanded upon by Muller
structures.

*in opposition to Descartes’s theory of animal spirits.

Bell also suggested that there is even more specification in relation to sensory neurons – different types for
different senses.
Doctrine of Specific Nerve Each sense is maximally attuned to a specific stimuli (adequate stimulation/specific irritability) which has
Energies specific nerve energies which allows the relay of stimuli to the part of the brain responsible for the sense.

Created by Muller
Johannes Muller Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies: Demonstrated that there are five different types of sensory nerves which Influenced the entirety of
(1801-1858) each respond to specific stimulations. physiology

Influenced by Our knowledge of the world is limited to the sensory receptors we possess: Rationalist: the world is constructed
Kant by our minds.

Instead of the concept of innate categories of thought; there is the nervous system as an intermediary.
 The mind is active: capable of attending to some sensations with the exclusion of others.

Experimental Psychology –
Ernst Heinrich Weber Kinesthesis: Research on the sense of touch – skin and muscle perceptions.
(1795-1878)
Touch:
- Pressure
- Temperature
- Pain
- Etc.

Two-point threshold:
1) Experiments relating to the smallest distance the participant could distinguish between two points; in
which the subject reported sensing two points instead of one.

Differences in threshold were reported across the body:

Tongue: 1mm
Back: 60mm

- Assumed to be from the anatomical arrangement of the sense receptors for touch: the more receptors, the
finer the discrimination.

2) Experiments relating to the smallest difference between two weights (the standard and the experimental) a
participant could distinguish.

- Just Noticeable Difference (JND): the smallest noticeable difference between the standard weight and the
experimental weight. Differed between experimental conditions (hands resting on the table vs. lifting the
weights)

Weber’s Law: delta R (reiz – stimulus) / stimulus = k (constant)

The first statement of a systematic relationship between physical stimulation and psychological experience.
Gustav Theodor Fechner Panpsychism – consciousness is prevalent in the universe as it is in the mind Laid the groundwork for
1801-1887 psychophysics: the study of the
Psycho-physical double Aspectism (*see Spinoza) – the body and mind are two sides of the same element. – set relationship between physical and
out to prove this via. experimentation. psychological events

Fechner’s formula: S= k log R - sensation = constant log stimulus Laid the groundwork for
experimental aesthetics
Lowest threshold in which a stimulus can be sensed: absolute threshold
However, stimulation below the threshold can still affect – just unconsciously --> negative sensations (*see Believed that psychology could be
Leibniz – petit perceptions) an experimental science
If enough negative sensations cumulate then they will result in a conscious perception.

The differential threshold: how much a stimulus magnitude can be changed before a person detects a difference.

Psychophysical methodology:
1) Limits/noticeable differences – like Weber’s method – subject reports if the stimulus is equal to the
standard
2) Constant stimuli – subject reports whether the variable weight is more/less/the same than the standard
3) Adjustment/average error – subject adjusts the variable stimulus till it is equal to the standard

Early Psychology
Wilhelm Wundt – Physical sciences are based on mediate Voluntarism: The physical sciences act according to determined laws; Psychology could study the basic
VOLUNTARISM experiences – ones which can be attained the human beings can choose upon which sensation to concentrate – processes, but not the higher mental
by something that comes between the distinguishing characteristic of man – emphasising WILL, processes
(medium) – instruments CHOICE and PURPOSE
Volkerpsykologie:
Psychology is based on immediate Basic Processes Group Psychology; studying culture
experiences in order to understand the Higher Processes -
relationship between the world (sensory
perception) and internal representations. Thought meter: 1/10th of a second needed to shift process from one Emphasised the importance of
thought to another naturalistic observation & historical
Rationalist analysis
Simple mental processes --> complex mental processes
 Two goals for his psychology:
Experimental introspection: the subject gives an answer to the 1) To discover the basic
stimuli presented elements of thought
2) To discover the laws by
Mental Chronometry: Reaction time: time taken to give a response to which basic elements
a stimulus combine into the complex
elements
1) Sensation – sensory organs register incoming impulses
2) Perception (PASSIVE) – what results in our mind Confusion and misunderstanding by
3) Apperception (ACTIVE) – attention onto a perception British and American psychologists
4) Synthesis (ACTIVE) – creative; something new comes forth – empiricists – later rediscovered
from the apperceptions by cognitive psychology

Thought that schizophrenia comes from the attentional processes

breaking down

Language:
1) Speaker apperceives general impression
2) Speaker chooses appropriate words/sentences to express
general impression
3) Listener apperceives the general impression
*we can remember the general meaning of what someone has said; but
not the exact words
Edward Titchener – Positivist Structuralism: Describing the structure of mental experience through Followed by Skinner – same
STRUCTURALISM the: position as Titchener on hypotheses
Empiricist - What – the method - introspection and theories; only wanted to
- Why – a search for the neurological correlates of mental events describe
i) Psycho-physical Parallelist – psycho-physical
double aspectism (*see Spinoza)
- How – how simple elements combine to form complex Wanted psychology to be a pure
elements: science – no reference to
i) Law of Association/Contiguity (*see British application --> ultimately was the
Empiricism) death of structuralism

Periodic table of mental elements Names the school of

 FUNCTIONALISM (William
Introspection: used differently than Wundt; trained his subjects to James)
describe objects and their sensations precisely

Elements of consciousness:
- Sensations – elements of perceptions – around 40,000
sensations; majority related to vision and audition.
i) Quality
ii) Intensity
iii) Duration
- Images – elements of ideas (*see
- Affects – elements of emotions

Associationist: sensations + law of contiguity; brings along with it

images of sensations with it what were previously experienced with the
sensation